ENGLISH 1 Introduction To Linguistics Revised 23

ENGLISH 1- Revised S.Y.
2022-2023
NOTE TO THE STUDENT
This module is a semi-detailed guide of the contents to be learned in this course, English 1. This will help you to
gain insight and understanding about linguistic issues and develop grammatical skills. The use of other resources
such as books and other credible online materials is encouraged. There are learning exercises to be completed at the
end of each chapter. The quality of your outputs will have a bearing on your grades for this subject. Acquiring a
passing grade is your responsibility. Questions regarding the lessons and this subject in general are welcome and
should be communicated to your subject teacher within this term. Please take note of the following schedule of
exams for this semester.
SCHEDULE OF EXAMINATIONS
FIRST SEM-FIRST TERM
FIRST PRELIM EXAM AUGUST 20,22-25, 2022
SECOND PRELIM EXAM SEPTEMBER 3, 5-8, 2022
THIRD PRELIM EXAM SEPTEMBER 17, 19-22, 2022
FINAL EXAM OCTOBER 1, 3-6, 2022
FIRST SEMESTER – SECOND TERM
FIRST PRELIM EXAM OCTOBER 24-27, 29, 2022
SECOND PRELIM EXAM NOVEMBER 12, 14-17, 2022
THIRD PRELIM EXAM NOVEMBER 26, 28-DEC. 1, 2022
FINAL EXAM DECEMBER 10, 12-15, 2022
COURSE OUTLINE
English 1: Introduction to Linguistics
1 |English 1 - I n t r o d u c ti o n t o L i n g u i s ti c s
ENGLISH 1- Revised S.Y. 2022-2023
Bachelor of Secondary Education

Course Description:
This course provides an overview of linguistics as a discipline, its development, levels of structure, and
its significance to English language teaching.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course, students are expected to:
 describe the major linguistic structures of English and their relevance to linguistic theory;
 articulate general themes about the nature of human language, and how languages work;
 Discuss fundamental processes common to all languages related to the domains of morphology, syntax,
phonetics, phonology, semantics, pragmatics, writing systems, and language in society;
 Describe how different human languages are, and yet how fundamentally similar they are in their
structures
Course Requirements:
Students are required to complete the following requirements within the term and as set by the subject
teacher.
a. Learning Exercises
b. Examinations
c. Project (Digital Portfolio)
LESSONS WEEK
Chapter 1: The Nature of Language
Lesson 1: The Meaning of Language
Lesson 2: Views about Language 1-2
Lesson 3: History of the English Language
Chapter 2: Introduction to Linguistic Theories

Lesson 1: Linguistics: Meaning, Scope and Development 3
Lesson 2: Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Linguistics
Chapter 3: The Levels of Structure of Language

Lesson 1: Phonetics
Lesson 2: Phonology
Lesson 3: Morphology
Lesson 4: Semantics 4-8
Lesson 5: Syntax
Lesson 5: Pragmatics
Chapter 4: Theories of Language Acquisition

Behaviorist learning theory
Cognitivist learning theory 9
Krashen’s Monitor Model
CHAPTER I
The Nature of Language
Overview:
Language is one of the most important things that humans do. Our capacities for communication, abstract
thought, creativity, and problem solving are often realized through language. This makes language one of the
features that defines us as a species and what makes us unique. However, these claims evoke many questions. What
exactly is 'language'? How do we study it, how do we explain it, and what does it mean to 'do' language? These are
the questions that the field of linguistics seeks to answer.
This course is an introduction to the field of linguistics. You will become familiar with the 'design features'
of language and how linguists use the principles of the scientific method to explain these features, just as we do in
physics, chemistry or biology. We will look at the building blocks of language that define the major subfields of
linguistics. In doing this, we will also look at some common myths about language, the future of linguistic research
(which you may be doing one day!) and some of the unsolved problems we face in explaining language.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:
a. Explicate the meaning of language and its importance in communication;

b. Recall historical key events in the history of English language;
c. Differentiate the English language from the past to the present generation.
Lesson
1 The Meaning of
Language
When you know a language, you know:
 When a word is meaningful or meaningless, when a word has two meanings, when two words have the
same meaning, and what words refer to (in the real world or imagination)
 When a sentence is meaningful or meaningless, when a sentence has two meanings, when two sentences
have the same meaning, and whether a sentence is true or false (the truth conditions of the sentence).
What is LANGUAGE?
 Language is foremost a means of communication, and communication almost always takes place within
some sort of social context. This is why effective communication requires an understanding and
recognition of the connections between a language and the people who use it. These connections are
complex: for example, they tell you when to use slang with a friend or formal language with a boss, how to
judge a candidate’s campaign speeches, and whether to abbreviate an email. All of these acts require
knowledge of the language, as well as the cultural and social forces acting on that language. As you work
through this textbook, you will study these various forces, especially as they function within the United
States. (http://www.cambridge.org/)
 Social context is a major factor that drives our language choices. For example, consider the language you
might have used in an interview situation, perhaps with a prospective employer or college admissions
officer. If you are like many other people, in the interview you probably were as much concerned with how
you spoke as with what you actually said. You may have even practiced sounding confident, for instance,
or intelligent, so 3that
|English 1 - Imake
you would n t r aogood
d u cimpression
ti o n t during
o L i ntheg u i s ti c sWe make decisions every
interview.
day, or have decisions made about us by other people, based on the language we use. We frequently
evaluate a person’s education, socioeconomic level, background, honesty, friendliness, and numerous other
qualities by how that person speaks. And when we want to make a particular impression on someone else,
we consciously choose our language, just as we choose our hair styles or clothing.
Language as Communication
 Language is used for communication. It allows people to say things to each other and express their
communicative needs. The needs may vary or may be strong, whether they are the needs of a married
couple getting a divorce or discussing something very personal.
 Language allows people to live, work, and play together, to tell the truth but also to tell a lie, or lies.
Sometimes it is used merely to keep communication channels open so that if any need arises to say
something of importance a suitable channel is available.
 A language allows speakers to talk about anything within their realm of knowledge.
 As language is a gift in its being the chief means of communication among people, without it, the
mastery on all other phases of education and life itself is considered meaningless.
Lesson
2 Views about Language
1. The structuralists believe that language can be described in terms of observable and verifiable data as it is
being used. They also describe language in terms of its structure and according to the regularities and
patterns or rules in language structure. To them, language is a system of speech sounds, arbitrarily assigned
to the objects, states, and concepts to which they refer, used for human communication.
 Language is primarily vocal. Language is speech, primarily made up of vocal sounds

produced by the speech apparatus in the human body. The primary medium of language is
speech; the written record is but a secondary representation of the language. Writing is only
the graphic representation of the sounds of the language. While most languages have writing
systems, a number of languages continue to exist, even today, in the spoken form only,
without any written form. Linguists claim that speech is primary, writing secondary.
Therefore, it is assumed that speech has a priority in language teaching.
 Language is a system of systems. Language is not a disorganized or a chaotic combination

of sounds. Sounds are arranged in certain fixed or established, systematic order to form
meaningful units or words. For example, no word in English starts with bz-, lr- or zl-
combination, but there are those that begin with spr- and str- (as in spring and string). In like
manner, words are also arranged in a particular system to generate acceptable meaningful
sentences. The sentence “Shen bought a new novel” is acceptable but the group of words
“Shen bought new novel a” is unacceptable, since the word order of the latter violates the
established convention in English grammar, the Subject-Verb-Object or S-V-O word order.
Language is a system of structurally related elements or ‘building blocks’ for the encoding of
meaning, the elements being phonemes (sounds), morphemes (words), tag memes (phrases
and sentences/clauses). Language learning, it is assumed, entails mastering the elements or
building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these elements are combined,
from phoneme to morpheme to word to phrase to sentence.
 Language is arbitrary. There is no inherent relation between the words of a language and
their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. Put another way, there is no one to one
correspondence between the structure of a word and the thing it stands for. There is no
‘sacred’ reason why an animal that flies is called ibon in Filipino, pajaro in Spanish, bird in
English. Selection of these words in the languages mentioned here is purely an accident of
history that native speakers of the languages have agreed on. Through the years reference to
such animal has become an established convention that cannot be easily changed.
That language is arbitrary means that the relationship between the words and the ‘things’
they denote is merely conventional, i.e. native speakers of English, in some sense, agreed to
use the sounds / kæt / ‘cat’ in English because native speakers of English ‘want’ it to be.
 Language is a means of communication. Language is an important means of

