NASCA Natural ScienceGuide1 20191011

National Senior Certificate for
Adults
(NASCA)
Natural Sciences
Learning Guide 1
Nature of Science and Biology
Department of Higher Education and Training

NASCA Natural Science Guide 1
ISBN: f06b6fd1-d523-44f1-b31b-1896a9ed79a3
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Contents
Natural Sciences 7
Module: Nature of Science 11
Topic 1: What is Natural Science? 13
Unit 1: The Nature of Science and Scientific Knowledge 15
Introduction 17
Parts 19
Answers 29
Unit 2: Science in Society 31
Introduction 33
Parts 35
Answers 47
Topic 2: Scientific Inquiry 49
Unit 1: The Process of Scientific Inquiry 51
Introduction 53
Parts 55
Answers 75
Unit 2: Presenting Scientific Reports 77
Introduction 79
Parts 81
Answers 89
Key Points 91
Module: Biology 93
Topic 1: Biodiversity 95
Unit 1 - Biodiversity and the Biomes of South Africa 97
Introduction 99
Parts 101
Assessment 133
Answers 137
Unit 2: Principles of Classification 145
Introduction 147
Parts 149
Assessement 185
Answers 189
Unit 3 - The History of Life 195
Introduction 197
Parts 199
Assessment 205
Answers 207
Key Points 209

Acknowledgements
Saide: Management, course design, development and production.

Natural Sciences
Overview
Welcome to the Natural Sciences study materials. In the NASCA programme, the subject of Natural Sciences
consists of three main modules: Biology, Chemistry and Physics as well as an additional short module on the
Nature of Science. The Natural Sciences are therefore different from the National Senior Certificate (NSC)
subjects of Physical Science and Life Science that you may have studied at school. The following diagram
depicts the structure of the subject, Natural Sciences to help you see how the four components fit together in
three learning guides:
The subject Natural Sciences investigates physical, chemical and biological events. Scientists find out how
the natural world works, and use methods and principles to try and explain and predict events in the
environment. The Natural Sciences subject in NASCA includes the following modules: Biology is the
scientific study of living organisms from the molecular level to their interactions with one another and their
environments. Chemistry focuses on the properties of matter and materials and the ways in which they
change from one form to another and react with one another. Physics focuses on the physical properties of
matter and energy and the interactions and relationships between these, and attempts to develop
mathematical and other models to explain physical happenings.
This collection of subjects also deals with society’s need to understand how the natural environment works
in order to benefit from it and responsibly care for it. Scientific knowledge changes over time as scientists
improve their knowledge and understanding. However, science is based on thorough investigation, debate
and argument until a new idea is accepted by the scientific community.
NQF Level 4 Mathematics and English are recommended as co-requisites for Natural Sciences, given the
mathematical and language demands of Natural Sciences. In Natural Sciences, we recommend that the
Nature of Science be studied first, followed by Physics, Chemistry and Biology in parallel, to ensure
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progressive development within each of these sections.
Purpose
The main purpose of the content and learning activities in the three Natural Sciences Learning Guides is to
enable you to develop the knowledge and skills in the three areas of Biology, Chemistry and Physics. This
includes being able to able to take an informed interest in matters of scientific importance, develop thinking
and process skills in the field of science, stimulate interest in and care for the South African and global
environment, and promote awareness of the benefits and limitations of science. By the time you have
completed your studies you should be able to achieve each of the learning outcomes listed below under the
heading Exit Level Outcomes.
Exit level outcomes

By the end of this course students should be able to:
1. Understand and use subject-specific knowledge with regard to:

a. scientific phenomena, facts, concepts, definitions, principles, theories and laws;
b. scientific vocabulary, terminology and discourse (language of science);
c. the process and application of scientific investigations and techniques;
d. scientific and technological applications with their social, economic and environmental implications.
2. Know and apply subject specific skills, namely:

a. find, organise, synthesise and communicate information from a variety of sources;
b. translate information from one form to another, e.g. table to graph, graph to text, text to diagram;
c. manipulate numerical and other data;
d. use data to identify patterns, trends and draw inferences;
e. draw conclusions based on reasoning;
f. hypothesise and predict;
g. solve problems in familiar and novel contexts;
h. evaluate information or investigative procedure.
3. Understand, adopt and apply the values related to the subject, namely:
a. use scientific knowledge effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and the
health of others;
b. make responsible decisions using critical and creative thinking;
c. understand, adopt and display the values of ethical methodology and reporting of science.
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Structure of the content in Natural Sciences
The Natural Sciences content is divided into four modules, as follows:
Module: The Nature of Science

Topic 1: What is Natural Science? This topic provides an overview of the nature, purpose and value of
science in its own right and in relation to society.
Topic 2: Scientific Enquiry: this topic deals with how science takes place and how it is reported.
Module: Biology
Topic 1: Biodiversity: This topic covers the diversity of species, the variety of species inhabiting an area and
the variety of ecosystems within an area.
Topic 2: Genetic and Heredity: This topic covers the structure, function and importance of Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA) and how characteristics of living organisms are passed on from one generation to the next.
Topic 3: Evolution: this topic focuses on how life evolves from previously-existing life-forms by the process
of natural selection, as well as the evidence for evolution.
Module: Physics
Topic 1: Basic Scientific Skills: This topic focuses on basic skills in physics required for students to be
confident in working through the rest of the course.
Topic 2: Mechanics: this topic deals with the study of motion and its causes.
Topic 3: Waves: this topic covers waves found in the world around us, including the behaviour of light.
Topic 4: Electricity and Magnetism: this topic focuses on the relationship between charged forces, electricity
and magnetism which underlie many of the tools and instruments that we rely on daily.
Module: Chemistry
Topic 1: Matter: This topic focuses on the theory behind the three states of matter and the composition and
classification of various chemical elements and compounds.
Topic 2: Chemical Change: this topic deals with a variety of chemical reactions which take place within non-
living systems and living organisms.
Credits and learning time in Natural Sciences

This subject Natural Sciences carries a total of 30 credits; 10 each for Physics, Biology and Chemistry. This
is equivalent to approximately 300 learning hours. The Nature of Science module carries no credits. The
course materials are presented in three learning guides: the Nature of Science and Biology (Learning Guide 1,
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10 credits, 100 learning hours) Chemistry (Learning Guide 2, 10 credits, 100 notional learning hours), and
Physics (Learning Guide 3, 10 credits, 100 notional learning hours).
It is recommended that you first complete the Nature of Science, and then concurrently work through the
Biology, Physics and Chemistry modules. In other words, you should work with all three Learning Guides at
the same time. It is not advisable to work through the guides separately as the three areas of natural science
that you will be studying are all interconnected.
The total 300 hours will include reading time, time required to complete the learning activities and written
assignments, as well as time to complete formative assessment tasks. Each activity in this course indicates
the suggested time for completion.
The Natural Science Student Study Guides provides more detailed information of how to plan and structure
your studies of the three modules/ topics as well as further information about assessment requirements. It
is therefore strongly recommended that you read through the Student Study Guides carefully.
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Module: Nature of Science
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Topic 1: What is Natural Science?
Introduction
Science is the study of the natural world and how it works. Scientists try to discover patterns in events in the
natural world, and to understand those patterns through careful systematic study. The nature of science
module introduces students to scientific ways of thinking and scientific methods of inquiry.
This section gets you thinking about what science really is and the different kinds of science you will be
doing in this course.
Nature of science? Natural science? Are they the same?
You have been reading about two similar sounding terms: ‘nature of science’ and ‘natural
science’.
When we talk about the ‘nature of science’, we are not talking about wildlife or the
environment! We mean what science is and how we do science.
When we talk about ‘natural science’ we mean the components or disciplines in science:
Physics, Biology and Chemistry.
Topic 1 comprises 2 units. The structure of this topic is depicted in Figure 1:
Figure 1: Structure of this topic
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Unit 1: The Nature of Science and Scientific Knowledge
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Unit 1: Introduction
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Describe the nature of science as a comprehensive and reliable way of understanding

patterns observed in the natural world.
2. Demonstrate understanding that although much scientific knowledge is long-lasting, it

is subject to modification as new information becomes available.
3. Describe the broad scientific disciplines, such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology,
and Environmental Science.
In this unit you will be exploring the following:
1. What is science?
2. Scientific knowledge grows and changes.
3. Science is organised into scientific disciplines.
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What is Science?
Begin this Unit by starting off with Activity 1. Write a heading, ‘Activity 1’ in your workbook and follow the
instructions in the Activity.
Activity 1: What do you understand by ‘science’?
Suggested time:
15 minutes
Aim:
This short activity poses some questions for you to consider. You will come back to these questions
a little later in this topic to see if your understanding of what science is has changed in any way.
What you will do:

Record your responses in your workbook. Remember to include the number and title of this activity, so that
you can return to it later and know what your writing was about.
1. Read the following statements. Do you agree or disagree with each statement?
Record your answers in your workbook.
Statement 1:
Science is a collection of facts that scientists have proven to be true over the years.
Statement 2:
Science is what scientists do in order to develop a whole lot of knowledge.
Statement 3:
‘Doing science’ involves doing experiments and investigations in order to discover things about our world and
ourselves.
Statement 4:
The processes of science produce ideas, information, concepts, rules and theories which help us to explain the
world in which we live.
Statement 5:
Science is always the same. It never changes.
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Statement 6:
Science can only be done by specially trained and highly educated scientists in a laboratory.
2. Select words from the list below that you think relate to science and scientific knowledge.
experiment; facts; laboratory; beautiful; apparatus; evidence; religion; observation; belief; investigate;
opinion; theory; reasoning; mathematics; unchanging; reliable; faith.
3. Now write a sentence or two in your workbook, describing what you think science is.
Discussion of the activity

You may think you know what science is, because you have heard the word being used at school and in
everyday life. But when you start trying to write a definition and explain ourselves in words, you might find it
more difficult. This activity begins the process of getting to a better understanding of what science is, and
recognising that the term ‘science’ is in fact a rather complex concept.
As you work your way through the rest of this section of work, you may find that you need to add to or refine
the definition of science that you have written down at the end of the Activity. That is good. That is actually
how scientific ideas develop – by refining and modifying what you originally thought after investigation and
careful thinking. Science is not a fixed body of knowledge. Science is tentative. It changes as we come to
new understanding and discover new things.
Suggested answers to this activity are given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit.
Now watch this very simple video that introduces you to the nature of science:
The Nature of Science: (Duration: 3.02)
Once you have watched the video, go back to Activity 1 and revise anything you need to change, based on
what you now know.
Now do this quick assessment to see how your ideas about what science is are forming.
Quiz
1. Yes or no: Science deals with the way we understand the natural world.
2. Yes or no: Science starts with us asking questions.
3. Yes or no: Science requires us to make observations using all our senses. We may also need to use
different technological tools to help us make these observations, such as microscopes, telescopes,
machines that analyse the elements present in a gas sample etc.
4. Yes or no: Without any evidence, we cannot make definite scientific claims.
5. Yes or no: Science does not deal with subjects that relate to beliefs and imaginary creatures.
6. Yes or no: Scientific claims are made after testing ideas by doing investigations.
7. Yes or no: A scientist’s claims gain more weight after other scientists have tested the claims and can
come to the same conclusions.
8. Yes or no: Science is as much a process as it is a body of knowledge.
9. Yes or no: Science may change with new information.
Discussion of the quiz

By now you should be getting the idea that defining what science is, is actually quite a complex business.
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W H AT I S S C I E N C E ?
Science is far more than a one-line definition. This short activity further probes your understanding of what
science is.
Make sure you go back to Activity 1 in your workbook and edit your answers!
The answer to each of the questions in the quiz is Yes!
Now make your way through these notes. Keep focussed on the idea that you are in the process of working
out for yourself ‘What is science?’ Keep refining your ideas from Activity 1.
• Is science the stuff you find in science textbooks?

• Is science something you can do?
• Is science always factual?
• Is science more than this?
Science is not just books of facts. Science is a way of asking and answering questions about the natural
world. Scientists look for patterns in the natural world. They investigate the natural world by careful
observation and experiments. They try to explain what they are observing. They study similar work of other
scientists. Eventually, if most of the evidence agrees, they develop a theory that explains a whole lot of
related observations.
An example of how a theory was developed
For example, Robert Hooke discovered the first cells in 1663. He cut thin slices of cork and
examined them with his simple microscope. He saw that cork consisted of little boxes that he
called ‘cells’. Over the next two hundred years, microscopes improved and scientists studied thin
slices of many different plants and animals. Eventually, in 1883, a pattern emerged that led to a
Law:
All living things are made up of cells.
No living thing has yet been found that is not made up of cells. The theory has proved to be
reliable and consistent.
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Figure 2: Robert Hooke’s cork cells
These videos show how Hooke’s investigations were only part of the many investigations that led to the cell
theory:
Microscopy and Cell Theory:(Duration: 9.16)

Cell Theory:(Duration: 2.45)
Main idea
Science is more than a large body of knowledge. Science is a systematic process or way of
investigating the natural world and arriving at explanations.
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Scientific knowledge grows and changes

Perhaps you thought that science consists of a lot of facts that you have to memorise! It is true that science
has many facts, but all of them began with observations about the natural world. Facts are established
knowledge. The knowledge began with observation and experimenting, leading to reliable facts. Some facts
have remained true for centuries. Other facts change as new knowledge is discovered. (Go back to the
previous Quiz and read again question 9: Science may change with new information.)
For example, earlier in the section you learnt about Robert Hooke’s discovery of cells. The first cells that
Robert Hooke discovered were dead cork cells. They had no cell contents. Later, methods of staining
samples of tissue were discovered, and microscopes improved. Scientists noticed that there were objects
inside cells. One object was present in all cells, and was called the nucleus. New knowledge had been
discovered. You learned about this in the videos you just watched.
For humans today, the world is a place of amazing discoveries. Earth (and beyond!) is our laboratory and our
imagination knows few boundaries. We have discovered an incredible amount about our planet, the life
forms on earth, the solar system, and the universe as a whole. Science is the way we find out this
information, as well as the knowledge that we have.
Did you know that people have not always felt this way? For much of human history, people thought of Earth
as a fearful place, a place ruled by an assortment of gods, giants and demons. Storms, volcanoes,
earthquakes, eclipses and even the sun were not considered features of this planet to investigate and
understand. They were considered to be warnings and threats and punishments to be feared. Human and
animal sacrifices were used as a form of communication and peace making between humans and their
gods.
Activity 2: Scientific knowledge changes over time
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
You are going to explore how the scientific knowledge we have today has evolved out of supernatural
beliefs.
What you will do:

You will need your workbook and pen.
Read the following carefully:
In Mexico, the ancient Aztecs offered human sacrifices to the sun in order to ensure good crops. In western
Africa, a group of people believed that the jungle was the hair of a giant. Earthquakes happened when the giant
shook his head. In ancient Iceland, the people believed earthquakes resulted from quarrels among the gods.
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They believed that their most active volcano, Hekla, was Hell’s Gate and that the lava that shot out of its crater
contained the souls of the damned. Ancient Polynesian islanders believed that the goddess Pele and her sister
Namakaokahai battled across the Pacific Ocean and that a scar of each battle created each of the Hawaiian
islands.
The beliefs of these ancient people seem strange to us today. This is because we live in a time in which
scientific explanation has replaced fear-based explanation. Today, scientific knowledge is based on logic,
observation and experimentation. However, it is important to realise that our scientific explanations sometimes
change as new information has become available to humans. While explanations may have changed over time,
one thing has not changed: people have always tried to explain in the most meaningful way they can, those
things that they observe and those things that are important to them.
Answer the questions in your workbook, under the heading Activity 2.
1. In the passage you just read, a number of beliefs explaining natural phenomena were described.
Do you know of any other such beliefs which were held by ancient people, maybe even your ancestors? Write
a few sentences describing this belief.
Then, in a new paragraph, write a few sentences describing the scientific explanation for that phenomenon.
2. “Maggots (the larval stage of flies) form from the rotting remains of meat.”
This was a belief that was held in the sixteenth century. We know today, it was a false belief, even though the
people believed it to be true in the sixteenth century.
Why may people have drawn this conclusion?
What do we know today?
3. Say whether each of the following statements is true or false. If false, say why the statement is false.
a. Scientific knowledge was established 200 years ago and has not changed since then.
b. Science is a process or way of asking and answering questions about the natural world.
c. Scientists produce knowledge that is always true.
d. Scientists try to explain their observations and experimental results.
e. Science can answer every question we may ask.

