ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, the success and final outcome of this assignment required a lot of
research to understand about this learning. This assignment are must be in
partner of two student. We has choose a topic about “Properties and Design
Strength in Materials (Steel and Concrete)”. During the study about this topic,
we are regarding of understanding among five semester in Uitm Seri Iskandar,
which is about “Properties and Design Strength in Materials that more to steel
and concrete. It is easy to understand what is steel and concrete in detail if we
make more study and research about it. We very grateful because we can
manage to complete this assignment before the due date of the submission.

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Steel has a number of properties, including:
1) Strength
2) Toughness
3) Ductility
4) Weldability
5) Durability

The properties of structural steel result from both its chemical composition and
its method of manufacture , including processing during fabrication. Product
standards define the limits for composition, quality and performance and these
limits are used or presumed by structural designers. The diagram down below
showed a schematic stress / strain diagram for steel.

Other mechanical properties of steel:

Other mechanical properties of structural steel that are important to the designer
include:
 Modulus of elasticity, E = 210,000 N/mm²
 Shear modulus, G = E/[2(1 + ν)] N/mm², often taken as 81,000 N/mm²
 Poisson's ratio, ν = 0.3
 Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 12 x 10-6/°C (in the ambient
temperature range)
1. Strength
 a) Yield strength
Yield strength is the most common property that the designer will
need as it is the basis used for most of the rules given in design codes .

b) Cold formed steels

There is a wide range of steel grades for strip steels suitable for cold
forming. Minimum values of yield strength and tensile strength are
specified in the relevant product standard BS EN 10346[4].
BS EN 1993-1-3[5] tabulates values of basic yield strength fyb and
ultimate tensile strength fu that are to be used as characteristic values
in design.

c) Stainless steels
Grades of stainless steel are designated by a numerical 'steel number'
(such as 1.4401 for a typical austenitic steel) rather than the 'S'
designation system for carbon steels. The stress-strain relationship
does not have the clear distinction of a yield point and stainless steel
'yield' strengths for stainless steel are generally quoted in terms of a
proof strength defined for a particular offset permanent strain
(conventionally the 0.2% strain).

d) Hot rolled steels

For hot rolled carbon steels, the number quoted in the designation is
the value of yield strength for material up to 16 mm thick. Designers
should note that yield strength reduces with increasing plate or section
thickness (thinner material is worked more than thick material and
working increases the strength).
Tensile strength (N/mm2) for nominal thickness t
Yield strength (N/mm2) for nominal thickness t (mm) (mm)
Grade t ≤ 16 16 < t ≤ 40 40 < t ≤ 63 63 < t ≤ 80 3 < t ≤ 100 100 < t ≤ 150
S275 275 265 255 245 410 400
S355 355 345 335 325 470 450

Minimum yield and tensile strength for common steel grades

2. Toughness
 It is in the nature of all materials to contain some imperfections. In steel
these imperfections take the form of very small cracks. If the steel is
insufficiently tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic
deformation and result in a 'brittle fracture'. The risk of brittle fracture
increases with thickness, tensile stress, stress raisers and at colder
temperatures. The toughness of steel and its ability to resist brittle
fracture are dependent on a number of factors that should be considered at
the specification stage.
Standard Subgrade Impact strength Test temperature
JR 27J 20 C
o

BS EN 10025-2[1] J0 27J 0oC

BS EN 10210-1[3] J2 27J -20oC
K2 40J -20oC
N 40J -20oc
BS EN 10025-3[8]
NL 27J -50oc
M 40J -20oc
BS EN 10025-4[9]
ML 27J -50oc
J0 27J 0oC
J2 27J -20oC
BS EN 10025-5[10] K2 40J -20oC
J4 27J -40oC
J5 27J -50oC
Q 30J -20oc
BS EN 10025-6[11] QL 30J -40oc
QL1 30J -60oc
Specified minimum impact energy for carbon steel sub-grades

3. Ductility
 Ductility is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or
elongate between the onset of yield and eventual fracture under tensile
loading as demonstrated in the figure below. The designer relies on
ductility for a number of aspects of design, including redistribution of
stress at the ultimate limit state, bolt group design, reduced risk of fatigue
crack propagation and in the fabrication processes of welding, bending
and straightening. The various standards for the grades of steel in the
above table insist on a minimum value for ductility so the design
assumptions are valid and if these are specified correctly the designer can
be assured of their adequate performance.

4. Weldability
 All structural steels are essentially weldable. However, welding involves
locally melting the steel, which subsequently cools. The cooling can be
quite fast because the surrounding material, e.g. the beam, offers a large
'heat sink' and the weld (and the heat introduced) is usually relatively
small. This can lead to hardening of the 'heat affected zone' (HAZ) and to
reduced toughness. The greater the thickness of material, the greater the
reduction of toughness.

5. Durability
For starters, steel is very durable. It can withstand extreme conditions.
Since steel is a compound metal that is made from iron and carbon, it is
highly resistant to most elements making it ideal for areas where winds
are high, where storms are frequent, and where conditions are difficult.

A further important property is that of corrosion prevention. Although

special corrosion resistant steels are available these are not normally used
in building construction. The exception to this is weathering steel .

The most common means of providing corrosion protection to

construction steel is by painting or galvanizing. The type and degree of
coating protection required depends on the degree of exposure, location,
design life, etc. In many cases, under internal dry situations no corrosion
protection coatings are required other than appropriate fire protection.
Detailed information on the corrosion protection of structural steel is
available.
DESIGN STRENGTH OF STEEL
This is the strength of steel that is used for calculating the required amount of
steel needed for a given situation. It is based on the ultimate tensile strength of
the steel divided by a safety factor. The safety factor is used to take into account
imperfections that may be present in the steel product, various induced or
applied loads, variations in chemistry or mechanical properties of the steel
product so on.

Design strength is the reduced value of actual resistance offered by a material,

which is obtained while considering factor of safety. This term is included in
characteristic strength of body to avoid any kind of failure to the concrete
structure.
The reduced strength or design strength is obtained considering the variability
in the following factors, 1) human ergonomics, 2) human workability, 3)
Inventory control and 4) quality control.
The formula to calculate the design strength of material is as given below.

Here, fd is material's design strength, f is material's characteristic strength and

γm is partial factor of safety.
The value of design strength is always lesser compared to compressive strength.
Value of safety factors specified according to design code are as given below.
-For steel, the value of γm is 1.15
- For concrete, the value of γm is 1.5.
The difference in safety factor is due to the difference in behavior and
properties. Steel has better loading capacity than concrete, chances of failure is
less, so the safety factor required for steel is less.
Under different loading condition, different types of failure occur, design
strength is used to avoid failure of a structure in flexure, shear, tension and
buckling in compression. Design load is obtained by the multiplication of
characteristic strength with a load factor.
REFFERENCES

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties

https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/design-strength-8

https://www.quora.com/What-is-design-strength-of-steel