communicating between humans of their ideas, beliefs, or feelings. Language gives shape to
people’s thoughts, as well as guides and controls their activity.
2. The transformationalists/ cognitivists believe that language is a system of knowledge made manifest in
linguistic forms but innate and, in its most abstract form, universal.
 Language is innate. The presence of the language acquisition device (LAD) in the human
brain predisposes all normal children to acquire their first language in an amazingly short
time, around five years since birth.
 Language is creative. It enables native speakers to produce and understand sentences they
have not heard nor used before.
 Language is a mental phenomenon. It is not mechanical.
 Language is universal. It is universal in the sense that all normal children the world over
acquire a mother tongue but it is also universal in the sense that, at a highly abstract level,
all languages must share key features of human languages, such as all languages have
sounds; all languages have rules that form sounds into words, words into phrases and
clauses; and all languages have transformation rules that enable speakers to ask questions,
negate sentences, issue orders, defocus the doer of the action, etc.
3. The functionalists believe that language is a dynamic system through which members of speech
community exchange information. It is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning such as
expressing one’s emotions, persuading people, asking and giving information, making people do things for
others.
This view of language emphasizes the meaning and functions rather than the grammatical
characteristics of language, and leads to a language teaching content consisting of categories of
meaning/notions and functions rather than of elements of structure and grammar.
4. The interactionists believe that language is a vehicle for establishing interpersonal relations and for
performing social transactions between individuals. It is a tool for creating and maintaining social
relations through conversations. Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and
organized by patterns of exchange and interaction.
Lesson
History of the English Language
3
Introduction
The history of the English language
really started with the arrival of three Germanic
tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century
AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the
Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is
Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the
inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language.
But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west
and north by the invaders - mainly into what is
now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles
came from "Englaland" [sic] and their language
was called "Englisc" - from which the words
"England" and "English" are derived.
OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
 During this period, St. Augustine- introduced Christianity to Saxon England. Latin words –
became the language of the church. This period is mostly concerned about: “naming of the
church”. Some of the example words in this period are: Dignitaries, ceremonies, church, bishop,
baptism, monk, eucharis, presbyter. The language has a mixture of Greek, Latin, and Old
English.
 Another group of people invaded England by the 8th Century. They are known as
Vikings/Norsemen- Germanic people with different occupation or work; Norse traders
(Norsemen)- they are the travelers; and Vikings- known as part time warriors and farmers. These
are the example words during this period: Cake, take, egg, leg, window, husband, anger, skill, flat,
odd, ugly, they, their, them
 OLD ENGLISH was influenced by Norwegian and Danish.
MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD
During this period, Norman Conquest of 1066 came. William the Conqueror (duke of Normandy)
invaded England and he became its KING. William together with his nobles spoke FRENCH and they
formed a NEW GOVERNMENT. Normans are ethnic group of people that arose in Normandy (Northern
Region in France). The Normans imposed their language in the whole country.
FRENCH
 Became the language of the court, administration and culture.
 This was7 |English 1 - I n t r used
also the language o d uforc ti o n t o inL schools.
instruction i n g u i s ti c s
 Became mostly the language of the uneducated classes and was considered a vulgar
tongue (national or vernacular language of the people).
This period has something to do with “POWER” that talks about superiority. Some of the example words
MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD
This is the period where the well-known individuals, “Johannes Gutenberg” – invented the Printing Press
in Germany (1450), and William Caxton– who established England’s 1st Printing Press (1476)
 Printing also brought standardization of English.
 Between 18th and 19th centuries, English language continued to change as the British Empire moved
across the world to (USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia, Africa)
 The empire sent people to settle and live in these conquered places and because of interactions with
the native new words were added to the English vocabulary.
Let’s Test Your Understanding!

Assessment: Learning Exercises
Exercise No. 1 (20 points)

Create a short conversation of these two 1
persons by completing the convo-bubble in
the given picture. You are free to choose any 2
topic.
1:__________________________________
2:__________________________________
Then answer the following questions below.
1. Based on the short conversation, how was the language used different from your native
language?
2. Do
Complete theyou think
Venn your native
diagram belowlanguage is changing?
by comparing How do you
and contrasting feel about
the English this? from the past to
language
the present.
3. Can we consider a “language” as one of the human survival needs? Support your answer.
PAST PRESENT
CHAPTER II
Introduction to Linguistic Theories
Overview:
This is written for introductory courses in linguistic theory for undergraduate English major students,
each bringing their expertise to one of the core areas of the field - morphology, syntax, semantics, phonetics,
phonology, and language acquisition. This chapter is concerned with discussing the underlying principles
common to all languages, showing how these are revealed in language acquisition and in the specific
grammars of the world's languages.
Lesson
Linguistics: Meaning, Scope
and Development
1 a.
b.
c.
Revisit the knowledge of linguistic theories and concepts;
Discuss the different perspectives and linguistic theories, and disciplines;
Create a concept word about linguistics; and
d. Differentiate Linguistics from other disciplines.
Language is a system that associates sounds (or gestures) with meanings in a way that uses words and
sentences.
 Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It tries:

• first, to observe languages and to describe them accurately,
• then, to find generalizations within what has been described,

• finally, to draw conclusions about the general nature of human language.
 Applied linguistics attempts to make practical use of the knowledge derived from general
linguistic research – in order, for example, to:
• improve the ways in which a student’s native language is taught
• help people learn foreign language more efficiently
• write better dictionaries
• improve therapy for people with language problems
• search the Internet more efficiently and successfully
Linguistics overlaps and (ideally) cooperates with: psychology, sociology, anthropology, philosophy,
logic, mathematics, computer science, speech pathology, acoustics, music, cryptanalysis, etc.
Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language. The word ‘linguistics’ is derived from the Latin
words ‘lingua’ meaning ‘tongue’ and ‘istics’ meaning ‘knowledge’. According to the Cambridge
Dictionary, linguistics refers to ‘the scientific study of the structure and development of language in
general or of particular languages.
The study of linguistics comes from the natural curiosity of man about the particulars of the
language he speaks, evaluated through different perspectives. According to Ferdinand de Saussure,
one of the most famous linguists, “A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined
with a series of differences of ideas.”
Linguistics involves a vast, complex and systematic study, with different core areas such as phonology,
phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics. It is also intertwined with various other disciplines and contains
fields like sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics etc.
The Scope of Linguistics is vast as it is an expansive and complex field of study which includes
various aspects of a language such as phonetics, semantics, syntax, morphology, stylistics, amongst others. The
study of Linguistics is also interdisciplinary as it has many varied specializations such as Sociolinguistics,
Computational Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, Psycholinguistics and so on. It is regarded as a descriptive
field of study since it is always changing as languages evolve and change. So, as the new developments occur
in any language, Linguistics as a field of study expands and is considered dynamic, as the historical aspects of
languages and dialects go from old to new.
Another reason why there is an immense Scope of Linguistics is that this area is also applied in
various other fields especially Speech Therapy in Modern Medicine, Literature, Anthropology, Sociology,
amongst others. Many research studies have also significantly highlighted the role of linguistics in every
language as well as for comprehending the varied aspects of literature in terms of prose and poems.
(https://leverageedu.com/blog/scope-of-linguistics/)
Ferdinand de Saussure- the Father of 20th