The purpose of this activity is to understand how explanations change over time and with investigation and
new knowledge.
By now you should be realising that science is not a fixed body of knowledge. Science is tentative. It changes
as we come to new understanding and discover new things. Maybe your original ideas about what science is,
are changing! Since you first gave a definition of what you thought science was at the beginning of this unit,
your ideas have changed and you have embraced new thoughts and made these new thoughts and ideas
part of your knowledge. Your definition of science should now be bigger than it previously was, and it should
include more complex ideas.
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S CIEN TIF I C K N OW L E D G E G ROWS A N D C H A N G E S
Main idea
Scientific ideas are subject to change. We say that science is tentative [open to examination,
may change if new facts emerge].
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Why do you need to know about scientific disciplines?

Your Natural Science course includes the following disciplines:
• this Nature of Science component, in which you investigate the characteristics of science and how
scientific knowledge is built
• a physics component
• a biology component, and
• a chemistry component.
Activity 3: Understanding different scientific disciplines
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
You are going to demonstrate that you understand the relationships between the different scientific
disciplines.
What you will do:

You will need your workbook and pen, pencil and a compass or something to help you draw large circles
(maybe a saucer or side plate).
Do you remember what a Venn diagram is, from when you studied maths in primary school?
Figure 3: Example of a Venn diagram
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WHY D O YOU N EE D TO K N OW A B O UT S C I E N T I F I C D I S C I PL I N E S ?
What’s a Venn diagram?
Let’s say there are three things: A, B and C. In the Venn diagram in Figure 3, the blue circle
represents the characteristics that only A possesses, the red circle represents the
characteristics that only B has and the yellow circle represents the characteristics that only C
has. In the purple intersection between A and B, we would see characteristics that A and B
share, but C does not. Likewise in the green intersection between A and C, we would see
characteristics that A and C share, but B does not. The orange intersection represents the
characteristics that B and C share, but not A. Finally, in the white centre of the diagram, we see
the characteristics that A, B and C all share or have in common.
You are going to draw a large Venn diagram, like the one in Figure 3. Don’t worry about colours! (It might be a
good idea to use a double sheet of paper for your Venn diagram.)
Create three large intersecting circles, similar to the circles in Figure 3, and label each one as follows:
Physics, Biology, and Chemistry.
Now read the following statements and decide where each of the disciplines will be inserted in your Venn
diagram, based on the characteristics referred to in the statements. Write the numbers of the relevant
statements into your Venn diagram.
Statements:
1. The study of animals.

2. Determining the melting point of elements at different pressures.
3. Calculating the time it takes light to travel to Earth from a particular star.
4. Determining which fertilisers work best for which crop plants.
5. Investigating the frequencies at which dolphins make sounds.
6. Finding various ways to combat climate change on a global scale.
7. The study of chemical reactions.
8. Describing the life cycle of a particular plant species.
9. Creating mechanical membrane systems.
10. Understanding electric circuits in your house.
11. Working out the chemical composition of snake venom.
12. Developing ways to clean up an ecosystem which has been affected by nuclear waste from a nuclear
power station.
13. Studying the relationship between matter and energy in atoms.
14. Explaining the change in compounds during chemical reactions.

In this activity, you are beginning to organize some of the ideas you have been exploring about science. You
are starting to classify your ideas into groups. You are developing a more specific idea of what we mean by
disciplines of a field of study, in this case, Natural Sciences. Some of the statements are rather
straightforward and easy to place in your Venn diagram. Other statements are a little more challenging! If you
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are not certain what some of the words mean in the statements, google them, or look them up in a
dictionary.
These short videos will help you understand a little more about the three disciplines of science that you will
be studying in the Natural Sciences:
What is biology?(Duration: 2.34)

What is physics? (Duration: 3.07)
What is chemistry? (Duration: 1.44)
Main idea
Science is a collection of disciplines. Physics and Chemistry try to discover the natural laws
that describe how the non-living world works. Biology studies the living world, which is much
more variable than the non-living world. There are many areas of scientific investigation that
overlap between these three disciplines.
Moving on
Before you move on to the next unit, go back to your answers in Activity 1. Do you have a better
understanding of what science is and what it isn’t?
In the next unit, you will explore the role that science plays in society.
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Unit 1: Answers
Activity 1
1. At this time, there are no model answers for this part of the activity. You will return to these ideas later.
2. Words that relate to science are: experiment; facts; laboratory; apparatus; evidence; observation;
investigate; theory; reasoning; mathematics; reliable. In Unit 2.3, you will look at why we don’t recognise
the other terms as part of science.
3. You will come back to this definition and modify or change your ideas if necessary.
Activity 2
1. There is no model answer for this question. Your answers will vary depending on your circumstances.
2. They saw maggots emerge from the rotting meat and presumed that the meat gave rise to the maggots.
However, we know today that certain flies lay their eggs on fresh meat. The eggs are very small and are
not always visible to the naked eye. As the bacteria begin to rot the meat, they produce heat. The heat
helps the fly eggs to hatch. The maggots hatch out of the eggs and crawl through the meat tissue, eating
and growing.
3. a. False. Scientific knowledge began thousands of years ago and has changed significantly over time.
b. True.
c. False. Scientific knowledge changes as new evidence is discovered.
d. True.
e. False. Science can only investigate questions that are testable.
Activity 3
Figure 4: Answer to Activity 3
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Unit 2: Science in Society
31
Learning outcomes
1. Explain the value of science for human society.
2. Identify the limitations of science in its inability to investigate phenomena that cannot
be proved or disproved, such as beliefs, the purpose of life, issues of good and evil.
In this unit you will explore the following:
1. Science has value for human society.
2. Science provides opportunity for employment.
3. Future careers in science.
4. Science and the arts and belief systems.
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Science has value for human society.
Go back to Unit 1 and look again at Figure 2.
In your workbook, under a heading ‘Science has value for human society’, answer the question: ‘Have you
used science today?’ by making a bulleted list of all the areas in which science has been of value to you in
the past 24 hours.
Now read these notes:
Science gives us a powerful way of understanding things that happen in our natural world. The laws of nature
(laws of physics, biology and chemistry) explain how the world behaves.
We are naturally curious about our world.
Figure 5: Curiosity
(Pixabay)
Science provides a way of learning more and investigating new questions that we ask, because science is a
process as well as the body of knowledge we generally call ‘science’. By understanding the world, we can
predict future events, such as floods, flu epidemics, and eclipses of the Sun.
Science is a way of thinking about the world. It uses reasoning, and evaluates statements in terms of how
they are supported by evidence. People who master scientific ways of thinking can solve problems and think
critically.
Science is our best hope for curing diseases such as HIV and AIDS, discovering new materials that do not
pollute the earth, and developing new technological products such as machines that can diagnose [analyse
the cause of] illnesses and smartphones.
Science also enables us to marvel at the order in the natural world.
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There are two different kinds of research that scientists can do:
1. Basic research tries to find out more about the universe because it is interesting. Scientists who conduct
basic research are curious about the universe. Their findings may be useful to humans in the future, but
that is not the primary goal of their research. They are trying to advance scientific knowledge about the
universe.
Figure 6: Basic research has shown us what blood cells look like
(Pixabay)
2. Applied research is done with specific goals in mind. Applied researchers want to use science to create
machines or processes that make money and/or benefit humans. Their research may result in a new
process, a new machine, or a new treatment for a disease.
3. Applied research is closely linked to technology. Technology applies the results of science for
commercial or industrial goals. Engineers and technicians convert the findings of applied research into
factories and industries.
Figure 7: Applied research has allowed us to put satellites into orbit around Earth
(Pixabay)
Some people may think that applied science is ‘useful’ while basic science is ‘useless’. However, if you look
at the history of science, you would see that basic knowledge has resulted in many significant applications
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S CIEN C E H A S VA LUE FO R H UM A N S O C I E TY.
of great value. Some scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before an
application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the results made possible through basic
science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science and rather find solutions to
actual problems. Both approaches are legitimate and valid. It is true that there are problems that demand
immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found without the help of the knowledge generated
through basic science.
Very importantly, science teaches ordinary people to think critically! In our everyday lives, we have to make
decisions about our health and our diet, for example. We have to be able to predict the consequences if we
allow rubbish to collect in our neighbourhood. At a national level, we have to contribute to decision-making
about the sources of our energy supply, and the importance of providing clean water to all communities.
Figure 8: We need to think critically about issues such as the importance of clean water in all communities
Science provides us with the reasons why we need to live a healthy lifestyle, keep the local environment
clean, and use renewable energy like solar and wind energy to generate electricity. Science informs us about
bacteria in dirty water, and how it causes cholera and diarrhoea. Science helps us understand why it is
important to vaccinate our babies. Science enables us to understand that dwarfism is caused by genes, not
by evil spirits.
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Activity 4: Understanding how science has value for society
Suggested time:
15 minutes
Aim:
Analysing whether you understand the value of science in society.
What you will do:

You will need your workbook, pen, pencil and ruler.
Answer carefully in your workbook under the heading Activity 4.
Copy the following table into your workbook:
Statement Basic or Applied research Value to humans
An astronomer discovers a new galaxy.
A materials scientist finds a new way to

make rubber tyres.
An animal breeder breeds a new variety of

chickens that are resistant to disease.
A biologist studies the diet of crowned

eagles in South Africa.
A chemist discovers a new element.
A zoologist draws up a list of all the spider

species in a nature reserve.
A botanist discovers a new plant in a

rainforest.
A chemist discovers the structure of the

way atoms are organised in a crystal of a
compound.
A physicist uses the crystalline structure

of a compound to make super fast
conductors in a computer.
Decide whether each of the statements listed in the table is basic research or applied research by indicating
‘basic’ or ‘applied’ in the middle column.
In the right-hand column, decide how this aspect of science could be of value to human society.

You may have found that completing the middle column of the table was far easier than completing the right-
hand column. It is easier to identify something than it is to analyse it and say why something is important.
Determining whether a product of scientific research has value and what that value may be, is a subjective
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S CIEN C E H A S VA LUE FO R H UM A N S O C I E TY.
[personal, may be biased] decision in many cases. However, although a decision may be influenced by your
personal opinion, doesn’t mean it doesn’t carry any weight. Remember to add weight to your decision by
providing good reasoning or justifying your decision with evidence.
Main idea
Science adds value to our lives in helping us to understand the natural world, and to think
logically. Science benefits humans in providing improved health, new materials such as
plastics, and new technologies such as mobile phones. It enables us to marvel at the order in
the natural world.
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Science provides opportunities for employment
If you are very interested in science, you could become a professional scientist. Professional scientists are
employed in universities and research institutes. They have to spend many years studying science in order to
eventually work as a professional scientist. Only a few people are employed as professional scientists.
Many more people become technicians who apply science and technology in their work. Farmers, computer
technicians and medical technologists are examples of jobs that are based on science. There are many job
opportunities for people who understand science.
This is a small list of careers in science:
• astronomer
• biomedical engineer
• climate change analyst
• clinical psychologist
• clothing technologist
• colour technologist
• food science technician
• forensic scientist
• pharmacist
• meteorologist
• microbiologist
• nuclear power plant technician
• geneticist
• product development scientist
• science teacher
• science writer
• soil scientist
• sound engineering technician
• toxicologist
• water quality scientist
Quiz
Choose at least three of the careers on the list that interest you. It could be that you have never heard of
them before and the name of the career sounds interesting!
Write the name of the career into your workbook.
Google the name of the career and learn a little more about what the career involves doing.
Decide into which scientific discipline the career falls. Remember that many careers will be interdisciplinary.
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Q UI Z
Also, decide if the career is one that will involve doing basic research, or applied research.
Think of the value of that career to human society.

The purpose of this task is to get you thinking about how science works in society, how you personally
benefit from science and getting you to recognise people who use science in their careers. You may discover
something you have never considered doing as a career!
At the very least, you will see that most of the careers on the list involve interdisciplinary studies and most of
the careers are also in the applied sciences. Without many of these scientists, our society would not function
the way it does now.
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Future careers in science
Scientists tell us that in the near future, there will be careers in science that do not exist right
now!
Keeping this thought in mind, consider the threat of climate change, global warming and rising
levels. Maybe in the near future there will be a career known as a ‘drowned city expert’. What
would such a career involve, do you think?
Activity 5: Reflection on the value of science in society
Suggested time:
30 minutes
Aim:
You will link the knowledge you obtained in Unit 2 to the concept of careers in science to further
reflect on the value of science in society.
What you will do:

You will need your workbook and pen
You will watch three videos and then answer the question that follows carefully in your workbook under the
heading Activity 5.
What’s the point of studying science? (Duration: 2.52)
Why is it important that people study science? (Duration: 1.31)
Science and society: (Duration: 6.26)
So what is the value of science in society?

After viewing the videos, do you think science should be valued for its ideas alone, or for what it contributes
to technology and society by way of jobs and useful technology? Should we maybe value science for the
everyday things we do using science?
Write a critical mini-essay in which you discuss these three viewpoints, and come to a conclusion.
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F UT URE C A RE E RS I N S C I E N C E

You can consult the Student Handbook for information and skills on writing a critical essay. However, for this
essay, you will need to:
• pose the problem in an introduction

• write a paragraph outlining each of the three viewpoints suggested (i.e. three paragraphs)
• come to a conclusion that may well reflect your personal opinion too.
There is no one model answer for this essay. You have been exposed to three different points of view, and
you will formulate your own view, based on what you have learnt, as well as your personal experience.
Read over the essay carefully, to ensure that has no spelling or grammar errors. Give the essay to someone
else to read (it could be another student or someone that you know who has a career in science) and ask
them for their honest critical opinion of your essay. Listen to what they have to say, and re-evaluate some of
your ideas if you feel that they have raised some important issues.
As with any essay that requires critical thinking, you will be assessed on your ability to lay out the argument
and then present evidence, before coming to a reasonable conclusion based on that evidence.
Main idea
Science is a gateway subject to many jobs. Science helps us make informed decisions at
home, in our communities and as a nation.
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Science and the arts and belief systems

You have spent a great deal of time learning about what science is. What about considering what science is
not?
Science is different from the arts because it starts with observation. For example, a scientist can study a
piece of pottery and identify the type of clay that was used, how the pottery was fired to make it hard, and
even how old the piece of pottery is. But a scientist cannot say whether it is beautiful or not, or what it meant
to the person who made it.
Scientific statements describe reality, not how humans perceive [observe, notice, understand] that reality.
Appreciation of art, music and physical beauty lie outside the boundaries of science.
Likewise, beliefs in supernatural powers such as a god or gods, or ancestral spirits, cannot be proved or
disproved, and are therefore outside the boundaries of science. Scientists cannot give answers to questions
such as
• What is the purpose of life?