Century Linguistics
NOAM CHOMSKY- the Father of
He was born in Switzerland and he was known for
Modern Linguistics
his study about Structuralism (Structuralist
Linguistics). He was born in the United States of
America and he was known for his study
about Generative Linguistics.
Linguistic
(Relation of Linguistics to other Field of Study)
Discipline
Linguistics maybe defined as the science of language. As with other branches of knowledge and scientific
study, such definition involves the subject in certain relations with other disciplines and sciences outside itself.
Examples are as follow:
1. Linguistics + education or teaching

= Applied Linguistics
2. Linguistics + grammar description or syntax and semantic
=Descriptive Linguistics
3. Linguistics + language and culture
= Sociolinguistics
4. Linguistics + psychology
= Psycholinguistics
5. Linguistics + history or language evolution
= Historical Linguistics
6. Linguistics + language comparison or surviving differences in the language
= Comparative Linguistics
 General or theoretical linguistics tries to determine universal principles for studying languages
and to describe the general features of language.
 Contrastive linguistics concentrates upon the differences between languages. Its findings are
often applied in the context of language teaching.
 Comparative linguistics studies different languages looking for similar characteristics. These
languages may have common historical origin though the main emphasis of the analysis is
usually placed on the structural correspondences between languages under investigation.
 Historical linguistics analyses the development of language in time, registering the changes that
have taken place in it.
 Applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and their findings in
solving various language problem, mostly in the teaching of foreign languages, studying
language disorders, in translation, lexicography, and stylistics.
 Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society, taking into consideration
standard and non-standard forms of language, regional and social varieties with reference to such
concepts as ethnicity, social status, sex, age, etc.
 Psycholinguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between linguistic
behaviour and the mental processes. It is interested in how mental processes influence the
production and perception of speech.
 Computational linguistics uses computer techniques and applies them in automatic translation
and speech analysis using corpora for large-scale statistical investigation and computational
processing of spoken and written texts.
 Developmental linguistics is concerned with the study of the acquisition of language by
children, describing the stages and patterns of development and explaining the typical features
and variations.
 Anthropological linguistics studies language variation and usage in relation to culture.
Emphasis is often placed on the analysis of the so-called non-Western languages.
The above-mentioned branches do not exhaust all the approaches to language that can be distinguished in
modern linguistics, which is a vigorously developing science.
LINGUISTICS VS APPLIED LINGUISTICS
The key difference between linguistics and applied linguistics is that linguistics is the scientific study of the
structure and development of language in general or of particular languages whereas applied linguistics
is the branch of linguistics focusing on the practical applications of language studies.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It involves language form, language meaning, and
language in context. Basically, it studies how language is formed, how it functions and how people use it.
Linguistics also explores various language-related phenomena such as language variation, language
acquisition, language change over time and, language storage and process in the human brain. Although
some people assume that linguistics is only about the study of a particular language, this is not so.
Linguistics deal with the study of particular languages, as well as the search for common properties
observable in all languages or large groups of languages.
Linguists is someone who studies language. Linguists study every aspect of language, including
vocabulary, grammar, the sound of language, and how words evolve over time.
Applied Linguistics deals with the understanding of language related to

teaching as well as the complex process of teaching and learning. This also includes the
approaches and methodologies of teaching a language. An applied linguist makes use of
Lesson Descriptive Vs.

analysis that is, analyzing the emotional state of mind of a speaker of a language or
analyzing how language is taught to foreigners, or creating a writing system for that
2
language.
Prescriptive Linguistics
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which identifies, investigates, and offers
solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related
to applied linguistics are education, psychology, communication research, anthropology,
and sociology.
Moreover, this is a field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to
language-related
DESCRIPTIVE problems.
is an approach Thus, it helps linguists
to grammar to gaingrammar
prescriptive insight intoispractical problems
concerned with
such as what
language concerned with are
the the
use best methodsbyto teachestablished
of language languages norms
or whatof are the existing
correct issues inor
usage language
native speaker without reference to
language policy formulation. norms or grammar, to be followed by the users of the
correctness. language.
 It does not consider what is correct  It emphasizes on correct and incorrect norms.
 Thus, it does not value the “judgments”.  It values the “judgments”.
 Rules are “natural” need to be learned.  Rules are not natural, must be taught.
 Used mainly in academic linguistics.  Used mainly in fields like education and
publishing.
 Rules are made according to the daily usage  There are specified “standard set of grammar
of the language by speaker. rules”.
 (Principles) It takes the principle that the  (Principles) It takes the principle of long
language usage vary according to speakers. existed grammar rules created by native
speakers.
Example: “He and Me were arguing about the presentation.”
 A descriptive grammarian will explain this sentence as “grammatical”, while a prescriptive grammarian
will say this sentence as “incorrect” since it has violated the standard of grammar rules with incorrect usage
of “me” with “he”. (Where it should be HE and I.)
Descriptive linguistics is the work of analyzing and describing how language is spoken (or how it was
spoken in the past) by a group of people in a speech community. All scholarly research in linguistics is descriptive;
like all other sciences, its aim is to observe the linguistic world as it is, without the bias of preconceived ideas about
how it ought to be.
Prescriptive Linguistics seeks to define standard language forms and give advice on effective
language use, and can be thought of as the attempt to present the fruits of descriptive research in a learnable form,
though it also draws on more subjective aspects of language aesthetics. Prescription and description are essentially
complementary, but have different priorities and sometimes are seen to be in conflict.

Read each statement carefully and identify if it is true or false. If the statement is correct, write TRUE, if
the statement is incorrect, write FALSE in the blanks provided before each number.
__________1. Linguistics maybe defined as the science of language.

__________2. Noam Chomsky is the Father of 20th Century Linguistics.
__________3. Linguistics overlaps and cooperates with: psychology, sociology, anthropology, and
philosophy.
__________4. Ferdinand de Saussure was born in the United States of America and he was known for his
study about Generative Linguistics.
__________5. Applied linguistics analyses the development of language in time, registering the changes
that have taken place in it.
__________6. Linguistics deals with the understanding of language related to teaching as well as the
complex process of teaching and learning.
__________7. Psycholinguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between linguistic
behavior and the mental processes.
__________8. Applied linguistics is a field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to
language-related problems.
__________9. Contrastive linguistics studies different languages looking for similar characteristics.
__________10. Sociolinguistics is interested in how mental processes influence the production and
perception
Create of speech.
a “LIGUISTICS” concept word in the given box below. The more important the terms are, the
larger the text size it should appear. An example is already given for you.
https://www.123rf.com/photo_30216434_inspiration-concept-word-cloud-background.html

CHAPTER III
The Levels of Structure of Language
Overview:
Languages are sets of signs. Signs combine an exponent (a sequence of letters or sounds) with a
meaning. Grammars are ways to generate signs from more basic signs. Signs combine a form and a meaning,
and they are identical with neither their exponent nor with their meaning. Language is a means to
communicate, it is a semiotic system. By that we simply mean that it is a set of signs. Its A sign is a pair
consisting—in the words of Ferdinand de Saussure—of a signifier and a signified. We prefer to call the
signifier the exponent and the signified the meaning.
In linguistics, language signs are constituted of four different levels, not just two: phonology,
morphology, syntax and semantics. Semantics deals with the meanings (what is signified), while the other
three are all concerned with the exponent. At the lowest level we find that everything is composed from a small
set of sounds, or—when we write—of letters.
a. Determine how speech sounds are used to create meaning;

b. Apply basic syntactic rules in constructing sentences;
c. Divide some OF
COMPONENTS English words into morphemes;
LANGUAGE (Areas ofand Linguistics)
d. Identify the correct phonetic symbols representing the given descriptions.
1. PHONOLOGY 4. SYNTAX
2. PHONETICS 5. SEMANTICS
3. MORPHOLOGY 6.
PRAGMATICS
Lesson
1 Phonetics
- studies language at the level of sounds: how sounds are articulated by the human speech mechanism
and received by the auditory mechanism, as well as how sounds can be distinguished and characterized
by the manner in which they are produced.
- the science of human speech sounds.
Main Tasks of Phonetics