• What is “good” and what is “evil”?
• What is beautiful or enjoyable in music, art or literature?
• What morals should I apply to my life?
• Is there a god or supernatural forces such as ancestral spirits that control my life?
• Do miracles happen?
Activity 6: Some of the limitations of science
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
By analysing an artwork, you will demonstrate that you understand some of the limitations of
science.
What you will do:

Study the artwork in Figure 9 and then answer the questions that follow.
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S CIEN CE A N D T H E A RTS A N D B E L I E F SYST E M S
Figure 9: Fish Magic by Paul Klee
Paul Klee was a Swiss artist who lived from 1879 to 1940. He painted Fish Magic, a very large oil and water
colour painting in 1925. In the middle of the painting is a sheet of muslin [a thin, delicate fabric], that has
been stuck onto the canvas and painted over. Klee scraped and sanded the black paint to reveal mysterious
specks and passages of glowing colour underneath, a sophisticated version of the art children produce using
wax crayons and black paint.
1. What images from the natural world as depicted [shown] in the painting?
2. Are the images you identified in (1) realistically portrayed in the painting?
3. There are a number of fish in the painting. List three scientific facts you know about fish.
4. Although you may know scientific facts about fish (or plants, moons, planets, time, i.e. other elements
from the natural world that appear in the painting), does the painting add to your scientific body of
knowledge of fish (or plants, moons, planets, time etc.)? Explain your answer.
5. If you look carefully at the clock, four numbers are highlighted in yellow/orange paint. Can you give a
scientific or factual reason for these numbers being highlighted?
6. What does the painting mean to you? What is the meaning of the muslin square in the middle of the
painting? Will it mean the same to all other people?
7. Do you find the painting beautiful? Will all other people rate its beauty (or lack thereof) in the same way?
8. What do your answers to all these questions reveal about art, meaning and aesthetics [how beautiful
something is], and science?

Some people think that science holds all the answers. But science cannot tell us if a painting is beautiful…or
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PA RTS
ugly. These judgments are personal and are based on our experience and preferences. However, it is
important to be able to think critically when analyzing an artwork, for example. In this activity, you should use
critical thinking to answer some questions, and finally come to a conclusion about what science is and what
it isn’t.
Suggested answers to this activity are given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit. You will find more
explanations and further guidance in the Answer Key.
Main idea
Science only addresses questions that can be proved or disproved. Other questions fall
outside the boundaries of science.
Moving on
This Sub-topic has presented a comprehensive exploration of what science is (and what it isn’t) and the role
science plays in society. In the next Sub-topic, you will focus more closely on how science is done as you
look at the process of scientific inquiry.
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Unit 2: Answers
Activity 4
These answers are suggestions, as the activity was asking for opinion rather than something that has a fixed
answer
Statement Basic or Applied Value to humans

research
An astronomer discovers a new galaxy. basic Whilst it may seem at first that there is little real
value to human society in discovering a new galaxy
millions of light years away, studying that galaxy
could help us understand how galaxies, even our
own, formed. We could have more definite
knowledge about our origins. And don’t forget the
‘marvel’ aspect of such a discovery…what if life
exists in that galaxy?
A materials scientist finds a new way to applied The new process could make vehicles safer, the
make rubber tyres. rubber may be recycled thus reducing pollution.
An animal breeder breeds a new variety of applied This could have a direct impact on food security and
chickens that are resistant to disease. make foods safer for human consumption.
A biologist studies the diet of crowned basic Understanding the diet of the eagle may help us to
eagles in South Africa. put in place better conservation efforts to prevent
the extinction of the species; we could understand
more about the impact humans have on the
ecosystem in which the eagle lives.
A chemist discovers a new element. basic The element may prove to be a solution to countless
technological problems: think of how discovery of
the element radium in 1898 has led to technological
advancements such as the treatment of certain
kinds of cancer.
A zoologist draws up a list of all the spider basic This information could provide insight into the
species in a nature reserve. ‘health’ of the rainforest and how humans are
impacting this vital ecosystem.
A botanist discovers a new plant in a basic The plant, as in the case of many plants, could
rainforest. contain a chemical that could be used in medicines.
A chemist discovers the structure of the basic A different scientist could use the crystalline
way atoms are organised in a crystal of a structure of the compound to make super fast
compound. conductors in a computer.
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A N S W E RS
Activity 6
1. The painting depicts elements from the sea and the earth (fish, flowers) as well as elements from space
such as moons and planets. These are considered parts of the natural world. There is a clock in the
painting, representing the element of time, a dimension in the natural world.
2. No, these images are depicted in an expressionist or surreal manner.
3. Fish live in aquatic [watery] environments; fish do not have lungs but rather obtain oxygen from the water
by means of gills; fish are generally streamlined to assist their locomotion [method of movement] in
water; fish use fins to swim through the water; the skin of fish is covered with scales, etc.
4. No. In fact the representation of fish in the painting seems to contradict scientific knowledge of fish. The
fish are depicted in an unrealistic manner in the painting. For example, the fish do not seem to be living in
an aquatic environment; they are in the same environment as the plants. Some of the fish do not appear
to have fins or gills or scales.
5. The highlighted numbers are 1, 2, 5 and 9. If you reorder these numbers, you get 1925, the year in which
Klee painted this artwork. But why did he do this? Was he attaching some significance to the year 1925?
Is it simply a coincidence that these numbers are highlighted and that in fact the artist did not do this
intentionally to bring your attention to 1925? Without being able to ask the artist, we will not know for a
fact why these numbers in particular are highlighted on the clock.
6. There is no way to establish a universal meaning of this artwork, without asking the artist, who is now
dead, and who never interpreted his art publically while he was alive. Maybe the square of muslin is
meant to represent a curtain, and maybe the artist was suggesting that if you pull back the curtain, the
natural world will reveal more ‘magic’ and wonderful things! But we don’t know for sure.
7. In the same way, the artwork may appear beautiful to you, or it may appear messy and ugly! But someone
else will love it. (It hangs in the Philadelphia Museum of Art and is valued at over $6 000 000!)
8. There is no way of scientifically determining the meaning of an artwork, or deriving scientific knowledge
from the artwork. We also cannot make scientific claims as to whether the artwork is beautiful. These
things lie outside the realms of science.
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Topic 2: Scientific Inquiry
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Unit 1: The Process of Scientific Inquiry
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Learning outcomes
1. Explain that scientific knowledge is based on systematically-collected (rigorous)

evidence, with no fixed sequence of steps followed by every scientist.
2. Describe observation as the essence of science.
3. Distinguish among the terms theory, hypothesis and prediction as used in science.
4. Describe the use of controlled experiments as one way of collecting rigorous evidence
in science, specifically experiment and control, dependent, independent and controlled
variables, accurate data recording, replication of experiments.
5. Explain the importance of recording accurate data in the form of measurements, verbal
descriptions, photographs or diagrams.
6. Explain how analysis of data enables inferences to be made.
7. Explain the importance of avoiding bias by striving for objectivity in collecting and
interpreting data, for example, by having many different investigators or groups of
investigators working on a problem.
In this unit you will be covering the following:
1. Distinguising amongst facts, hypothoses, predictions and laws.
2. Carrying out experiments.
3. Recording data.
4. Identifying patterns.
5. Avoiding bias.
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Scientific inquiry
In the previous sub-topic, you were presented with a comprehensive exploration of what science is (and what
it isn’t) and the role science plays in society. In this Sub-topic, you will focus more closely on how science is
done as you look at the process of scientific inquiry.
You have learnt that science is based on observation and experimentation. Science and scientists use many
different kinds of investigations when they investigate the universe. There is no fixed series of steps that all
scientists must follow. However, there are only a few basic steps that can be called the scientific method of
inquiry, which generally apply to the natural sciences.
What’s the difference between ‘enquiry’ and ‘inquiry’?
Both words refer to the act of ‘finding out’.
‘Enquiry’ is most often used in a general sense, such as when you want to ask someone
something and so, you make an enquiry. For example: “I want to make an enquiry about how to
open a savings account at your bank” or “Please enquire about your aunt’s health – how is she
doing after her operation?”.
‘Inquiry’ is most often reserved for making a formal investigation. For example: “There was an
inquiry into why the aeroplane crashed into the mountain” or “I am conducting an inquiry into
how electromagnets work”.
In this course, we use the form ‘scientific inquiry’ to refer to formal scientific investigations.
Figure 10 is a flow chart that shows the basic steps in the general scientific method of inquiry.
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Figure 10: The scientific method of inquiry
You will refer to this Figure throughout this Unit.
This video provides an example for how the scientific method might work in a particular context:
The scientific method: (Duration: 11.48)
Watch the video and relate the steps provided in the video to Figure 10. You can plot the example given in the
video against the steps given in Figure 10 in your workbook.
This website:Science Buddies provides excellent guidance on the scientific method. If you need to read more
about the scientific method, this is a useful extension activity.
Main idea
Scientific inquiry is based on observation and experimentation and although the investigation
may take a number of different forms, it most usually involves some basic steps called the
scientific method.
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S C I E N T I F I C I N Q UI RY
Observation
Science generally begins with an observation which triggers the asking of some kind of question.
Observation is gathering information about nature as it exists. We talk about observing “with a scientific
eye”. That means noticing every detail, using all our senses, and often using instruments that enhance
[improve or boost] our senses. Some details about nature come from sources that human senses cannot
detect. Instruments are necessary in order for humans to make observations about these sources.
For example:
• Microscopes allow us to see objects that are too small for the eye to see.
• Telescopes enable us to see objects that are very far away.
• Very sensitive listening equipment allows us to hear sounds that are too high for the human ear to hear,
such as the squeaks of bats.
• A gas chromatograph can be used to detect trace [very small amounts] chemicals in the atmosphere.
• Humans cannot detect magnetic fields, but birds use the earth’s magnetic field when they migrate.
Humans use instruments called magnetometers to detect and measure magnetic fields.
• Humans do not have a sense that can detect electrical fields, but some fish use electrical fields to detect
their prey. We use instruments such as galvanometers, ammeters and voltmeters to measure electrical
fields and currents.
Once something has been observed in nature, the next step in the scientific method is to question what has
been observed. For example:
• What does it look like inside a cell?

• Why do stars appear to twinkle [sparkle with a flickering light]?
• How do bats not fly into walls at night?
• What chemicals are present in the atmosphere around a fertiliser factory?
• What is controlling the migration of birds?
• Why does the electricity in my house trip when I have too many plugs on?
Further observation and investigation will be undertaken, often using instrumentation.
Main idea
Observing natural events ‘with a scientific eye’ lies at the heart of how the scientific method
both begins and proceeds. Often instruments can help human observe things they are unable
to observe naturally.
Hypotheses, theories, predictions and laws

Refer back to Figure . Once a scientist has made beginning observations and asked a question to investigate,
57
the next step is to suggest an answer to that question. This is called ‘stating a hypothesis’. The hypothesis is
a testable statement. The investigation or experiment that follows, will test the hypothesis.
Write the heading of this sub-unit in your workbook.
Before you properly begin this section, test what you understand now about the words in the title of this sub-
unit. Because this is a discovery task, try your best, but don’t be too worried if you are very unsure. You will
come back to this after some more work.
Here are some terms: fact, hypothesis, theory, prediction, law, opinion
Here are some definitions. You must match one of the given terms to each definition. Write your answers into
your workbook, numbering carefully. Leave a few lines between each answer so you can come back later and
revise your answers if necessary.
Definition 1: A personal belief that is often based on a person’s own value system, for example “The study of
dinosaurs is a waste of money”.
Definition 2: A statement, based on evidence and observation, that scientists and others agree on, for
example “Water can move against gravity up narrow tubes in a process called capillary action”.
Definition 3: The act of making an educated guess as to the outcome of a situation based on previously
found information, for example “Based on the changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure, it will snow
tomorrow”.
Definition 4: A reasonable explanation of an observation, that can be tested, for example “Eating chocolate
causes pimples”.
Definition 5: An overarching statement that describes how something in the natural world works, for example
“Planets orbit the sun on elliptical paths”.
Definition 6: A series of statements about the world that are testable, supported by evidence and can be used
to make explanations and predictions, for example “Continents are land masses that have moved in the past
and continue to move today.”
Now read the following information:
After a scientist has observed a natural event, and perhaps read up on the event to see what other scientists
say, she develops a hypothesis. A hypothesis is an educated guess that explains a set of observations. Very
importantly, the hypothesis statement must be testable. A hypothesis may be very simple, for example:
Every time you kick a ball into the air, it comes back to the ground.
You could state a hypothesis as simply as “A ball kicked into the air always falls”.
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What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a statement that answers a question or explains a set of observations and is

testable; plural = hypotheses.
A theory is a statement about the world that is supported by evidence from many different sources. Theories
apply to many more events than a single hypothesis.
A boy kicking a football may decide to experiment with all kinds of different objects to see if they all fall back
to the Earth if you kick them. He gets his friends to join him in his investigations. He contacts people living in
other countries to repeat his investigation and he combines all the data. After observing and measuring the
rate of falling in thousands of experiments, he could come up with a theory that states:
“All objects fall a distance proportional to the square of the time of the fall”.
This theory can be tested by anyone else. It might need to be refined.
For example, some people may have found that wind affects the results. The theory needs to be re-stated:
“Without wind, all objects fall a distance proportional to the square of the time of the fall”.
Some theories are based on observations, rather than experiments. Theories based on events that happened
a long time ago cannot be tested by experiments. However, in these cases, evidence is overwhelming and no
evidence exists to contradict it.
The theory that continents have moved across the Earth’s surface explains evidence from the shape of
continents, the same fossils found on different continents, and the contours of the ocean floor.
A theory such as the movement of the continents may not be easy to test experimentally. It is the best
explanation considering all the evidence we have.
What is a theory?
A theory is a statement about the world that is supported by evidence from many different
sources; it can be used to predict and explain things.
Scientists test each hypothesis and theory. They make predictions about what will happen in a particular
system if the theory is correct. They then observe nature or conduct experiments to see if the system
supports the theory.
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Suppose we hypothesise that all objects fall when dropped. We predict that if we drop a feather, a stone, a
sheet of paper, and a cup of tea, they will all fall to the earth. Each object we drop is a test of our prediction. If
all the objects fall to the earth, our predictions were correct and our hypothesis is supported.
Tests do not necessarily prove or disprove a hypothesis or theory. They often say something about the range
of situations under which the theory is valid.
If we tested whether all objects fall when dropped in space, the objects would float away. They would not drop.
If we filled a balloon with helium gas, it would float upwards. The theory that all objects fall when dropped is
true on earth, and for all types of matter except certain gases.
What is a prediction?
A prediction is a guess or speculation about how a particular system will behave if a theory or
hypothesis is correct.
When a theory has been tested many times, and the evidence seems to always agree, the theory may be
raised to the level of a law. A law is an overarching statement that describes how the natural world works.
In the earlier example about Robert Hooke’s discovery of cells, 200 years passed before a law was stated. The
law stated that all living things are made of cells.
Although science tries to describe the natural world in terms of laws, the laws may change if further evidence
is discovered.
Opinions and beliefs do not have a place in science! Unless there is evidence for something, it does not fall
into the category of science.
What is a law?
A law is an overarching statement that describes how the universe works.
So what then is an opinion?
An opinion is not science! It is a personal belief. It is a view or judgement formed about something that is not
necessarily based on facts or knowledge.
Some opinions can be very damaging to science, because they may be expressed as fact or scientific
knowledge.
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For example:
• “Global warming is a lot of rubbish…look how cold this winter has been.”
• “Evolution is just a theory, I don’t believe in it.”
• “Vaccines cause autism; I will not be vaccinating my child.”
The above are all opinions that have no place in science! In fact, science has shown us just how incorrect
these opinions are.
This is a great video to help you understand the difference between facts, hypotheses, theories and laws and
how they all work together to make science!
Questions, observations, hypothesis, theories and laws: (Duration: 8.53)
Main idea
Science works through statements that have increasing levels of certainty: hypothesis, theory,
and law. Hypotheses and theories generate predictions that can be tested to see if the
hypothesis or theory is supported.
Activity 7: Distinguishing amongst facts, hypotheses, theories, predictions and laws
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
You are going to test what you have learnt about the different kinds of scientific statements.
What you will do:

Answer each question carefully in your workbook under the heading Activity 7.
1. Go back to the short activity you did at the start of this unit. Do you wish to revise any of your decisions?
Modify your answers now.
2. Now read each statement given below. Decide which kind of statement it is (fact, hypothesis, prediction,
theory, law or opinion).
3. Rock music is the best kind of music to listen to.
4. Moonlight is light from the sun that reflects off the moon’s surface.
5. The valleys on Mars are most likely a result of erosion by ancient rivers on the Martian surface.
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6. My aunt firmly maintains that regardless of medical research, vitamins produced in a laboratory can’t be
as good for you as vitamins found naturally in food.
7. Diamond is harder than steel.
8. The earth was created in a miraculous event about 4000 years ago.
9. The earth formed over 4 billion years ago.
10. The Drakensberg mountains are the most beautiful mountains in the world.
11. The body of knowledge that describes how planets revolve around the sun is called a heliocentric model.
12. The changing weather patterns we are seeing at the beginning of the 21st century are a consequence of
global warming. This is known as climate change.
13. Scientists have warned that global summer temperatures are set to increase next year.
14. E =

It is always difficult to learn new terminology associated with new ideas. As you work through the rest of this
Sub-topic, you will find that these terms are used again and again. It helps to use the terminology as much as
possible. And of course, when you move into the different Natural Science disciplines, you will find many
opportunities to apply these ideas in context. That is where you will really find yourself using the terminology
and learning it will be far easier!
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C A RRY I N G O UT E X PE RI M E N TS
Carrying out experiments

Refer back to Figure 10. Once a scientist has made beginning observations, and asked a question to
investigate, the next step is to suggest an answer to that question. This is called ‘stating a hypothesis’. The
hypothesis is a testable statement. The investigation or experiment that follows, will test the hypothesis.
In this sub-unit, you will consider all the important aspects of experimentation.
In an experiment, the scientist changes some aspect of the natural world and observes the effects of the
change.
For example, a chemist might mix two substances, such as vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, and observe
what happens.
Experiment and control
Experiments must be carefully designed so that the effect the scientist observes is the result of the change
that were made and nothing else. Some experiments are designed around an experiment and a control.
• The experiment is set up to test the effect of the change.

• The control is set up to make sure that only the one change causes the effect.
For example, a scientist wants to test whether bean seeds need light to germinate.
She plants 10 bean seeds in one tray of soil, and 10 bean seeds in a second tray of soil. She waters each tray
with exactly 100 ml of water every second day. She puts one tray inside a closed cardboard box. This is the
experiment. The change she has made is to remove all light. She puts the second tray next to a window. This
is the control. The control receives light.
By setting up an experiment and a control, the scientist can be sure that the results are due to the presence
or absence of light, and not any other factor.
What’s the difference between an experiment and a control?
Experiment: the setup that tests the effect of a change in the environment.
Control: the setup that makes sure that the results are due only to the change in the
environment.
Dependent, independent and controlled variables, and fair tests

Setting up experiments and controls are one way of ensuring that an investigation is a fair test.
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What is a fair test?
Imagine that your friend challenges you to a race. You agree, thinking the race will be sometime in the future.
However, he has his tracksuit and running shoes on and says that you will race him right now. You are in
jeans and you are wearing a jacket and smart shoes. You’ve also just eaten a rather large lunch. As you start
to take your jacket off, he starts running!
Is this a fair race?
Of course not! To be fair, you should both be dressed in similar running clothes. If you had known that the
race was to be that day and at that time, and you wouldn’t have had a big lunch! And you certainly should
start the race at the same time! There are too many factors that are not controlled for this race to be fair. The
only thing you should be measuring is the speed at which you both can run. Not wearing running shoes,
having eaten a big lunch, starting the race late…these are all factors that will affect your running speed.
What do you need to do to keep a test fair? First, you need to understand some concepts related to fair
testing:
Variables are factors that cause or influence the outcome of an experiment. (In the example of the race just
described, your clothing, the contents of your stomach and the starting time of the race are all variables.)
• The independent variable is the variable that the scientist controls. She decides the values of this variable.
(In the example of the race, you and your friend are the independent variables.)
• The dependent variable changes as a result of the scientist changing the independent variable. It is the
effect of the independent variable on the event. It is the variable that the scientist will measure. (In the
example of the race, how fast you can run is the dependent variable. The scientist will measure this by
determining which person gets to the finishing line first.)
• Controlled variables are variables that could influence the outcome of an experiment. The scientist tries to
make sure that these variables are kept under control. They must not affect her measurement of the
effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. (In the example of the race, clothing, how
much was eaten before the race and simultaneous starting time are the controlled variables.)
Here is another example. Bicarbonate of soda fizzes when you mix it with vinegar. You can try this at home.
Get five identical jars (old jam jars for example) or large glasses. Make sure they are clean and perfectly dry
inside.
Put about quarter of a teaspoon of bicarb into one container. Add 50 ml of vinegar. Measure how high the
fizzy mixture rises in the container.
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[Figure 12: Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) and vinegar
Now test the effect of increasing the quantity of bicarb on the reaction. Try half a teaspoon, one teaspoon
and two teaspoons. Always add 50 ml vinegar each time.
• The independent variable is the amount of bicarb you use.

• The dependent variable is how high the fizzy mixture rises.
• The controlled variables are the amount and type of vinegar you add, the type of container (glass, metal,
or china), and the temperature at which you do the experiment.
When a scientist designs an experiment, it is essential that the experiment is a fair test. All the variables
must be identified and carefully controlled. Only one variable at a time must be changed in order to
determine its effect. A control should be set up where possible.
This website gives you more information about fair tests
Controlling the variables in an investigation ensures that your test is fair, and valid. Validity is an important
concept in scientific inquiry. Simply put, validity is the degree to which your investigation measured what it
set out to measure. You can see that if you did not control your variables, there will be no way of knowing
which variable brought about the observed effect.
For example:
Sandra wanted to find out if her biscuits would taste better with more sugar. So she added ½ cup extra sugar,
some more chocolate chips and some pecan nuts to the biscuit dough. Her three friends liked the new
biscuits much better. “I was right!” Sandra said. “More sugar does make biscuits taste better.” Does this test
have validity? How could you increase the validity?
This test lacks validity. Sandra has no way of knowing if the sugar alone made the biscuits better. It was just
as likely that the addition of chocolate chips and nuts made the biscuits better! She could have increased the
validity of the investigation by baking a batch of biscuits that only had the increased sugar, not the added
chocolate chips and nuts. In this way, her test would have been measuring what she set out to measure:
does increasing the amount of sugar make a tastier biscuit?
But how does Sandra know that it was just a coincidence that that particular batch of biscuits turned out
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tastier? How does she know if other friends will also agree with the three friends she used in this first test?
Sandra has to make her test more reliable.
Reliability is another important scientific inquiry concept. Reliability refers to the degree to which the
investigation produces consistent or regular, dependable outcomes or results. How could Sandra make her
investigation more reliable?
Sandra needs to repeat the identical recipe mixture a number of times, with a larger sample of tasters. She
needs to show that her conclusions that adding more sugar improves the recipe are reliable because she has
produced the biscuits according to that changed recipe 20 times, and has asked 50 people to taste test the
biscuits.
Main idea
Experiments involve changing some aspect of a natural event and observing the effects of the
change. The experiment must be carefully designed to test only one variable at a time, while
controlling other variables, in order to ensure a fair test. Investigations must be valid and
reliable to be considered fair tests.
Activity 8: Understanding experimental design
Suggested time:
30 minutes
Aim:
This activity tests if you have understood what you have read about.
What you will do:

Answer each question carefully in your workbook under the heading Activity 8.
1. Match the correct definition with each term listed below.
Term Definition
1. Dependent variable A. The degree to which the investigation measured what it set out to measure.
2. Experiment B. The variable that the scientist controls.
3. Controlled variable C. The degree to which the investigation produces consistent or regular,
dependable outcomes or results.
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Term Definition
4. Control D. The setup that tests the effect of the change a scientist is making.
5. Independent variable E. A setup that ensures that only the change the scientist has made is
responsible for the effect.
6. Validity F. The variable that changes as a result of changes in the independent variable.
7. Reliability G. A variable that must be kept exactly the same for the experimental setup and
the control setup.
2. Phindile kept a plant on the kitchen counter. She accidentally spilled a small amount of washing powder
in the soil. She soon noticed that the plant seemed to grow bigger and healthier. She wondered whether it
had anything to do with the washing powder. To find out, she decided to grow some old bean seeds she
found in her cupboard in a few old seed envelops. She used a small pot of soil from her garden and a
slightly larger old pot of soil she had from a previous pot plant that had died. She planted 3 bean seeds in
each of two pots. She put them both on the windowsill and watered them both everyday. In the one pot,
she sprinkled a small amount of washing powder. In three weeks, the plants in the pot with the washing
powder averaged 12 cm tall. The plants in the pot without the washing powder were an average of 8 cm
tall. Phindile concluded that the washing powder had made the plants healthier and bigger.
a. Which is the experiment and which is the control?

b. Is this a fair test? Why or why not? If it isn’t fair, what could be changed to make it fair?
c. Is this test reliable? Why? If it isn’t, how could you make it more reliable?
d. Is this test valid? Why? If it isn’t, how could you increase the validity?

You have encountered many new terms while you have been learning about the scientific method. Can you
recognise these terms? Do you remember what they mean? This activity tests your understanding of what
you have just learned. First, you work through straightforward definitions of terminology. Then you move on
to encountering the terminology in the context of an actual investigation.
When you engage with the Physics, Biology and Chemistry components of your Natural Science course, you
will become more familiar with experimental design in these contexts.
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Recording data
Refer back to Figure 10. Once a scientist has designed and performed the investigation, results must be
collected. The results form the data.
Data means the observations and measurements a scientist makes. Data must be accurately recorded.
Accurately means data must be exactly what the scientist observes. The scientist cannot make changes to
the results. This would make the investigation lack reliability.
Here are some ways that scientists record data:
• Drawings or photographs
• Measurements
• Descriptions.
Here is an example of how data about an animal, a cheetah, may be recorded:
Cheetah
Measurements of a cheetah (average for 7 male and 7 female cheetah)
Body part measured Males Females
Nose to tip of tail 2,06 m 1,9 m
Ear 75 mm 75 mm
Shoulder height 881 mm 847 mm
Mass 48,4 kg 35,8 kg

Form of the cheetah:
Cheetahs are tall and slender, with long, thin legs. They have spotted coats. The background is slightly
brownish, and is covered with many oval or round black spots. They have a black stripe from the corner of
each eye to the corner of the mouth.
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Q UI Z
Any observation or experiment must be able to be repeated by another scientist. This is called replicability.
We say a scientist replicates another experiment. Replicability is linked to making an investigation more
reliable.
For example:
I tried the experiment with vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, and got the following results:
Volume of fizzing when different amounts of bicarb are mixed with 50 ml vinegar.
Amount of bicarb ¼ teaspoon ½ teaspoon 1 teaspoon 2 teaspoons
Amount of fizzing 110 ml 120 ml 135 ml 135 ml

My friend repeated the experiment, and she got the following results:
Volume of fizzing when different amounts of bicarb are mixed with 50 ml vinegar.
Amount of bicarb ¼ teaspoon ½ teaspoon 1 teaspoon 2 teaspoons
Amount of fizzing 100 ml 115 ml 130 ml 135 ml

Her measurements were not exactly the same as mine, but the same trend [pattern of results] was visible:
the more bicarb you mix with the vinegar, the more fizzing took place, up to about 1 teaspoon.
Refer to the Student Guide for more guidance on other ways of recording data: tables and graphs in
particular.
Main idea
Scientists must record data as accurately as possible. Observations and experiments must be
replicable.
Quiz
Read the data given for the cheetah and answer the questions in your workbook:
1. Name the part/s of the data that shows measurements.

2. Name the part/s of the data that is a description.
3. What type of data is shown in Figure 7?
4. The figures shown in the table are the averages for seven adult male and seven adult female cheetahs.
What trend or pattern can you see in the data?
5. “I used a kitchen measuring jug to measure the fizzing of vinegar and bicarb. It has markings in 25 ml
units. My friend and I estimated (guessed) the height of the fizzing if it was between the 25 ml markers.”
Write a sentence about the accuracy of data collection in this experiment.
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1. The table titled “Measurements of a cheetah” shows measurements.
2. The part with the heading “Form” is a description. The photograph also shows what the cheetah looks like
and is therefore a description too.
3. The figure records data visually by means of a drawing.
4. The ear size is the same in males and females. In all other measurements, males are larger than females.
5. The data is not very accurate, because the measuring instrument (a kitchen measuring jug) did not have
enough markings. The researchers had to estimate measurements.
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I D E N T I F Y I N G PAT T E RN S
Identifying patterns
Refer back to Figure . Once a scientist has collected the data, the data/results must be analysed and
interpreted so that conclusions can be drawn.
In unit 1, you already began to interpret results when you start identifying trends or patterns in the data.
When a scientist has collected similar data many times over, she may start to recognise a pattern. The
patterns may begin to appear in tables and graphs. Then she can make a general statement about her
observations. The general statement is called an inference. An inference is a conclusion based on evidence
and reasoning.
For example:
After measuring 50 male and female cheetahs, researchers have found that, apart from the ear size, the
average measurements for females are smaller than those of males. They can make an inference: Female
cheetahs are smaller and lighter than males.
In Physics and Chemistry, an inference can be written in words or in the form of a mathematical equation.
For example:
A scientist drops a soccer ball from a tall building. He measures how far the ball has fallen after 1 second, 2
seconds, 3 seconds, 4 seconds and 5 seconds. He finds that the ball that falls for 2 seconds falls four times
further than the ball that falls for 1 second. The ball that falls for 3 seconds falls nine times further than the
ball that falls for 1 second. After many tests, the scientist makes a general inference, which can be stated in
three different ways:
• In words: The distance travelled is proportional to the square of the time of travel
• In equation form: distance = constant x
• In symbols: d = k x
The scientist can then engage in hypothesis testing (see Figure 10). If the conclusion supports the
hypothesis then the hypothesis has been confirmed. If the conclusion does not support the hypothesis, then
the hypothesis has been overturned.
Main idea
If data collected from many experiments and observations agrees, a scientist draw a general
conclusion called an inference. If the conclusion supports the hypothesis then the hypothesis
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has been confirmed. If the conclusion does not support the hypothesis, then the hypothesis
has been overturned.
Quiz
If you complete a scientific investigation and you discover that your conclusions do not support your original
hypothesis, is this bad? Have you still ‘done science’?