1. It is to provide a notation and description for each speech sound.
 By notation we mean a system of transcription symbols whereby we can make an accurate and
unambiguous record of what goes on in speech.
 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): a transcription system which contains symbols for the
hundred or so speech sounds that can be distinguished in human language.
2. It is the description (characterization) of speech sounds.
3 Branches of Phonetics
1. Articulatory Phonetics
 The oldest branch
 Examines the articulatory (vocal) organs and their role in the production of speech sounds.
2. Acoustic Phonetics
 Deals with the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel through the air in the form of
sound waves.
3. Auditory Phonetics
Examines the way in which human beings perceive speech sounds through the medium ear.
The Vocal Tract
 Speech is produced by pushing air from the lungs up through the vocal tract and manipulating
several variables at the same time.
 These variables include:
 whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating;
 whether the velum is raised (forcing all the air through the mouth) or lowered (allowing
some of the air to escape through the nose); and
 whether or not the airflow is stopped or impeded at some point between the larynx and
the lips.
1.Lips
2.Teeth
3.Tongue
4.Alveolar ridge- the bony ridge right
behind the upper teeth.
5. Palate- the bony dome constituting
the roof of the mouth.
6. Velum- the soft tissue immediately
behind the palate.
7. Uvula- the soft appendage hanging
off the velum.
8. Pharynx- the back wall of the
throat behind the tongue.
9. Epiglottis- the soft tissue which
covers the vocal cords during
eating, thus protecting the
passageway to the lungs.
10. Esophagus- the tube going to the
stomach.
11. Larynx- containing the vocal cords-
voice box
12. Trachea- the tube going to the
lungs
13. Nose- nasal cavity
14. Mouth- oral cavity
Lesson
2 Phonology
PHONOLOGY
 It studies the combination of sounds into organized units of speech, the combination of syllables and
larger units. It describes the sound system of a particular language and distribution of sounds which
occur in that language. Classification is made on the basis of the concept of the phoneme.
 Phonology is the study of the sound system of language: the rules that govern pronunciation. It
comprises the elements and principles that determine sound patterns in a language.
 Limits itself to phonemes

PHONEME
 An abstract minimal sound unit of a particular language, which when realized, is capable of distinguishing
different words in that language.
 It can be discovered by the minimal pair technique (ex. pat and bat).
 Phones: physical realizations of a phoneme. These vowel phonemes are described in
terms of the following physical
Vowel Phonemes dimensions:
1. Tongue Height – the tongue is

front central back relatively high, mid, or low.
high 2. Frontness- the tongue is either
Figurefront
relatively 1. Vowel
or back.
Phonemes3. Lip ofRounding-
English the lips are
mid either relatively round or
spread.
1. 4.Vowels are produced
Tenseness with little
– the vocal
low obstruction in the vocal tract and
musculature is either relatively
are generally voiced. They are
tense or lax.
described in terms of the
following physical dimensions:
tongue height, frontness, lip rounding, tenseness. Different parts of the tongue may be raised or lowered.
The lips may be spread or pursed. The passage through which the air travels, however, is never narrow as
to obstruct the free flow of the airstream.
Vowel sounds carry pitch and loudness; one can sing vowels. They may be long or short.
Consonant Phonemes
 Consonants can be described in terms of place and manner of articulation.
Place of Articulation
1. Bilabial- the primary constriction is at the lips.
2. Labiodental- the primary constriction is between the lower lip and upper teeth.
3. Interdental – the primary constriction is between the tongue and the upper teeth.
4. Alveolar- the primary constriction is between the tongue and the alveolar ridge.
5. Palatal- the primary constriction is between the tongue and the palate.
6. Velar- the primary constriction is between tongue and the velum.
7. Glottal- the primary constriction is at the glottis (the space between the vocal cords).
Manner of Articulation
1. Stops- two articulators are brought near each other such that the flow of air is through
the vocal tract is completely blocked.
2. Fricatives – two articulators are brought near each other such that the flow of air is
impeded but not completely blocked. The flow of air through the narrow opening creates
friction.
3. Affricates- articulations corresponding to affricates are those that begin like stops (with
a complete closure in the vocal tract) and end like fricatives (with a narrow opening in
the vocal tract).
4. Nasals- a nasal articulation is one in which the airflow through the mouth is completely
blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose.
5. Liquids and Glides- both of these terms describe articulations that are mid-way
between true consonants and vowels; however, they are both generally classified as
consonants. Liquid is a cover term for all I-like and r-like articulations. Glide refers to an
articulation in which the vocal tract is constricted, but not enough to block or impede the
airflow.
1. Consonant sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract as
the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth. The airflow is either
blocked momentarily or restricted so much that noise is produced as air flows past the
constriction. Consonants are described in terms of physical dimensions: place of
articulation, manner of articulation, voicing, as shown in Figure 1.
 Consonants can be divided into obstruents and sonorants.
 Obstruents – produced with a stricture impeding the flow of air.

PLOSIVES FRICATIVES AFFRICATES
 Sonorants- produced with a relatively free airflow.

NASALS LIQUIDS GLIDES
Consonants can either be voiced or voiceless.

2. Diphthongs
 A complex vowel during the production of which one tongue position is changed into
another but no new syllable is formed. Ex. height, house
3. Allophones
 Systematic variations of a phoneme
 Specific properties of a phoneme vary according to its position in a word
 Ex. Tim, stem, hit (these English words and phrases contains in instance of the
phoneme /t/
Glottal
Palata
dental
Alveol
Interd
Bilabi
Labio
Velar
ental
ar
al
Stops voiceless p t k
voiced b d g
Fricativeof voiceless
Manner f θ s š h
s
Articulation
voiced v ð z ž
Affricates voiceless č
voiced ǰ
Nasals voiceless
voiced m n ŋ
Liquids voiceless
voiced l r
Glides voiceless
voiced w y
Source: Parker, F. & K. Riley. (1994). Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
FIGURE 1. Consonant Phonemes of English
4. Voicing. For any articulation corresponding to one of these consonant phonemes, the
vocal cords are either vibrating (/b,d,g,v,ð,z,ž,ǰ,m,n,ŋ,l,r,w,y/) or not (p,t,k,f,θ,s,š,č,h/).
Stops, fricatives, and affricates come in voiced and voiceless pairs (except for /h/);
nasals, liquids, and glides are all voiced, as are vowels.
Each consonant phoneme is not really an indivisible unit, but rather a composite of
values along these three dimensions. Each such dimension constitutes a distinctive feature. For
example, from one perspective /p/ and /b/ are not really units in themselves, but rather each is
bundle of feature values, as follows.
5. Suprasegmentals are prosodic properties that form part of the makeup of sounds no
matter what their place or manner of articulation is. These properties are pitch,
intonation, stress, and juncture. They are variations in intensity, pitch, and timing.
6. Stress is a property of a syllable rather than a segment. It is a cover term for a

combined effect of pitch, loudness and length --- the result of which is vowel
prominence; hence, it refers to the relative prominence of syllables. The syllable that
receives the most prominent stress is referred to as primary stress. To produce a
stressed syllable, one may change the pitch (usually by raising it), make the syllable
louder, or make it longer.
7. Pitch is the auditory property of a sound that enables us to place it on a scale that
ranges from low to high.
8. Intonation is the rise and fall of pitch which may contrast meanings of sentences. The
pitch movement in spoken utterances is not only related to differences in the word
meaning, but serves to convey information of a broadly meaningful nature such as
completeness or incompleteness of an utterance. Intonation refers to the pitch contours
as they occur in phrases and sentences.
 In English, the statement ‘Marian is a linguist’ ends with a fall in pitch while as a
question, ‘Marian is a linguist?’ the pitch goes up.
9. Juncture refers to the pauses or breaks between syllables. It refers to the transition
between sounds. The lack of any real break between syllables of words is referred to as
close juncture; plus juncture or open juncture is used to describe a break or pause
between syllables in the same word or adjacent word; e.g. nitrate vs. night rate; why try
vs. white rye; black bird vs. blackbird
Lesson
3 Morphology
Morphology
 It studies the patterns of forming words by combining sounds into minimal distinctive
units of meaning called morphemes. It deals with the rules of attaching suffixes or
prefixes to single morphemes to form words.
 Morphology is the study of word formation; it deals with the internal structure of words. It
also studies the changes that take place in the structure of words, e.g. the morpheme
‘go’ changes to ‘went’ and ‘gone’ to signify changes in tense and aspect.
 The study of morphemes and words
 The study of word formation
 Concerned with the structure of words
MORPHEMES
 The smallest meaningful units of language, which cannot be subdivided without
losing their meaning
 Words are composed of one or more than one morpheme
 Morphs: physical realizations of morphemes
Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes
Lexical Morpheme Grammatical Morphemes