We have been conditioned by society into thinking that if we don’t ‘get the right answer’ then our work was
‘wrong’ and possibly not worth very much.
Overturning (or refuting) a hypothesis is not a ‘bad’ thing in science. You have simply shown what is not the
case, rather than what you suggested previously is the case! Provided your investigation was valid and
reliable, you have most definitely still ‘done science’.
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AVO I D I N G B I A S
Avoiding bias
Scientists’ observations should not be influenced by what they expect to happen. Their interpretations of their
results must also be impartial [neutral, objective]. We say their observations and interpretations must be
unbiased.
If several researchers investigate an event, the chances of collecting unbiased data increase. The
researchers may work separately or as a group. They must discuss their results and agree on the
interpretation of results. Their conclusions are then unbiased.
You should be able to recognise that an unbiased investigation will lead to the investigation being more
reliable.
Main idea
Scientists try to be as unbiased as possible in their investigations and interpretation of their

findings.
You have explored the different steps in the scientific method. If you refer back to Figure 10, you will see that
one aspect is missing: reporting results. This will be covered in the next unit.
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Answers
Activity 7
1. Don’t get worried if you got some of these wrong first time around. Hopefully you have now learnt
something important and can modify your original ideas.
Definition 1: opinion
Definition 2: fact
Definition 3: prediction
Definition 4: hypothesis
Definition 5: law
Definition 6: theory
2. a. not scientific – this is an opinion

b. fact
c. hypothesis
d. not scientific – this is an opinion
e. fact
f. not scientific – opinion/belief
g. fact
h. not scientific - opinion
i. theory
j. theory
k. prediction
l. law
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A N S W E RS
Activity 8
1.
Term Definition
1. Dependent variable F. The variable that changes as a result of changes in the independent variable.
2. Experiment D. The setup that tests the effect of the change a scientist is making.
3. Controlled variable G. A variable that must be kept exactly the same for the experimental setup and
the control setup.
4. Control E. A setup that ensures that only the change the scientist has made is responsible
for the effect.
5. Independent variable B. The variable that the scientist changes or manipulates.
6. Validity A. The degree to which the investigation measured what it set out to measure.
7. Reliability C. The degree to which the investigation produces consistent or regular,

dependable outcomes or results.
2. a. The pot with the washing powder is the experiment. The pot without the washing powder is the control.
b. It is not a completely fair test in that Phindile has not controlled all her variables. Firstly, the bean seeds
are not from the same batch/seed envelop, so they could be different kinds of beans. Also, the bean
seeds are old. This may affect their ability to germinate. She needs to have used fresh bean seeds from
one batch/seed envelop. She has also used two different sized pots and two different sources of soil.
The pots and the soil need to be identical. The fact that she planted three bean seeds in each pot, kept
them in the same place and watered them identically is good – this is controlling variables well. The only
difference between the pots of seeds should have been the addition of washing powder to one of the
pots. For the test to be fair, all the other variables should have been kept the same.
c. The test is not completely reliable. Phindile only used three bean seeds in each pot. She needed to have
many more samples to make the test reliable.
d. The test lacks validity, because the variables are not well controlled. The difference in observed growth
between the two pots of plants could be due to the soil, the size of the pot or the kind of bean seeds.
These variables need to have been controlled so that the only difference between the experiment and the
control was the presence/absence of washing powder.
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Unit 2: Presenting Scientific Reports
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Learning outcomes
1. Identify the structure and style of a scientific report.
2. Identify the ethical norms of science, such as accurate recordkeeping, openness,

replication, critical review of each other’s work, honesty in reporting results, avoiding
unnecessary pain and suffering, taking care of animals in captivity, and obtaining
informed consent from human participants in research.
In this unit we will cover the following:
1. Scientific reports.
2. Ethics in research
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Scientific reports
Refer again to Figure 10. In Unit 1, you reviewed the scientific method of inquiry, with the exception of how to
report results. In this Unit, you will learn how to compile a scientific report that communicates to other
scientists, and to society, what you have done.
A scientific report is the way a scientist reports her investigation and findings.
A scientific report describes exactly:
• why an investigation was done

• how it was done
• and what the findings were.
The report must enable other scientists to repeat the study to test whether their findings agree with the first
investigation. Eventually, if enough scientists achieve similar findings, a general principle or theory can be
stated.
There are many different types of scientific reports. One that is commonly used reports on an investigation.
It has four main sections:
Introduction: Here the author states what problem was investigated, and what other scientists have found
out about similar problems. The author states why it was important to investigate the problem. The author
will also state their hypothesis in this section.
Methods: The author describes the methods in detail. This is important for other scientists to replicate the
investigation. The full experimental design, as well as how the design was implemented or put into practice,
must be described.
Results: The author presents the results in the form of measurements, descriptions, diagrams and/or
photographs. Measurements are often presented in the form of tables and graphs.
Discussion: The author interprets the results. She shows how the results answer the problem she stated in
the introduction. She also shows how her findings relate to the findings of other scientists.
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PA RTS
Activity 9: Writing a scientific report
Suggested time:
30 minutes
Aim:
This is a scientific report on a student’s replication of Galileo’s experiment with rolling balls. You will
read through the report and answer the questions that follow, demonstrating your understanding of
the report.
What you will do:

Answer each question carefully in your workbook under the heading Activity 2.1.
Investigation into the relationship between distance travelled and time as a ball rolls down a slope.
Introduction: As an object falls from a height to the earth, its speed seems to increase. This investigation
tried to find out whether there is a relationship between time and distance covered as an object falls. We
predict that distance covered increases with the time over which an object falls.
Method: A straight, steep section of road, a soccer ball, a tape measure and a stopwatch were used for the
experiment. The researcher released the ball at the top of the slope. After two seconds, a helper stopped the
ball. The researcher measured the distance the ball had rolled. He started the ball at the top of the slope
again, and let it roll for four seconds. The helper stopped the ball, and the researcher measured the distance
the ball had travelled. The researcher repeated this method for 6, 8, 10 and 12 seconds.
The researcher repeated the whole experiment 10 times, and calculated the average distance that the ball
travelled in each 2-second interval that it rolled.
Results: Table 1 shows the average distance travelled by the ball after it was released. Figure 1 shows the
same information in the form of a graph. It is clear that as time increases, the ball travels greater distances.
Table 1: Average distance versus time of a falling ball
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance (m) 0 1.6 3.8 7.9 14.5 18.8 29
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S C I E N T I F I C RE PO RTS
Figure 13: Average distance versus time of a falling ball
Discussion: If speed = distance ÷ time, this investigation shows that speed increases from 0,8 m/s in the first
two seconds to 2,4 m/s between the 10th and 12th seconds. The prediction is correct. A ball travels a
greater distance the longer the time that it falls.
Answer the questions that follow.
1. What is the title of the scientific report?
2. Which section of the report:

a. Presents the findings of the study.
b. Describes how the investigation was conducted.
c. Draws a conclusion based on the evidence.
d. Describes why the investigation was carried out.
3. How did the researcher make sure the data was accurate?

In this activity, you analyse an existing scientific report to demonstrate your understanding of the structure of
the report. The questions asked you to reflect on the results of the investigation, to make sure you can apply
what you have learned about the scientific method.
Suggested answers to this activity are given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit. The answers will also
provide you with more guidance.
The following video clarifies how to write a scientific report. Add any new information that you learn from this
video to your notes:
Science survival kit: Scientific report: (Duration: 3.24)
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PA RTS
This is a useful summary guide to completing scientific research and writing a report:
Investigation prompt sheet
Introduction and Research question: After observing something that causes you to ask a question or highlight
a problem you wish to solve, you should do some reading on the problem/question. See what other scientists
say about the problem, or if they have posed a solution to your question. It does not matter if someone has
answered your question; your original research can answer the question from a different perspective. This
question can also be thought of and phrased as the aim of the investigation. It will set out the problem you
intend to solve. Someone reading this will know immediately what the investigation is about.
Hypothesis: This is a testable guess. It is a sensible possible answer to your question or solution to your
problem. It is important that the guess can be tested. The hypothesis should be phrased as a statement. The
statement of the hypothesis is included in the introduction of your final report.
Method: When you plan the investigation, this section is writing in the future tense: what you intend to do to
test the hypothesis. When you have done the investigation, in your report, you write this section in the past
tense, indicating what you did.
1. List all the variables that can affect your investigation.

2. Decide which variable you will change in order to carry out your test.
3. Work out how you will control the other variables in order to keep the test a fair test.
4. Write down a list of the apparatus or equipment you will need in order to perform your test.
5. Write down the steps of the investigation, in point form and in the correct logical order.
6. You can include labelled diagrams to show how you set up apparatus or performed the investigation, if
appropriate.
7. Show how you will make the measurements/observations and collect the data in order to record your
results.
8. Show how you will ensure your investigation is valid and reliable.
Results: Record and interpret your results.
1. Make accurate observations and measurements.

2. Choose a suitable way to record your results, for example, table, list, graph, paragraph.
Discussion: Explain your results in a clear and straightforward way. Discuss any unexpected results and try to
account for them (i.e. give reasons why these happened). Describe any trends or patterns in the data. Finally,
write your conclusions:
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S C I E N T I F I C RE PO RTS
Conclusions: Write down the conclusions that you can draw from the results you obtained. Do the results
agree with your original hypothesis? Do the results answer your question as you predicted? You need to state
whether your hypothesis was upheld or overthrown.
(Does it really matter if your hypothesis was wrong? No! It is equally valid to say what is not, as to say what
is! You have still done science!)
Evaluate: It is often very useful after an investigation, to evaluate your efforts. Ask questions such as: Was it
a fair test? Could there be another interpretation of my results? How accurate were my results? How can I
improve on this plan? And very importantly – now that I have shown this – what can I ask further? How can I
continue this investigation?
Main idea
A scientific report makes a scientists’ investigations available to the scientific community and
to society. It enables other scientists to replicate the study.
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PA RTS
Ethics in research
Growth of scientific knowledge depends on honesty in the scientific profession. Scientists are expected to
keep accurate records. Anyone can check the records. Another scientist should be able to replicate the
experiment and get similar results. Before a scientific paper is published, it is reviewed by other scientists.
These are all safeguards that make sure scientists are honest in their claims. Occasionally, a scientist is
caught out for making up data, or holding back information. A dishonest scientist can lose their job, and lose
the funding for their research. They may be barred from the scientific profession.
Ethics are moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the way we conduct an activity. Scientists
have moral principles. They make sure that experiments do not harm the environment, including all living
organisms and humans. Living organisms that are used in experiments are properly cared for. If research
involves humans, they must be fully informed about the purpose of the research. They must agree to
participate, and allowed to withdraw if they wish to.
Scientists should not conduct research that could endanger the lives of others or the environment without
their consent. This kind of research is not ethical.
One very important area of ethics in research relates to plagiarism. Plagiarism is academic theft. It is when
you pass off ideas and written/art work as your own without referencing the author.
By all means refer to the work of someone else, but do not copy their work. Use your own words to describe
their ideas and then reference them in your reports. If you use their words, put these words into quotation
marks. Quotes should not occupy more than 5% of a piece of your work.
At most academic institutions, if you are found guilty of plagiarism, you will receive no marks for that piece
of work, and you stand the risk of being banned from the institution.
Please consult your Student Guide to learn more about plagiarism and referencing the work of other people.
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E T H I CS I N RE S E A RC H
Activity 10: Writing your own scientific report and considering ethics
Suggested time:
30 minutes
Aim:
To determine if you are able to write a scientific report and analyse the ethics associated with the
investigation.
What you will do:

Read the following information and then answer each question carefully in your workbook under the heading
Activity 10.
Figure 14: Woodlouse
Thandi was playing in the garden. She found some bricks that had been left piled up against the shady side of
the house. She turned over the bricks and discovered some crawling segmented organisms. She wondered
what they were all doing under the bricks. When she turned over some bricks that were in the sunshine, she
noticed there were no organisms under these bricks. Maybe, Thandi thought, these animals like the cool and
damp place under the bricks in the shade. When Thandi was next online, she searched for images of
organisms similar to the ones she had seen in her garden. She discovered that the organisms were called
woodlice and that they were crustaceans. Thandi was very interested and decided to test her idea. She found a
cardboard box and put a layer of dry garden soil into the box. She made sure the soil was the same depth
across the box and that any bits of compost (which she thought the woodlice ate) were evenly distributed
across the box. She then sprinkled quite a bit of water onto the soil at the one end of the box. She then went
out and collected 20 woodlice. She put them in the middle of the box. She waited to see what happened. In the
beginning, the woodlice scurried about in all directions. However, over the course of one hour, Thandi noticed
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PA RTS
that the woodlice began to stay in the wetter part of the box. Once all the woodlice had collected in the damp
end of the box and stayed there for an hour, she gently collected them and again placed them into the middle
of the box. Thandi noticed the same thing happening again. She repeated her experiment twice more. Each
time the woodlice scurried about before finally all moving to the damp side of the box. Thandi concluded that
the woodlice prefer cooler damp environments. After she returned the woodlice to the same spot in the garden
where she found them, and watched them move to damp places and then burrow under rocks, bricks and
plants, she wondered if sunlight was also something that affected woodlice behaviour. . .
1. Write Thandi’s scientific report.