 Have a sense in and of themselves  Do not really have a sense in and
 Ex. nouns, verbs, adjectives themselves; instead, they express
some sort of relationship between
lexical morphemes.
 Ex. prepositions, articles,
conjunctions
Free and Bound Morphemes
Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes

 Can stand alone as words  Cannot stand alone as words
 They may be lexical (e.g, serve) or  They may be lexical or grammatical
they may be grammatical (e.g., at,
and)
Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

1. Inflectional Affixes
 Affixes can be subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.  Two are added to nouns:
 Inflectional Affixes are all suffixes.  Plural
 English has eight inflectional affixes:  Possessive
 Two come at the end of
Inflectional Affix Example
adjectives and adverbs:
Plural (PLU) Boys
Possessive (POSS) Boy’s  Comparative
Comparative Older  Superlative
(COMP)  Four of them involve verbs:
Superlative (SUP) Oldest  Past Tense
Present (PRES) Walks  Present Tense
Past (PAST) Walked  Past Participle
Past Participle driven  Present-participle
(PAST PART)
Present Participle Driving
(PRES PART)
2. Derivational Affixes
 Open-ended
 There are a potentially infinite number of them
 Ex: carefully, criticize
3. Derivational Prefixes
 Ex: un-, dis-, anti-
4. Stem
 Part of a word which remains if we remove the suffix or prefix that has entered the word
last.
 The stem is not necessarily a single morpheme.
 Ex: the stem of unfriendliness is unfriendly, the stem of unfriendly is friendly
5. Absolute Stem
 also called root or base
 All affixes are removed.
 Always a single morpheme.
6. Allomorphs
 the positional alternants of a morpheme
1. Phonological Conditioning
 The phonological differences between the allomorphs of a morpheme are often due to
the phonological environment
 Ex: when the last sound of the noun is a sibilant the allomorph will be /iz/ as in boxes
and bushes
2. Lexical Conditioning
 The one responsible for the alteration is the lexeme (word). (Ex: Ox-Oxen)
3. Morphological Conditioning
 One morpheme affects the realization of another. (EX: house-houses)
Word-Formation Processes
1. Derivation
 This involves the addition of a derivational affix, changing the syntactic category of the item to which it is
attached. Ex: orient (V) - orientation (N)
2. Category Extension
 This involves the extension of a morpheme from one syntactic category to another.
 Ex: chair (N) - chair (V)
3. Compounding
 This involves creating a new word by combining two free morphemes.
 Ex: put-down
4. Root Creation (Coinage)

 Abrand new word based on no preexisting morpheme.
 Ex: Kodak, Samsung, Oppo
4. Clipped Form
 A shortened form of a preexisting morpheme
 Ex: brassiere – bra
5. Blend
 A combination of parts of two preexisting forms
 Ex: fog + smoke = smog, breakfast + lunch = brunch
6. Acronym
 A word formed from the first letter(s) of each word in a phrase
 Ex: FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency)
7. Abbreviation
 Word formed from the names of the first letters of the prominent syllables of a word. Ex.
television – TV
8. Proper Name
 This process forms a word from a proper name
 Ex: Hamburg – hamburger
9. Folk Etymology
 This process forms a word by substituting a common native form for an exotic form with a
similar pronunciation. Ex. cucuracha (Spanish) – cockroach
10. Back Formation. This process forms a word by removing what is mistaken for an affix (e.g. edit < editor;
beg < beggar).
Morphophonemic Processes
There are processes that produce a great deal of linguistic variability: assimilation,
dissimilation, deletion, epenthesis, metathesis.
 Assimilation is a process that results from a sound becoming more like another nearby
sound in terms of one or more of its phonetic characteristics; a process in which
segments take on the characteristics of neighboring sounds; e.g. probable – improbable;
potent -impotent; separable – inseparable; sensitive – insensitive
 Dissimilation is a process that results in two sounds becoming less alike in articulatory
or acoustic terms; a process in which units which occur in some contexts are ‘lost’ in
others; e.g. ‘libary’ instead of ‘library,’govenor’ for ‘governor’
 Deletion is a process that removes a segment from certain phonetic contexts. It occurs
in everyday rapid speech; e.g. [blaɪn mæn] ‘blind man’
 Epenthesis is a process that inserts a syllable or a nonsyllabic segment within an
existing string of segment; e.g. [plæntɪd] ‘planted’
 Metathesis is a process that reorders or reverses a sequence of segments; it occurs
when two segments in a series switch places, e.g. ask  aks; ruler  lurer; violet 
viloyet
Lesson
4 Semantics
Semantics
 It deals with the level of meaning in language.
 It attempts to analyze the structure of meaning in a language, e.g., how words are related in
meaning;
 It attempts to show these inter-relationships through forming categories.
 Semantics accounts for both word and sentence meaning.
 The study of the meaning of meaningful units (words, clauses, sentences).
Areas of Study
1. Lexical ambiguity refers to a characteristic of a 4. Presupposition refers to a
word that has more than one sense, e. g. the proposition (expressed in a
English word fly is ambiguous because it has sentence) that is assumed
more than one meaning: ‘an insect,’ ‘a zipper on a to be true in order to judge
pair of pants,’ or ‘a baseball hit into the air with a the truth or falsity of another
bat.’ sentence. It also refers to
the truth relation between
2. Syntactic ambiguity refers to the characteristic two sentences; one
of a phrase that has more than one meaning, sentence presupposes
e.g. English literature teacher can mean ‘a another if the falsity of the
teacher of English literature’ or ‘a literature second renders the first
teacher who is from England.’ without a truth value; e.g.
The sentence ‘The King of
3. Synonymy refers to words having the same Canada is dead.’
sense; that is, they have the same values for all of presupposes that ‘There
their semantic features. happy and glad; reply and exists (is) a King of Canada.’
respond; hastily and hurriedly are synonymous The first sentence
words in English. presupposes the second
sentence because if the
second sentence is false,
5. Hyponymy is a characteristic of a word that
then the first sentence has
contains the meaning of another word; the no truth value.
contained word is known as the
superordinate. For example, sampaguita
contains the meaning of flower; therefore,
sampaguita is a hyponym of the
superordinate flower. Put another way, a
hyponym is a word whose meaning contains
all the same feature values of another word,
plus some additional feature values.
6. Antonymy refers to the characteristic of two words which are different
both in form as well as meaning. An antonym conveys the opposite
sense (binary antonyms), e.g. rich - poor; good – bad. They are also
words whose meanings differ only in the value for a single semantic
feature; 25
e.g.|English
rich – poor;
1 - I nrich
t r oisd marked [+wealth]
u c ti o n t o L i and
n g upoor
i s ti isc marked
s [-
wealth]; dead – alive; dead is marked [-life] and alive is marked [+life].
Gradable antonyms are words that describe opposite ends of a
continuous dimension, e.g. hot and cold. Not everything that can be hot
7. Homonymy refers to sense relation in words with the same phonetic