2. Comment on Thandi’s research ethics as you can infer them from the information provided.

This activity tasks you with taking a description of what a person did in an investigation, and seeing if you
can analyse the description and recognise the steps in the scientific method.
You also need to think about the responsibilities a person has when investigating live animals.
Suggested answers to this activity are given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit. You will find more
guidance in the answers.
Main idea
For scientists to trust each other and for society to trust science, there needs to be honesty
and transparency. Scientists must ensure that their research does not harm other humans,
living organisms or the environment.
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Answers
Activity 9
1. Investigation into the relationship between distance travelled and time as a ball rolls down a slope.
2. a. Results
b. Methods
c. Discussion
d. Introduction
1. The researcher repeated the investigation 10 times and calculated averages.
Activity 10
Although there will be variation in the final version of your research report, the basics should be the same!
1. Introduction: Here you will have identified the question and problem that Thandi identified. You should
have included a research question (Do these animals prefer the cool and damp place under the bricks in
the shade?) as well as research into the subject (She discovered that the organisms were called woodlice
and that they were crustaceans.) The hypothesis would also have been stated here: Woodlice prefer cool
damp environments.
Method: In this section, you would have described what Thandi used, as well as what she did as she carried
out her investigation. Also mention how the investigation was made a fair test, valid and reliable.
Results: Here you should indicate what Thandi discovered. You can present her results in a paragraph, as
there were no measurements made, only observations.
Discussion: Here you should include Thandi’s conclusions: that woodlice do prefer the cool, damp
environment to a dry, warm environment. You should also include Thandi’s reflection for further research:
that she wondered whether sunlight affects the behaviour of woodlice.
2. Because Thandi was working with living organisms, she has a responsibility, as a researcher, not to harm
the organisms. The information indicates that Thandi returned the woodlice to the same spot in the
garden where she found them. This indicates that she did not harm the woodlice and replaced them in the
environment. She also did not subject them to long periods of harsh testing in dry environments. She also
ensured they had compost in the experimental box, which she believed was their food source. It appears
then, that Thandi behaved ethically, as a researcher.
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Key Learning Points
The Topic Nature of Science focussed on the following key points:
• Science is more than a large body of knowledge. Science is a systematic process or way of investigating
the natural world and arriving at explanations.
• Scientific ideas are subject to change. We say that science is tentative and open to examination; it may
change if new facts emerge.
• Science is a collection of disciplines. Physics and Chemistry try to discover the natural laws that describe
how the non-living world works. Biology studies the living world, which is much more variable than the
non-living world. There are many areas of scientific investigation that overlap between these three
disciplines.
• Science adds value to our lives in helping us to understand the natural world, and to think logically.
Science benefits humans in providing improved health, new materials such as plastics, and new
technologies such as mobile phones. It enables us to marvel at the order in the natural world.
• Science is a gateway subject to many jobs. Science helps us make informed decisions at home, in our
communities and as a nation.
• Science only addresses questions that can be proved or disproved. Other questions fall outside the
boundaries of science.
• Scientific inquiry is based on observation and experimentation and although the investigation may take a
number of different forms, it most usually involves some basic steps called the scientific method.
• Observing natural events ‘with a scientific eye’ lies at the heart of how the scientific method both begins
and proceeds. Often instruments can help human observe things they are unable to observe naturally.
• Science works through statements that have increasing levels of certainty: hypothesis, theory, and law.
Hypotheses and theories generate predictions that can be tested to see if the hypothesis or theory is
supported.
• Experiments involve changing some aspect of a natural event and observing the effects of the change.
The experiment must be carefully designed to test only one variable at a time, while controlling other
variables, in order to ensure a fair test. Investigations must be valid and reliable to be considered fair
tests.
• Scientists must record data as accurately as possible. Observations and experiments must be replicable.
• If data collected from many experiments and observations agrees, a scientist draw a general conclusion
called an inference. If the conclusion supports the hypothesis then the hypothesis has been confirmed. If
the conclusion does not support the hypothesis, then the hypothesis has been overturned.
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K E Y PO I N TS
• Scientists try to be as unbiased as possible in their investigations and interpretation of their findings.
• A scientific report makes a scientists’ investigations available to the scientific community and to society.
It enables other scientists to replicate the study.
• For scientists to trust each other and for society to trust science, there needs to be honesty and
transparency. Scientists must ensure that their research does not harm other humans, living organisms or
the environment.
You have now completed a very brief look at the Nature of Science. You will now move onto the three
components that make up your Natural Sciences course: Biology, Chemistry and Physics.
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Module: Biology
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Topic 1: Biodiversity
Introduction
What do you think of when you hear or read the word biodiversity?
Figure 1: Biodiversity
Look at the image in Figure 1.
Use what you know and ideas from the picture to write 3-5 lines in your workbook explaining what you
understand by the term biodiversity under a heading ‘Introduction to Biodiversity’.
After working through Unit 1, you will return to the definition you wrote and add to it or correct it.
There is an enormous variety of different organisms [living things such as a plant or animal] on Earth, or in
the whole biosphere [any place on Earth where living organisms may be found]. Sometimes when biologists
talk about biodiversity, they mean the variety of species in the whole biosphere. However, they could limit
their description by referring to the biodiversity of a particular area or biome [a particular region where typical
groups of organisms live; biomes have particular climatic conditions]. You could refer to the biodiversity that
exists within your garden at home or the town or city in which you live. In a rural area, you could talk about
the biodiversity of a particular mountain or valley or river. When biologists use the word biodiversity they are
talking about the variety of different species in an area.
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TO PI C 1 : B I O D I V E RS I TY
Topic 1 comprises 3 units. The structure of the topic is depicted in the following diagram:
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Unit 1: Biodiversity and the Biomes of South Africa
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Learning Outcomes
1. Define the biosphere as all parts of the Earth on which life can exist.
2. Define a biome as an area with a characteristic climate and main types of vegetation.
3. Identify the nine major terrestrial biomes of South Africa on a map of South Africa.
4. Identify the major differences between the terrestrial biomes with reference to climate,
soils and main vegetation.
5. Explain the concept of adaptation, with reference to at least one example of a plant
from each biome.
6. Select one South African biome for detailed study (preferably the biome in which you
live), collect climatic data, type of soils, altitude, main vegetation and animal life in the
biome from Internet sources such as PlantZAfrica.com or books.
7. Describe threats to and conservation of the biome.
8. Write a comprehensive report on the biome, including drawings, photographs, and

graphs showing precipitation and temperature records.
9. Explain the classifications of plant species used in the Red List, and illustrate the
classifications with reference to the chosen biome (search for Red List on the SANBI
website).
10. Explain the concept of sustainability, and investigate one plant in South Africa that is
used by humans, and how it should be used sustainably (search for sustainable use of
plants on the SANBI website).
Introduction
This unit focuses on South Africa’s extremely rich biodiversity. Over the course of this Unit, you will become
more aware of South Africa’s biodiversity by exploring the different biomes of South Africa, and the variety of
species in the country. You will also consider threats to biodiversity and conservation efforts.
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I N T RO D UCT I O N
We will explore the following in this unit:
1. Definitions of the biosphere and biomes.
2. Factors defining biomes.
3. Exploring the biomes of South Africa.
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Definitions of the biosphere and biomes
The biosphere
Figure 2: The biosphere
Before reading further, make a heading called ‘The biosphere’ and answer the questions in Figure 2 in your
workbook.
Now study Figure 3 and add any new ideas to your understanding of what the biosphere is in your workbook.
Figure 3: Levels of organisation in the environment
How did you get on with that short exercise? Read through the notes that follow, and if necessary revise your
answers as you read. This kind of reading is called thoughtful reading. You are paying careful attention to
what you are reading and you are adding new knowledge as you revise your own notes.
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The biosphere is defined as all parts of the Earth where life exists. Life has been found below the Earth’s
surface, on the Earth’s surface, in freshwater rivers and dams, in the oceans, and even in the air. Life can
exist almost anywhere on Earth, even in the frozen north and south poles, in very hot volcanoes and in deep
caves.
The biosphere depends on energy from the sun. The process of photosynthesis [the process whereby green
organisms use sunlight energy to make carbohydrates (a complex molecule)] allows living organisms such
as plants to store energy in complex molecules. The plants use the stored energy to drive their life
processes. Animals eat the plants, and use the stored energy in plants to keep them alive.
Eventually, all living organisms die. Bacteria and fungi (also called decomposers) break down the complex
molecules, recycling their components in the environment.
Figure 4: Energy and matter in the biosphere
If you look carefully at Figure 4, you will see that energy can move into and out of the biosphere. Energy from
the Sun enters the biosphere. Energy is lost from the biosphere as heat. However, all matter recycles within
the biosphere.
Main idea
The biosphere is all parts of the Earth where life can exist. The biosphere receives energy from
the Sun, but all other requirements for life are recycled within the biosphere.
Defining biomes
Look back at Figure 3 and remind yourself of where a biome fits into the different levels of organisation in the
environment. Make a new heading in your workbook called ‘Biomes’. Before reading on, write down what you
understand a biome to be, after reflecting on Figure 3.
A biome is a region that is defined by the main type of plant life growing in the area. For example, the main
type of plant life may be grass in the Grassland biome, tall trees in the Forest biome, or succulent plants
[plants that have fleshy leaves, stems or roots]in the Succulent Karoo biome.
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Q UI Z
The type of plant life in a biome is controlled by the climate [the average weather conditions of an area over
many years] of the biome. Therefore, a biome is defined by the main type of plant life and the characteristic
climate of the region. Typical animals will also be found in the biome, linked to the plants that are there as
food sources.
Do you need to add to your note on what a biome is in your workbook, after reading the two paragraphs
above?
Main idea
A biome is a region that has a particular type of plant life, which is controlled by climatic
conditions.
Quiz
1. What is missing from the following definition of the biosphere? “The biosphere describes all life on earth.”
2. What is missing from the following definition of a biome? “A biome is a region where certain types of
plants can be found.”
1. This definition is missing the idea that the biosphere is a number of places or parts of the earth where
living organisms can be found. The biosphere is not only the living organisms themselves, but also the
habitats and regions where the organisms are found. It includes the water, the air, the soil etc.
2. This definition is missing the idea that the biome region is controlled by the climate zone. The kind of
climate that the region experiences will determine the types of plants (and animals) found in the area.
Make sure you are able to define the terms biosphere and biome before moving on!
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Factors defining biomes
Now that you have basic definitions of the terms biodiversity, biosphere and biome, in this Unit you will
explore factors that define a biome, particularly the biomes in South Africa.
Biomes of the world

There are nine major biomes in South Africa. Although you are going to focus your studies on South African
biomes, you need to realise that there are other biomes around the world that we don’t find in South Africa.
You also find biomes that are found in South Africa in other areas of the world.
This video gives you a very general introduction to biomes of the world, a number of which you may
recognise, even if we do not have these biomes in South Africa. The biomes of South Africa are not shown in
detail in this video, however, watch the video to gain knowledge about biomes all over the world:
All about biomes: (Duration: 6.47)
Which of the biomes described in the video interest you the most? Why do you think these biomes are
interesting? You can note your responses in your workbook, under the heading ‘Biomes’.
If the previous video interested you, when you have more time on hand, you can watch these two videos
which take you on a more in-depth tour of biomes of the world:
Biomes tour part 1: (Duration 11.30)
Biomes tour part 2: (Duration 11.06)
Now turn your attention to biomes in South Africa.
Climatic and soil factors define a biome

Earlier in the unit, you learnt that the climate controls the type of vegetation [plants] in a biome. Two
important climatic factors are the temperature in the region and the amount of moisture the biome receives.
We often refer to the moisture received as precipitation [water that falls from the clouds to the ground in
various forms such as rain, hail, snow]. The soil is also often characteristic of the biome. These factors
(climate and soil type) define the type of biome.
A biome is not restricted to a particular continent nor is it restricted to a particular hemisphere [a half of the
earth, usually as divided into northern and southern halves by the equator, or into western and eastern halves
by an imaginary line passing through the poles]. This is because a similar climatic condition can occur on
different continents and in different hemispheres. If the climatic conditions are similar, it is likely that the
vegetation will be similar and therefore, the animal life will also be similar (although actual species will be
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CLIM ATIC A N D S O I L FACTO RS D E F I N E A B I O M E
different). For example, desert conditions can be found on all continents and in both hemispheres. Have a
look at Figure 5.
Figure 5: Desert biomes of the world
The Kalahari desert (Southern Africa), the Sahara Desert (North Africa), the Great Australian Desert
(Australia) and the Gobi Desert (central Asia) are found in different places in the world, but they all belong to
the same biome. This is because the climatic conditions, soils and life forms in these deserts are very
similar.
South Africa’s climate varies across the country from west coast to east coast and from north to south.
South Africa also has coastal plains and high mountains, with a high plateau across the centre of the
country. The climate is different in each region across South Africa. These varied climatic conditions mean
that South Africa has a large diversity of biomes. Some of the climatic variations are:
• The eastern parts of the country receive more rainfall than the west.
• The eastern part of the country receives summer rainfall, while the west receives rain in winter.
• Temperatures in the mountains and the central plateau are more extreme than temperatures in lower-
lying coastal areas.
Soil type also plays an important role in the vegetation of a biome. Soils that are poor in nutrients tend to
have fewer and smaller plants than soils that are rich in nutrients. The amount of humus [decaying organic
matter] present in the soil greatly affects the kinds of plants that grow in that soil. Humus enriches the soil,
particularly with nitrogen, which is essential for healthy plant growth. Some soils are acidic and some are
more alkaline. This also affects the kinds of plants that grow in these soils. The size of the particles of soil
affect how much water the soil can retain. South Africa has a variety of different soil types. You will learn
more about the different soil types in each of the biomes in South Africa later in this Unit.
The graphs that follow in Figure 6 show rainfall and temperature in Durban (east coast) and Cape Town
(west coast), which are cities in two different biomes in South Africa. Durban lies in the Indian Ocean Coastal
Belt, while Cape Town is in the Fynbos biome. (You will learn more about these biomes later in this Unit).
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Figure 6 Graphs showing average rainfall and temperature in Durban and Cape Town
There is an enormous variety of different organisms [living things such as a plant or animal] on Earth, or in
the whole biosphere [any place on Earth where living organisms may be found]. Sometimes when biologists
talk about biodiversity, they mean the variety of species in the whole biosphere. However, they could limit
their description by referring to the biodiversity of a particular area or biome [a particular region where typical
groups of organisms live; biomes have particular climatic conditions]. You could refer to the biodiversity that
exists within your garden at home or the town or city in which you live. In a rural area, you could talk about
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the biodiversity of a particular mountain or valley or river. When biologists use the word biodiversity they are
talking about the variety of different species in an area.
Activity 1: Analysing temperature and rainfall graphs
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
Analysing graphs and other sources of data is an important activity of science. You will analyse
these graphs in order to better understand the ways in which two aspects of climate: rainfall and
temperature, define the biome.
What you will do:

Answer each question carefully in your workbook under the heading Activity 1. Use the graphs in Figure 6 to
answer the questions.
1. Which city receives more rainfall over the year? How did you work this out?
2. Compare [show how two or more things are the same as well as different] the seasonal difference in
rainfall pattern between the two cities.
3. Find the three months of the year in each city, when the highest number of rainfall days are experienced.
a. Which city experiences the most rainy days in these three high rainfall months?
b. Describe [give clear and direct details about a thing or process] in a paragraph how you obtained your
results.
4. Which city is hotter during the day during the winter months?
5. Which city experienced colder nights during winter?
6. Would a plant that is not able to tolerate temperatures below 10 °C be able to grow in either city? Explain
your answer.
7. Would a plant requiring high levels of water during the hot summer months be able to grow naturally in
either city? Explain your answer.
8. Why are there spaces between the bars on the rainfall graphs? (HINT: Look in the student guide at the
section on drawing graphs).
9. What is the independent variable (see the Nature of Science module) on the temperature graphs? Explain
your answer.
Guidelines for completing the activity

When you are faced with a ‘data response question’, like this one, there are some things you can do to ensure
you answer the question well.
1. Make sure you read any given information that will help you to make sense of the graphs/data.
2. Carefully study the graphs/data before you read the questions. Make sure you know what it is you are
looking at. Get clues from the titles of the graphs/data tables, and from any labels or headings in the
data.
3. After you have familiarised yourself with the graph/data, move onto the questions. Answer each question
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in full, supplying reasons when asked for them. Use the graph to provide reasons. Refer to the graph in
your answer.
4. Read the questions carefully and look at the action verbs that tell you how you need to answer: you need
to explain, describe or compare things, for example. In this activity, you are helped with the meanings of
these action verbs, but you need to learn what the action verbs mean and what the expectation is in terms
of your answer.
5. Read your answer once you have written it to make sure you have answered what was asked.
6. In a data response type question/activity, expect questions relating to the content/data, as well as
questions relating to the graph, variables, scientific method etc.

In this activity, you had to analyse and interpret graphs showing data. This is an important part of doing
science. Graphs help us to understand the relationship between the variables under investigation. In this
case, your variables were temperature and rainfall in two different cities.
Main idea
Climate and soil control the type of vegetation that grows in a biome. South Africa has great
diversity of climate and soil types across the country.
The major terrestrial biomes of South Africa
There are nine major terrestrial [on or of dry land; as opposed to aquatic which refers to in or of water]
biomes in South Africa:
• Fynbos
• Succulent Karoo
• Desert
• Nama Karoo
• Grassland
• Savanna
• Albany Thicket
• Indian Ocean Coastal Belt
• Forest
Most of these biomes are commonly found in other parts of the world. The Albany Thicket and Indian Ocean
Coastal Belt are less commonly found globally.
(Your curriculum requires you to study terrestrial biomes only. Don’t forget that South Africa has a very long
coastline with the Ocean biome being extremely important. South Africa also has many inland aquatic
biomes of great importance.)
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As you work through the rest of this Unit, the following two websites are useful in providing interactive maps
and information on the major biomes in South Africa. If you would like to extend your knowledge, you can
refer to these websites to assist you as you work through the information provided in the notes. Remember
that public libraries often have free internet access!
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape
South African National Biodiversity Institute
Figure 7: The major terrestrial biomes of South Africa
Figure 7 is a map showing the major terrestrial biomes in South Africa. You should use the key on the map to
familiarise yourself with where each of the biomes is located.
Notice that there are no clear, straight-line boundaries between different biomes. Sometimes bits of one
biome are located inside another biome. Remember that the biomes are determined by climatic conditions
and soil types. Altitude [height above sea level] also plays a role in determining a biome.
To help orientate yourself, use a political map of South Africa and locate some of the major cities in South
Africa, such as Cape Town, Durban, Bloemfontein, Tshwane, Johannesburg etc. See which biome these cities
fall into on Figure 7.
Activity 2: The terrestrial biomes of South Africa
Suggested time:
10 minutes
Aim:
This short activity will help you to familiarise yourself with where the terrestrial biomes of South
Africa are located.
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CLIMATE, S OILS AN D M A I N V E G E TAT I O N I N E AC H B I O M E O F S O UT H A F RI C A
What you will do:

You will do this activity in your workbook, under the heading Activity 2
Locate each biome using the colour key on the map (Figure 7). Then use the map to answer the following
questions.
1. Find approximately where you live on the map. In which biome do you live?
2. Name the three largest biomes in South Africa.
3. Name two biomes that occur only in the western and southern part of the country.
4. Which are South Africa’s smallest and second smallest biomes?

How well do you know South Africa and the different biomes that can be found in South Africa? In this task,
you will be analysing information given to you in one form (a map) and putting your answers into words.
This is a simple activity, requiring you to study the map and the key carefully. The key provides you with a way
to identify the different zones or biomes on the map, which are indicated by different colours.
If you have a gray-scale printed map, it may be a good idea to source a colour version online
at http://redlist.sanbi.org/stats.php. The biomes are much easier to locate on a colour map.
Main idea
South Africa has nine major biomes.
Climate, soils and main vegetation in each biome of South Africa

This website address will take you to an extract of a textbook which has excellent colour photos of the
different biomes. You will also find some extra information in this textbook to help you as you complete
Activity 3.
Life Sciences Grade 10
Other websites dedicated to specific biomes are given at the relevant places in the text.
Activity 3: Comparing the terrestrial biomes of South Africa
Suggested time:
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75 minutes including reading time
Aim:
To consolidate information on terrestrial biomes
What you will do:

1. This activity will help you to consolidate [combine a number of things into a single more effective or
coherent whole] all the information you are going to read in these notes on the biomes.
2. Consolidating the information into a table [show information in a clear and simple way in rows and
columns; ideal for comparisons; for study purposes, use different colours in the table to help you
remember] will mean that the work is far easier to revise closer to exams.
3. You will need access to the internet to consult the sources on terrestrial biomes listed earlier, and find the
distribution maps.
4. Do the activity in your workbook under the heading Activity 3. You may find it easier to create your table in
landscape (i.e. turn your page sideways), or to work on double sheets of A4 paper which you can later
attach into your workbook.
5. Use the map (Figure 7), the notes that describe the different biomes below (Fynbos, Succulent Karoo
etc.), as well as the website references given, to build a summary comparison table.
Here is an idea for the headings of your table:
Table 1: Table comparing the different terrestrial biomes of South Africa
Biome Distribution Climate Soil type/s Typical plants Typical animals Other
Don’t simply copy all the given notes into your table. You must summarise the information effectively. You
can find more information on summarising in the Student Guide.
Fynbos
For more information to extend your knowledge and to see some excellent photographs, you can consult the
following websites. Remember that public libraries often provide free internet access.
Fynbos is our local name for the temperate scrubland biome. It is known by other names in other countries,
for example, Australia calls it the mallee, Chile names it the matorral, and in North America it is known as the
chaparral. It is known as the maquis in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
Distribution
Fynbos occupies the mountains and coastal lowlands of the Western Cape, and coastal portions of the
Eastern Cape Province, to the west of Port Elizabeth.
Climate
Fynbos is found in the winter rainfall region of South Africa. The biome has cool, wet winters and hot, dry
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summers. Annual rainfall varies through the fynbos biome. There are high winds throughout the year. Fire is
an important component of this biome and there are intense fires about every 15 years that help maintain the
plant community composition.
Soils
The soil is very sandy and rocky and it drains well, meaning it does not retain much water. Fynbos soils are
extremely low in nutrients, lacking minerals and organic matter. Soil type, together with interactions between
climate and fire, determine the boundaries of the fynbos biome.
Vegetation
The name fynbos (meaning “fine bush”) refers to the large number of small-leaved evergreen shrubs in this
biome. Fynbos vegetation includes many types of protea, erica and restio. These plants have very small, hard
leaves, which hold moisture. They have root systems designed to get as much water as possible. The plants
are also very well adapted to fires. The fynbos biome has extremely high plant diversity (with almost 9 000
species), approximately 70% of which are endemic species [a species that occurs in one particular place and
is found nowhere else in the world].
Fauna [animal life]

Animals include the Cape sugarbird, protea-seed eater, grysbok, bontebok, Cape gerbil, geometric tortoise
and Victoria’s warbler. Baboons, leopards, lynxes, porcupines and eagles are found in the mountains of this
biome. Prolific [abundant, plentiful] insect life.
Succulent Karoo
Distribution
The Succulent Karoo occurs along the western coast of South Africa, and inland along the northern border of
the Fynbos biome.
Climate
The Succulent Karoo biome occurs in the dry winter rainfall region of the country. The Succulent Karoo
experiences low winter rainfall, with only 20 to 290 mm of rain per year. Winters are cool but frost rarely
occurs in this biome. It is extremely hot and dry in summer, with temperatures frequently over 40˚C. Fog
occurs along the coast, and this is an important source of water for organisms in the Succulent Karoo. Hot,
dry winds blow throughout the year.
Soils
The soils of the Succulent Karoo are rich in lime and occur in a thin layer on top of a rock base. They contain
little organic matter and are therefore not very fertile.
Vegetation
The Succulent Karoo is a hotspot [a region with a high level of biodiversity, particularly endemic species] of
plant diversity. Over 6 300 species of plants have been recorded, of which 38% are endemic. This biome is
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characterised by dwarf succulent shrubs, including vygies and stone plants. These succulent plants have
thick, fleshy leaves that store water. Grasses grow in the sandy areas.
Many annual plants [plants that live for one season only] such as daisies flower in the spring. Annual plants
survive the dry period in the form of seeds and only germinate after rainfall. This biome is an area of
outstanding natural beauty because of the mass flowering of plants in the spring after rains. Many tourists
visit the Succulent Karoo biome to see the spring flowers.
Fauna
The dassie rat, Namaqua dune mole rat bat eared fox and meerkat, as well as birds such as starlings and the
Cape francolin occur here, along with many insects and reptiles.
Desert
following website.
Distribution
Although much of South Africa is arid or semi-arid (environments with very little water), only a very small
area is classified as true desert. The Desert biome of South Africa occurs in the Northern Cape Province
along the lower Orange River valley. This biome includes sandy plains along the Atlantic coast. Further
inland, the Desert biome includes the Richtersveld, a rocky and mountainous habitat that is the only arid
biodiversity hotspot on Earth.
Climate
The Desert biome has a harsh climate. In the summer, temperatures can reach up to 53°C in the daytime,
while at night the temperatures are very low. The western portion of the desert biome falls within the winter
rainfall zone of South Africa, while the eastern portion is in the summer rainfall zone. Mean annual rainfall
ranges from approximately 10 mm in the west to 80 mm inland. Thick fog is an important feature of this
biome. The fog is critical for maintaining the high level of biodiversity found in the Desert biome.
Soils
The soils in the desert biome of South Africa are not very fertile due to the fact that there is little organic
matter. They vary from sand in the west to thin soils on a rock base in the east.
Vegetation
The vegetation of the desert biome includes many annual plants – especially grasses – that survive through
dry periods in the form of seeds. When rain falls, the seeds of the annual plants germinate and they complete
their life cycle quickly before dying.
Perennial plants [plants that live for more than two years] are also present. The perennial plants that grow in
the desert have adaptations that allow them to survive with very little water. Many of the perennial plants in
deserts are succulent, with special structures that allow them to store water in their leaves or roots. One
plant species that occurs only in the Richtersveld is the Halfmensboom. Literally translated, the name “half-
person tree” because it looks like a human.
Fauna
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There are many insects, spiders, scorpions and reptiles in this area; many are nocturnal hiding in burrows
during the day.
Nama Karoo
South African National Biodiversity Institute:
Distribution
The Nama Karoo is found on the central plateau of the western half of South Africa. This biome falls within
the summer rainfall zone and its distribution is determined primarily by rainfall.
Climate
The Nama Karoo is an arid to semi-arid region. Rainfall is scarce and varies between about 200 mm per year
in the west to over 400 mm per year in the north-east. Rivers in the Nama Karoo only have water in them
immediately after rains have fallen. It is very hot in the summer and cold in the winter, with frequent frost.
Soils
The soils of the Nama Karoo are rich in lime but form only a thin layer on top of a rock base. They contain
little organic matter and are therefore not very fertile.
Vegetation
The vegetation of the Nama Karoo consists mostly of grasses and small shrubs. Trees such as Acacia karoo
occur only along rivers. There is relatively low plant diversity in this biome and fires are rare.
Fauna
In the past vast herds of springbok used to migrate through the region in search of water and grazing. These
herds were destroyed and replaced with sheep by early settlers who came to the area and began farming.
The Nama Karoo is famous for sheep and goat farming. In the main river valleys, people also farm olives,
citrus and deciduous fruit.
Grassland
following websites.
Distribution
Grassland occurs mainly on the high central plateau and the inland areas of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern
Cape. The biome extends from sea level to altitudes greater than 3 000 m, with landscapes that vary from
flat plains to mountains.
Climate
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Grassland is found within the summer rainfall zone. Heavy thunderstorms and hail occur during the rainy
season. Rainfall ranges from 400 mm to more than 1 200 mm per year. Temperatures are also highly variable
throughout the biome. Some areas experience frost and snow during the winter, while other parts are frost-
free.
Soils
The soils that occur in grasslands tend to be deep and rich in nutrients. Grassland areas are frequently used
for agriculture.
Vegetation
Grasslands are dominated by grasses and other low-growing plants, including many showy flowers that
survive dry periods as underground bulbs. Trees occur only along rivers and protected valleys. Frost, fire and
grazing maintain grass dominance and prevent trees from growing in other areas. Plant diversity is high in
this biome, with approximately 3 400 plant species occurring in the central grassland region.
Fauna
In the past, Grasslands were home to large herds of animals like the black wildebeest, blesbok and eland.
Today these animals mainly survive in nature reserves and on game farms. Grasslands are rich in birds,
many of which eat seeds, e.g. Black Korhaan, Blue Crane and Helmeted Guinea fowl. Many plant-eating
insects. Nearly half of the original Grassland Biome has been ploughed up to plant maize, sunflowers,
sorghum and wheat. Grassland also supports livestock farming, including cattle and sheep. Most of Gauteng
and the Mpumalanga highveld are found in the Grassland Biome. Much of this region has been developed for
mining, industry and urban development.
Savanna
following websites.
Distribution
Savanna is the largest biome in South Africa, covering about one-third of the land. Savanna is found in
northern regions of the country, including the lowveld and Kalahari, as well as in parts of KwaZulu-Natal and
the Eastern Cape.
Climate
Savanna occurs in the summer rainfall zone. Summers are wet and winters are dry. This biome receives from
235 mm per year in the west to 1 000 mm per year in the east. The climate is tropical to subtropical, with
higher temperatures than the grassland biome. Fires occur frequently.
Soils
Savanna soils vary greatly depending on the location. In the dry Kalahari region, soils are sandy and deep.
Areas of savanna with higher rainfall tend to have more shallow soils. Soil fertility is generally low.
Vegetation
Savanna vegetation consists of a lower layer dominated by grasses, with scattered shrubs and trees. Thorn
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trees grow throughout the savanna, with baobab and mopane trees in the north. There is high plant diversity,
with 3 800 species in the moist savannas and 3 300 in the dry savannas. Climate, fire and grazing maintain
the characteristic grass-tree structure of the savanna biome.
Fauna
Large game animals such as lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, buffalo, rhino, giraffe, wide range of antelope,
plains zebra and numerous birds. Large game reserves like the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Kruger
National Park are found in this region.
Albany thicket
following websites.
Distribution
Albany Thicket occurs in semi-arid parts of the Eastern and Western Cape provinces. Thicket is sometimes
considered part of the savanna biome but recent vegetation classifications have identified it as a distinct
biome.
Climate
The Albany Thicket biome is found at the transition zone between the winter and summer rainfall regions of
South Africa. Rainfall occurs throughout the year, although rain is unpredictable and the totals are relatively
low (200 to 950 mm per year). Inland areas experience temperatures exceeding 40˚C in the summer and
have frost in the winter. The ocean moderates the extreme temperatures in the coastal parts of this biome.
Fog in coastal regions maintains the rich lichen community. Fire is not an essential component of this biome
and many of the succulent plant species found here are resistant to burning.
Soils
The soils in Albany Thicket vary across the biome, from sand dunes along the coast to deep sandy soils
further inland. The soils are typically poor in nutrients.
Vegetation
The vegetation of the Albany Thicket is generally dense, with succulent, woody and spiny plants that grow to
a height of 2-3 m. Characteristic plant species include euphorbias, aloes and spekboom. Plant diversity is
high, with many endemic species.
Fauna
Variable animals such as antelope, elephant, monkeys, insects and birds.
Indian Ocean Coastal Belt

following website. Remember that public libraries often provide free internet access.
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Distribution
The Indian Ocean Coastal Belt runs from the South Africa-Mozambique border in the north to the mouth of
the Great Kei River (near East London) in the south. This biome occupies a narrow coastal strip that extends
from sea level to an altitude of approximately 600 m inland. Indian Ocean Coastal Belt has a distinctive
vegetation structure and climate that separates it from other biomes.
Climate
Indian Ocean Coastal Belt has a subtropical climate. It falls within the summer rainfall zone of the country
but there is some rainfall throughout the year. Annual precipitation ranges from 800 to 1300 mm per year,
making it the biome with the highest average rainfall. Summers are very hot, while winters are warm and
mild. Fires are rare in this biome.
Soils
The soils of the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt are generally sands with poor soil development. Many parts of this
biome occur on sand dunes or the coastal plain.
Vegetation
The Indian Ocean Coastal Belt is a component of the Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany biodiversity hotspot,
including both the Maputaland and Pondoland Centres of Endemism. The vegetation includes coastal forest,
dwarf shrubland, thicket and grassland. Important plant species include cycads, red-hot pokers, bitter aloe,
and bird-of-paradise flower.
Fauna
Small mammals such as monkeys, reptiles, birds and insects.
Forest
following websites.
Distribution
Forest is the smallest biome in South Africa. Forests have a patchy distribution along the eastern
Escarpment from the Soutpansberg in the north to the Cape Peninsula in the south. South African forests are
naturally quite small and fragmented and most cover areas less than 1 km2. Some of the best-known
examples of South African forests include the Knysna and Tsitsikamma forests in the southern Cape and
Ongoye forest in KwaZulu-Natal.
Climate
Forests occur in both the winter and summer rainfall zones, with some forests receiving rainfall throughout
the year. The climate is generally temperate, with fairly small changes in temperature between winter and
summer. Fires are rare in South African forests because they have high humidity.
Soils
The soils of forests are generally fertile, with high amounts of organic matter.
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Vegetation
Almost all the indigenous trees found in South African forests are evergreen, meaning that they hold on to
their leaves year-round. Forests have many different layers. Very tall trees form a canopy; shorter trees form
a sub-canopy; and low shrubs, ferns and herbaceous plants grow at ground level, forming the understorey
layer. Some of the most important tree species found in forests include yellowwoods and black stinkwood.
Although the forest biome is quite small, it has the second richest plant species diversity per unit area, after
fynbos.
Fauna
Numerous insect species, birds and small mammals such as bushpig, bushbuck and monkeys. The canopy
is a perfect habitat for birds such as the Knysna loeries, pigeons and eagle.