form but different in meaning, e.g. bat meaning ‘a nocturnal animal’
and bat meaning ‘an equipment used in baseball or softball.’
8. Coreference refers to the sense relation of two

expressions that have the same extralinguistic referent. In
the sentence “Mercury is the nearest planet from the sun,”
Mercury and the nearest planet from the sun are
coreferential because they both refer to the same
extralinguistic object – the planet Mercury in the solar
system.
9. Anaphora is a linguistic expression that refers to another

linguistic expression; e.g. “The tsunami killed thousands of
people. It was devastating.” It in the second sentence is
used anaphorically (to point backwards) to refer to ‘the
tsunami’.
10. Deixis refers to the characteristic of an expression that has one meaning but
can refer to different entities within the same context of utterance. Deictic
expressions have a ‘pointing function.’ Examples of deixis are you, I, she
(personal pronouns); here, there, right, left, (expressions of place); this, that,
those, these (demonstratives); now, yesterday, today, last year (time
expressions).
11. Entailment is a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that follows necessarily

from another sentence. A sentence entails another if the meaning of the first
includes the meaning of the second; it is also called paraphrase. For example, the
sentence, ‘Raul had a fatal accident’ entails that ‘Raul died’ since it is impossible
to figure in a fatal accident without loss of life. Semantically speaking, fatal means
[-life] while died also means [-life].
Lesson
5 Syntax
Syntax
 The study of the structure of phrases and sentences
 It deals with how words combine to form phrases, phrases combine to form clauses, and clauses conjoin to
make sentences. Syntax is the study of the way phrases, clauses and sentences are constructed. It is the
system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation. It also involves the description of rules, of
positioning of elements in the sentence such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.
 also attempts to describe how these elements function in the sentence, i.e., the function that they perform in
the sentence.
For example, the noun phrase “the student” has different functions in the following sentences:
a) The student is writing a new play.

b) The teacher gave the student a new play.
In sentence a), the student functions as the subject of the sentence while in sentence b), it functions as
indirect object.
Sentences
 are composed not directly out of words but of constituents which may consist of more than one
word called phrases.
 Express complete thought- (Subject and Predicate)
Phrase
 Is an expression which is a constituent in a sentence and is the expansion of a head (keyword).
 It can happen that a phrase is realized by a single word.
 Does not express a complete thought.

Syntactic Structures
1. Structure of Predication has two components: a subject and a predicate; e.g. the seagull flies, the water
level rose abruptly, the trial has begun
2. Structure of Complementation has two basic components: a verbal element and a complement; e.g.
disturbed the class, rendered service, be conscientious
3. Structure of Modification has two components: a head word and a modifier, whose meaning serves to
broaden, qualify, select, change, or describe, or in some way affect the meaning of the head word; e.g.
responsible officers, trusted friend, impartially conducted
4. Structure of Coordination has two basic components: equivalent grammatical units and joined often but
not always by a coordinating conjunction; e.g. bread and butter, peace not war, neither extrovert nor
introvert
Grammatical Function
 Grammatical functions are the roles that different constituents (strings of words acting as units) play in
clauses. Examples are Subject and Object (also called Direct Object).
Syntactic Categories
 They name the grammatical category to which the constituent belongs.
 Ex: nouns, pronouns, verbs, verb phrase, noun phrase (Parts of Speech)
What are the eight Parts of Speech?
THE EIGHT PARTS

OF
SPEECH
There are eight parts of speech in the English language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, and interjection. The part of speech indicates how the word functions in meaning as
well as grammatically within the sentence. An individual word can function as more than one part of speech when
used in different circumstances. Understanding parts of speech is essential for determining the correct definition of a
word when using the dictionary.
1. NOUN
 A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. (man, Butte, College, house, happiness)
 A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article (the, a, an), but
not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do not. Nouns can be singular
or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles
within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement,
or object of a preposition.
Ex. The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
2. PRONOUN
 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. (She, we, they, it)

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific noun, which is
called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the girl. Pronouns are
further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things; possessive pronouns
indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or pronoun; relative
pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to
nouns.
Ex: The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared. Oh my!
3. VERB
 A verb expresses action or being. (jump... is... write... become)

 The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or more helping
verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must agree with its subject in
number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different forms to express tense.
4. ADJECTIVE
 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. (pretty... old... blue... smart)
 An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the question of
which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as adjectives.)
5. ADVERB
 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

(gently... extremely... carefully... well)
 An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It usually
answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree. Adverbs often
end in -ly.
6. PREPOSITION
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the
sentence. (by... with.... about... until)
 (by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
 A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the
sentence. Therefore, a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase
almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list includes the most common
prepositions:
7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. (and... but... or... while... because)

 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the elements
joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor, for, so,
yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while, since,
etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
8. INTERJECTION
 An interjection is a word used to express emotion. (Oh!... Wow!... Oops!)

 An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
Sentence Vs. Utterance
Sentence
 any string of words produced by the sentence-forming rules of a language, these rules are stored in native
speaker’s competence.
 constructs of competence, they are ideal form, abstract entities
Utterance
 the physical realization of a sentence in a real situation of language use
 they often contain imperfections, such as hesitations, false starts, lack of concord, etc.
Lesson
5 Pragmatics
Pragmatics
 It deals with the contextual aspects of meaning in particular situations.
 Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in real communication.
 As distinct from the study of sentences, pragmatics considers utterances – those
sentences which are actually uttered or said by speakers of a language.
 The study of intended speaker-meaning.
1. Speech act theory. Every utterance of speech constitutes some sort of act (promising, apologizing,
threatening, warning, etc.). Every speech act consists of three separate acts:
 Locutionary force an act of saying something; it is a description of what a speaker says, e.g., I
promise to return your book tomorrow.
 Illocutionary act/force is the act of doing something; it is what the speaker intends to do by
uttering a sentence, e.g., by saying “I promise to return your book tomorrow,” the speaker has
made an act of promising.
 Perlocutionary act is an act of affecting someone (i.e., the listener); it is the effect on the hearer
of what a speaker says, e.g., by saying “I will return your book tomorrow,” the hearer may feel
happy or relieved that s/he will get the book back
2. Categories of Illocutionary Acts. These are categories proposed by John Searle to group together
closely related intentions for saying something.
 Declaration. A declaration is an utterance used to change the status of some entity – for
example, Foul! uttered by a referee at a basketball game. This class includes acts of appointing,
naming, resigning, baptizing, surrendering, excommunicating, arresting, and so on.
 Representative. A representative is an utterance used to describe some state of affairs – for
example, Recession will worsen in Europe in the next five years. This class includes acts of
stating, asserting, denying, confessing, admitting, notifying, concluding, predicting, and so on.
 Commissive. A commissive is an utterance used to commit the speaker to do something – for
example, I’ll meet you at the library at 10:00 a.m. This class includes acts of promising, vowing,
volunteering, offering, guaranteeing, pledging, betting, and so on.
 Directive. A directive is an utterance used to try to get the hearer to do something – for example,
Review thoroughly for the exams. This class includes acts of requesting, ordering, forbidding,
warning, advising, suggesting, insisting, recommending, and so on.
 Expressive. An expressive is an utterance used to express the emotional state of the speaker –
for example, Congratulations for topping the bar exam! This class includes acts of apologizing,
thanking, congratulating, condoling, welcoming, deploring, objecting, and so on.
 Question. A question is an utterance used to get the hearer to provide information – for example,
Who won the presidential election? This class includes acts of asking, inquiring, and so on. (Note:
Searle treated questions as a subcategory of directives; however, it is more useful to treat them
as a separate category.
3. Conversational Maxims are rules that are observed when communication takes place in a situation
where people are co-operative. When people communicate, they assume that the other person
will be cooperative and they themselves wish to cooperate.
In the “Cooperative Principle,” the following maxims or rules govern oral interactions:
Maxim of quantity – a participant’s contribution should be as informative as possible – “Give the right amount
of information, neither less nor more than what is required.”
e.g. A: Are you attending the seminar?
B: Yes, I am.
Maxim of quality – a participant should not say that which is false or that which the participant lacks evidence
- “Make your contribution such that it is true; do not say what you know is false or for which you do not have
adequate evidence.”
e.g. A: Who did you see enter the room last?
B: The janitor
Maxim of relation – a participant’s contribution should be related to the subject of the conversation – “Be
relevant.”
e.g. A: Why did you come late?
B: I had to take my son to school.
Maxim of manner – a participant’s contribution should be direct, not obscure, ambiguous, or wordy – “Avoid
obscurity and ambiguity; be brief and orderly.”
e.g. A: Are you accepting the position?

B: Yes, I am. Thank you for your trust in me.
4. Implicatures refer to statements that imply a proposition that is not part of the utterance and
does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance.
For example: Dan says to his wife Nitz,“Uncle Ernie is driving us to Tagaytay”
to which Nitz responds, “I guess I’d better take tranquilizers.” Nitz’s utterance raises the
implicature that Uncle Ernie must be a fast, reckless driver.


Write down the phonetic symbols representing the following descriptions, and illustrate each of the sounds with
two English words.
Ex. A voiced interdental fricative- / ð /, then, together
1. A voiced labiodental fricative ____________________

2. A voiceless alveolar fricative ____________________
3. A voiced palatal affricate ____________________
4. A voiceless glottal fricative ____________________
5. A voiceless bilabial stop ____________________
6. A voiceless dental fricative ____________________
7. A voiced bilabial nasal ____________________
8. A voiceless palatal fricative ____________________
9. A voiced velar nasal ____________________
10. A voiceless velar stop ____________________

Divide the following words into morphemes.
Example: replaces = re|place|s
1. retroactive-
2. befriended 8. holiday
3. televise 9. grandmother
4. margin 10. morphemic
5. endearment 11. mistreatment
6. psychology 12. deactivation
7. unpalatable 13. airsickness
14. predestined
15. fearlessly
Answer the given question below and underline at least 15 parts of speech being used. Limit your
answers in 2-3 paragraphs only.
“Values or wealth? Which one is necessary to survive?
CHAPTER IV
Theories of Language Acquisition
Overview:
The learning theory is a language acquisition theory that looks at language learning as learning a new skill
and that we learn language much in the same way that we learn how to count or how to tie shoes via repetition and
reinforcement. When babies babble, adults coo and praise them for “talking” (and also because it’s pretty adorable).
When the kids grow older, they often are praised for speaking properly and corrected when they don’t.
From this correction and praise comes the learning theory that language comes from stimulus and stimulus-response.
However, this language acquisition theory, logical as it may be, fails to explain how new phrases and new words
form since it’s all about repeating and mimicking what people hear from others.
a. Discuss the major theories of language development and some of the major debates in the
field;
b. Create a poster slogan depicting the process of language acquisition.
1. Behaviorist learning theory. Derived from a general theory of learning, the

behaviorist view states that the language behavior of the individual is conditioned by
sequences of differential rewards in his/her environment.
It regards language learning as a behavior like other forms of human behavior,

not a mental phenomenon, learned by a process of habit formation. Since
language is viewed as mechanistic and as a human activity, it is believed that
learning a language is achieved by building up habits on the basis of stimulus-
response chains. Behaviorism emphasizes the consequences of the response
and argues that it is the behavior that follows a response which reinforces it and
thus helps to strengthen the association.
According to Littlewood (1984), the process of habit formation includes the

following:
a. The child imitates the sounds and patterns which s/he hears around her/him.
b. People recognize the child’s attempts as being similar to the adult models
and reinforce (reward) the sounds by approval or some other desirable
reaction.
c. In order to obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and
patterns so that these become habits.
d. In this way the child’s verbal behavior is conditioned (‘shaped’) until the
habits coincide with the adult models.
The behaviorists claim that the three crucial elements of learning are: a
stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by the stimulus,
and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or
inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response.
1. Cognitive learning theory. Chomsky argues that language is not acquired by
children by sheer imitation and through a form of conditioning on reinforcement
and reward. He believes that all normal human beings have an inborn biological
internal mechanism that makes language learning possible. Cognitivists/
innatists claim that the child is born with an ‘initial’ state’ about language which
predisposes him/her to acquire a grammar of that language. They maintain that
the language acquisition device (LAD) is what the child brings to the task of
language acquisition, giving him/her an active role in language learning.
One important feature of the mentalist account of second language acquisition is

hypothesis testing, a process of formulating rules and testing the same with
competent speakers of the target language.
3. Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981). Probably this is the most often cited among
theories of second language acquisition; considered the most comprehensive, if
not the most ambitious, consisting of five central hypotheses:
The five hypotheses are:
a. The acquisition/ learning hypothesis. It claims that there are two ways of
developing competence in L2:
Acquisition - the subconscious process that results from informal,
natural communication between people where language is a
means, not a focus nor an end, in itself.
Learning - the conscious process of knowing about language and being
able to talk about it, that occurs in a more formal situation where the
properties or rules of a language are taught. Language learning has
traditionally involved grammar and vocabulary learning.
Acquisition parallels first language development in children while learning
approximates the formal teaching of grammar in classrooms. Conscious
thinking about the rules is said to occur in second language learning
while unconscious feeling about what is correct and appropriate occurs in
language acquisition.
Acquiring Learning
Subconscious process Conscious process/study

Meaningful Interaction Formal Instruction
Communicative Act Grammar
Natural Forms and Functions
Informal Formal
b. The natural order hypothesis. It suggests that grammatical structures are

acquired in a predictable order for both children and adults, that is, certain
grammatical structures are acquired before others, irrespective of the
language being learned.
a. The monitor hypothesis. It claims that conscious learning of grammatical
rules has an extremely limited function in language performance: as a
monitor or editor that checks output. The monitor is an editing device that
may normally operate before language performance. Such editing may occur
before the natural output or after the output.
Krashen suggests that monitoring occurs when there is sufficient time,

where there is pressure to communicate correctly and not just convey
meaning, and when the appropriate rules are known.
d. The input hypothesis. Krashen proposes that when learners are exposed to
grammatical features a little beyond their current level (i.e., i + 1), those
features are ‘acquired’. Acquisition results from comprehensible input, which
is made understandable with the help provided by the context. If learners
receive understandable input, language structures will be naturally acquired.
Ability to communicate in a second language ‘emerges’ rather than indirectly
put in place by teaching.
e. The affective filter hypothesis. Filter consists of attitude to language,

motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Thus learners with favorable attitude
and self-confidence may have a ‘low filter’ which promotes language
learning. Learners with a low affective filter seek and receive more input,
interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they are
exposed to. On the other hand, anxious learners have a high affective filter
which prevents acquisition from taking place.
Influences of Theories on Language Teaching
1. Applied linguists claim that theories of language learning as well as theories of

language may provide the basis for a particular teaching approach/method. To
illustrate, the linking of structuralism and behaviorism has produced the audiolingual
method (ALM), oral approach/situational language teaching, operant conditioning
approach, bottom-up text processing, controlled-to-free writing, to cite a few. These
methods underscore the necessity of overlearning, a principle that leads to endless
and mindless mimicry and memorization (‘mim-mem’). They are also characterized
by mechanical habit-formation teaching, done through unremitting practice:

sentence patterns are repeated and drilled until they become habitual and
automatic to minimize occurrences of mistakes. Grammar is taught through
analogy, hence, explanations of rules are not given until the students have
practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts.
2. The cognitive learning theory has given birth to the cognitive approach to learning
that puts language analysis before language use and instruction by the teacher,
before the students practice forms. It is compatible with the view that learning is a
thinking process, a belief that underpins cognitive-based and schema-enhancing
strategies such as Directed Reading Thinking Activity, Story Grammar, Think-
Aloud, to name a few.
3. The functional view of language has resulted in communication-based methods

such as Communicative Language Teaching/Communicative Approach, Notional-
Functional Approach, Natural Approach, Task-Based Language Teaching. These
methods are learner-centered, allowing learners to work in pairs or groups in
information gap tasks and problem-solving activities where such communication
strategies as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction are used.
4. The view that is both cognitive and affective has given rise to a holistic approach
to language learning or whole-person learning which has spawned humanistic
techniques in language learning and Community Language Learning. In these
methods, the whole person including emotions and feelings as well as language
knowledge and behavior skills become central to teaching. The humanistic approach
equips learners “vocabulary for expressing one’s feelings, for sharing one’s values
and viewpoints with others, and for developing a better understanding of their
feelings and needs


Create a poster slogan depicting the process of language acquisition based on the theories presented
above. Choose only one (1) theory and illustrate how it works. Use a short bond paper.
Performance Task
Digital Portfolio (50 points)

Create a digital portfolio or electronic portfolio, showcasing a running record of your learning in this
course subject. Entries and artifacts including pictures must be added during the learning process. It should
include a variety of learning attempts or unpolished documentation along with reflections on struggles and
challenges. This digital portfolio is a work in progress and allow for self-assessment and reflection. Kindly
follow the format provided below.
1st Page – Cover Page (Student’s name, subject, instructor’s name, title of the digital portfolio)
2nd Page – Student Profile (including a 2x2 formal picture)
3rd Page – Chapter 1 (Lesson Reflection), with pictures to support the topic.
4th Page – Chapter 2 (Lesson Reflection), with pictures to support the topic.
7th Page – Reflection about the course subject.
8th Page – Pictures of outputs/envelops in every preliminary period of submission, (provide a short reflection)
9th Page – A short message to the teacher
10th Page – Blank page
You may work this PT in any computer softwares or just simply use Microsoft Word and convert it to a PDF
(Portable Document Format). Upload your digital portfolio in our google drive folder. This will be further
discussed by the teacher through an audio-visual presentation. A rubric is already presented in the appendices
section of this module.
Appendices
For Exercises No. 1,2,4,7
5pts
For Exercise No. 8
CRITERIA POOR FAIR GOOD EXCELLENT

(Graphics) Poster Graphics are not Some graphics are All graphics are Graphics are all
has original original or do not original but many original and relate original and
graphics that relate to the are borrowed to the process of masterfully relate
clearly relate the process of from the work of language to the process of
process of language friends, other acquisition. language
language acquisition. issue. posters or (12-13) acquisition. The
acquisition. (8-9) advertisements. poster looks
(15 POINTS) (10-11) professional.
(14-15)
(Slogan) Poster The poster does The poster has a Slogan on the Slogan on the
has an original not send a slogan but it does poster is poster is catchy,
slogan that is message about not send a very meaningful and very meaningful,
meaningful and the process of strong message does a good job of and strongly
says a message language about the process sending a conveys a
about the process acquisition. of language message about message about
of language (3-4) acquisition the process of the process of
acquisition. (5-6) language language
(10 POINTS) acquisition. acquisition.
(7-8) (9-10)
(Statement of Audience and Audience and Audience and Audience and

audience and message are not message are message are message are
message) identified or they written on back of written on back of clearly written on
Audience and do no relate at all the poster but do the poster and back of poster
message are to the graphics not clearly relate relates well to the and makes an
clearly written on and slogan. to the graphics or graphics and excellent
the back of the (8-9) slogan. slogan. connection to the
poster and clearly (10-11) (12-13) graphics and
relates to slogan slogan on the
and graphics on poster.
the poster. (14-15)
(15 POINTS)
(Neatness) Poster is not neat Poster is not very Poster is neat, Poster is very
Poster is neat, or organized. Few neat or well well organized, neat, well
organized, and details are organized. More and visually organized and
visually appealing. included and it is time could be appealing overall. extremely visually
(10 POINTS) not visually spent on details. (9) appealing with
appealing. (8) many details
(7) included.
(10)
Performance Task
https://pdfcoffee.com/qdownload/rubrics-poster-slogan-pdf-free.html
Recommended Readings
 Fromkin et al., 2010, p.)): Introduction to Linguistics. ESP Printers, Inc. Cengage Learning. Philippine
Edition
 [Gazdar et al., 1985] Gerald Gazdar, Ewan Klein, Geoffrey Pullum, and Ivan Sag. Generalized Phrase
Structure Grammar. Blackwell, London, 1985
Recommended Videos
 https://youtu.be/jQx_jZxdCbs (Introduction to Linguistics: First Lecture) Prof. Futrell. Language Science

 https://youtu.be/aFnWSBKImQU (Introduction to Linguistics: Phonetics 1)
 https://youtu.be/dfoRdKuPF9I (Introduction to Articulatory Phonetics (consonants)).UBC visible speech.
References
 Rosales, R. 2015. Introduction to Linguistics: Jimczyville Publications, Concha St., Tinajeros

Malabon City
 Bohren, A. 2018. Theories of How We Learn to Communicate. Cognifit.n.p.
 Falculan,T. 2019. LET Review Materials: English; Digos Branch. Digos City
 Fromkin et al., 2010, p.)): Introduction to Linguistics. ESP Printers, Inc. Cengage Learning.
Philippine Edition
 [Lass, 1984] Roger Lass. Phonology. An Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge University
Press, 1984.
Prepared by
LADY LOU I. LEPASANA

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ENGLISH 1- Revised S.Y.

NOTE TO THE STUDENT

Bachelor of Secondary Education

Chapter 2: Introduction to Linguistic Theories

Chapter 3: The Levels of Structure of Language

Chapter 4: Theories of Language Acquisition

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

a. Explicate the meaning of language and its importance in communication;

 Language is primarily vocal. Language is speech, primarily made up of vocal sounds

 Language is a system of systems. Language is not a disorganized or a chaotic combination

 Language is a means of communication. Language is an important means of

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

 OLD ENGLISH was influenced by Norwegian and Danish.

MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD

Let’s Test Your Understanding!

Exercise No. 1 (20 points)

Then answer the following questions below.

 Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It tries:

• then, to find generalizations within what has been described,

Ferdinand de Saussure- the Father of 20th

1. Linguistics + education or teaching

LINGUISTICS VS APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Applied Linguistics deals with the understanding of language related to

Lesson Descriptive Vs.

Example: “He and Me were arguing about the presentation.”

Exercise No. 3 (10 points)

__________1. Linguistics maybe defined as the science of language.

Exercise No. 4 (15 points)

At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

a. Determine how speech sounds are used to create meaning;

Main Tasks of Phonetics

The Vocal Tract

1. Tongue Height – the tongue is

 Consonants can be divided into obstruents and sonorants.

 Obstruents – produced with a stricture impeding the flow of air.

 Sonorants- produced with a relatively free airflow.

Consonants can either be voiced or voiceless.

6. Stress is a property of a syllable rather than a segment. It is a cover term for a

Lexical Morpheme Grammatical Morphemes

Free and Bound Morphemes

Free Morphemes Bound Morphemes

Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

4. Root Creation (Coinage)

7. Homonymy refers to sense relation in words with the same phonetic

8. Coreference refers to the sense relation of two

9. Anaphora is a linguistic expression that refers to another

11. Entailment is a proposition (expressed in a sentence) that follows necessarily

a) The student is writing a new play.

 They name the grammatical category to which the constituent belongs.

What are the eight Parts of Speech?

THE EIGHT PARTS

 A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. (She, we, they, it)

 A verb expresses action or being. (jump... is... write... become)

 An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. (pretty... old... blue... smart)

 An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

 A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. (and... but... or... while... because)

 An interjection is a word used to express emotion. (Oh!... Wow!... Oops!)

Sentence Vs. Utterance

 the physical realization of a sentence in a real situation of language use

e.g. A: Are you attending the seminar?

e.g. A: Are you accepting the position?