You will need to read a great deal of text in this activity. How will you remember this information? There
seems to be so much writing! An excellent way to consolidate [combine a number of things into a single
more effective or coherent whole] and summarise all the information in these notes on the biomes is to
insert just the most important information into a table. Tabulating the information will mean that the work is
far easier to revise closer to exams. Tabulation skills are covered in your Study Guide, so have a look there if
you are unsure of how to proceed in making a table.
Draw up your table outline first. You will find that your table becomes very large. Try using a double page in
your workbook, or sticking two sheets of exam pad paper together.
Table comparing the different terrestrial biomes of South Africa
Fynbos
Then, as you read through each biome and study the pictures that have been referenced, enter the
information for that biome into the table.
Move onto the next biome.
You should now have a very comprehensive and complete, well organised table, which will provide you with a
good study tool! Tables may take some time to compile, but they are well worth the effort.
A suggested table is given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit. Remember that your table may not look
identical to the one given in the Answer Key, but check to see that all the important details have been
included in your table.
Quiz
You have read through many descriptions of the different terrestrial biomes and you have compiled your
summary table. But how much information did you absorb and can you remember the details?
Take a few minutes to re-read your comparison table.
Now answer these questions under the comparison table in your workbook.
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Choose the biome or biomes that match each of the following descriptions. The first one has been done for
you.
1. Most rain falls in the winter.

Answer: Fynbos, Succulent Karoo, Desert
2. Fire plays an important part role in these biomes.
3. Winter is very cold with frequent frost.
4. Soils tend to be fertile.
5. Vegetation consists of grass with scattered trees and shrubs.
6. Famous for the colourful flowers in spring.
7. Rain falls mostly in the summer.
8. Mostly in the highveld areas that experience frost in the winter.
9. Fog plays an important role in these biomes.
10. Vegetation consists of evergreen, succulent, spiny trees and shrubs.
11. Annual rainfall is extremely low (10 mm – 80 mm).

1. Answer is given.
2. Fynbos, savanna, grassland.
3. Grassland, Albany thicket, Nama Karoo.
4. Forest, grassland.
5. Savanna.
6. Succulent Karoo.
7. Indian Ocean Coastal Belt, Savanna, Grassland, Nama Karoo.
8. Grassland.
9. Albany Thicket, Desert, Succulent Karoo.
10. Albany Thicket.
11. Desert
Main idea
Each biome has characteristic climate, soils and vegetation.
Adaptations of plants to different biomes

Adaptations are special features of organisms that help them to survive in their environment. Plants are
adapted to the climate and soils of the biome in which they live.
Make a heading in your workbook: ‘Plant adaptations to different biomes’.
Answer the following question in your workbook, using what you already know:
Why do plants need to be adapted to their environments?
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You have seen that several of the terrestrial biomes have harsh climatic conditions such as very hot
summers, low rainfall, frost etc. Some of the biomes have poor soils. Plants need to have structures that
allow them to cope in these biomes.
Watch this video which explains the very basic information about plant adaptations: Adaptations of plants
and extremophiles: (Duration 1.51)
(The video also introduces you to adaptations by a group of bacteria called extremophiles. These bacteria
live in environmental conditions that are very extreme. However, focus mainly on the plant adaptations in this
video.) As you watch the video, stop it occasionally to note down some of the important environmental
challenges plants face. What solutions to these challenges are offered in the video?
Now you will turn your attention to the different biomes in South Africa and focus on how the plants are
adapted to the conditions in the biomes. You may wish to revisit the websites referred to earlier, and focus
your attention on the photographs of the plants in the biomes. See if you can recognise the adaptations (as
described in the notes that follow) in the photographs of the relevant plants. You may wish to make simple
annotated sketches [simple line diagrams with labels and extra explanatory notes that make the diagram
more meaningful] in your workbook.
Fynbos
Plants of the fynbos biome are adapted to winter rainfall, hot dry summers, poor soils, and fire. Plants are
adapted to save water and survive fire. The reeds and grass of the fynbos biome have small leaves or no
leaves and tough, wiry stems. Many of the shrubby plants have small, narrow, rolled leaves. The proteas have
broad leaves and thick bark. The thick bark helps proteas to survive fires.
Succulent Karoo Biome

Plants of the Succulent Karoo are adapted to low rainfall, and very hot, dry summers. The main plants are
small succulent shrubs. Vygies are a good example. They have fleshy leaves that store water.
Nama Karoo Biome

Plants of the Nama Karoo biome are adapted to little rain, hot summers and cold winters. Frost affects the
plants in winter. Most plants are low shrubs and grasses. Many plants lose their leaves when rain does not
fall. This is an adaptation to the dry climate.
Grassland
Plants of the Grassland biome are adapted to winter frost, fire and grazing. Grasses are well adapted to these
conditions. They have an underground stem that can survive fire, frost and grazing. The leaves die off in
winter, enabling the plants to survive frost.
Desert Biome
Plants of the desert biome are adapted to very harsh climatic conditions. Desert plants are mostly annuals.
They survive the dry conditions as seeds. After rain, the seeds germinate quickly and the plant completes its
life cycle in a few weeks.
Savanna
Plants of the Savanna biome are adapted to low rainfall and fire. Acacia thorn trees are common in South
African savanna. They have small leaves that help reduce water loss. The thorns discourage animals from
eating them. Some acacias have thick bark that enables the plants to survive fire.
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Albany Thicket Biome

Plants in the Albany Thicket Biome are adapted to fairly low rainfall. A typical plant of Albany Thicket is the
spekboom. It has succulent leaves that store water.
Forest biome
Unlike most of the biomes of South Africa, forests receive high rainfall, no frost, and rarely have fires. Forest
plants compete for light. Trees such as yellowwood trees grow very tall to reach the light. The trees have a
sturdy trunk to support the height of the tree. The leaves are dense on the branches.
Indian Ocean coastal belt

The Indian Ocean coastal belt biome is a mixture of grasslands, forest and thicket. Close to the sea, the
vegetation is affected by salt spray and wind. A plant that is typical of this biome is the Natal wild banana. It
has enormous leaves that tear in the wind. It forms clumps of plants, each plant growing from its
underground stem. The clumps protect the plants from the wind.
Main idea
Plants are adapted to the climatic conditions of each biome.
Activity 4: Recognising plant adaptations in a biome
Suggested time:
10 minutes
Aim:
This short activity tests whether you can apply what you have learnt about plant adaptations in a
particular biome to an example of a plant.
What you will do:

Write a heading Activity 4.
Study Figure 8, the photographs of the halfmens plant (Pachydodium namaquanum), and then answer the
questions that follow.
This plant is called a ‘halfmens’ because its unusual shape makes it look like a person. The word ‘halfmens’
means half person.
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Figure 8: Photographs of halfmens plants (Pachypodium namaquanum)
(Javier Ábalos Alvarez; Winfried Bruenken; Daderot)
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1. In which biome/s are you most likely to find the halfmens plant? Explain your reasoning.
2. Analyse the photographs to find adaptations to the biome you named in question 1. List the adaptations.
For each adaptation in your list, describe the adaptation with reasons as to why it is an adaptation to the
biome.
3. Traditional hunters in Namibia (where this plant also grows) use the sap from the stem on poison arrows.
Hypothesise [give a possible explanation for something observed] why having poisonous sap is an
adaptation to the biome the plant is found in.

Being able to apply what you have learnt to a real life example, is a very important skill. If you can apply your
knowledge to a new context or situation means that you understand what you have learned. Often questions
in examinations require you to apply your knowledge in this way.
Read the supporting information and study the photos carefully before you start answering the questions. In
your head, try and associate what you read and see with a biome you have learned about. By doing this, you
are processing the new information you are reading about and seeing in the photographs.
Then move onto the questions.
Think carefully about what you have learned and relate this knowledge to the new example.
Classification of plant species according to the Red List

The Red List is a scientific system designed by the IUCN [International Union for Conservation of Nature] to
measure a species’ risk of extinction [when no members of a particular species are living]. The purpose of
the Red List is to identify species that most need conservation [to preserve and protect something]. There are
nine categories of the Red List, ranging from Extinct to Not Evaluated. This is a shortened and simplified
version, that we will use in this course:
• Extinct species no longer live. If a species is extinct from the whole planet, this means no members of the
species are alive anywhere. A species might be extinct in the wild, but living in cultivation or captivity. A
species may be extinct in a region where it previously occurred.
• Threatened species are those that face a high risk of extinction.
• Species of Conservation concern are all those categorised as extinct in the wild or extinct in a region
through to those where there is insufficient data to categorise them.
• Species are classified as Least Concern when they are at low risk of extinction. They do not require
conservation.
If you have the time and would like to extend your knowledge, you can search the Red List yourself: South
African National Biodiversity Institute.
In the 2015 survey, almost 75% of South Africa’s plant species were classified as least concern. However,
0,2% were extinct, 13,4% were threatened, and 11,8% were of conservation concern. Most species that need
conservation are in the fynbos and succulent karoo biomes, followed by grassland and savanna biomes.
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CL ASS IF ICATION O F PL A N T S PE C I E S ACCO RD I N G TO T H E RE D L I ST
The Red List is important when new developments are planned. Before a development, such as a new
industrial site or a new urban area can go ahead, the natural vegetation is evaluated to make sure the
development does not affect a threatened species.
The most important threat to plant diversity is loss of habitat, when the natural vegetation is destroyed.
Reasons for habitat loss are:
• Developments such as mining, agriculture, urbanisation, roads and forestry;

• Overgrazing;
• Fires that burn the habitat too frequently or at the wrong time of the year;
• Invasive alien plant species that grow faster than indigenous plants;
• Harvesting plants for medicinal purposes and for gardens or collectors;
• Pollution;
• Climate change.
Main idea
The Red List is used to identify organisms that are threatened with extinction and therefore
need special conservation measures.
Activity 5: Classifying organisms according to the Red List categories
Suggested time:
10 minutes
Aim:
This short activity will check whether you have understood what you have read about the Red List
classification system.
What you will do:

You will do this activity in your workbook, under the heading Activity 5
Read each statement. Decide whether the statement indicates that the organism referred to is extinct,
threatened, a species of conservation concern or a least concern species.
1. Seventeen of the 243 mammal species in South Africa face a high risk of extinction.
2. The quagga is an animal that looks similar to a zebra. No living quaggas exist anywhere on earth.
3. The hadedah ibis is a bird that is increasing in numbers in urban habitats.
4. Cape vultures are rapidly decreasing in number because of poisoning by farmers and the muthi trade.
5. Baboon colonies are increasing in parts of South Africa.
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6. Halfmens plants are decreasing in the desert biome because of plant collecting by people who want the
plant growing in their gardens.
7. Pepperbark trees are very valuable for traditional medicine. There are no longer any pepperbark trees
growing in the wild in South Africa. This plant is therefore … in the wild.
8. The Common Hook Thorn tree is widespread throughout South Africa.
9. Although locally common, Restio species occur in the fynbos biome which is a biome that needs
protection.
10. Balanites, or the green thorn tree: A large amount of habitat has been lost in northern KwaZulu-Natal and
there is significant bark harvesting for the commercial medicinal plant trade. The plant, though plentiful,
shows poor wound recovery. The species is declining and should be monitored.

The Red List showed you how to view different organisms, depending on how threatened or endangered they
are. In this activity, you will once again apply what you have learned to some specific examples. This will test
whether you have understood what you have read about.
It is important to read the statements carefully so that you are able to assess each statement according to
what you have learnt about the Red List classification categories.
If you are puzzled or stuck on a statement, re-read the description of the different categories ranging from
Extinct to Not Evaluated in the text. Decide which of the categories best suits the organism in the statement.
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R ES EA RC H I N G A B I O M E I N S O UT H A F RI C A
Exploring the biomes of South Africa
You should now have a very clear understanding of what a biome is and what factors define a biome. You
also have made a comprehensive study of the different terrestrial biomes in South Africa. In this unit you will
further investigate a particular biome. You will also identify organisms (in particular plants) that are
threatened with extinction in some biomes.
Researching a biome in South Africa

What’s an assignment?
The next activity is an assignment that requires you to do independent research. This means
that you will need to use books and the internet to examine and explore the given topic.
• You must make rough notes relating to the topic and what you discover from your research.
You will then need to select the relevant information and put all this data together (collate
it) into a comprehensive report.
• The instructions ask for diagrams, photographs and graphs. Make sure you include these
too.
• You must list all the sources and references you used at the end of the report.
• Make sure that your report focuses precisely on what the activity asked you to do. A rubric
is given to show how your assignment will be assessed. Make sure that you have
addressed all the criteria in the rubric, so that you can obtain the best possible marks! How
do you obtain the marks given in the different columns for this activity? What does it mean
to ‘meet the requirements’ ? Let’s look at the ’Description of animals’ aspect of the report
(row 9 of the rubric), as an example.
• ‘Meets all the requirements’: This means that you have fulfilled the criterion given
perfectly. For example, if the criterion was ‘Description of animals’, to obtain the full 4
marks, you must name the animals and describe them in a little detail. You should have
listed their foods and some of their habits. You included diagrams or photographs.
• If you only met some of the requirements, you would achieve 3 of the possible marks
for this criterion. So let’s say you left out diagrams or photographs, but all your other
information was correct, then you might achieve 3 marks in the ‘Meets some
requirements’ column.
• If you did not include photographs of the animals, and you also could not describe their
habits fully, you may then achieve 2 marks under the ‘Meets a few requirements’
column.
• What if you only named the animals in the biome and gave no further information? You
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would only receive 1 mark in the ‘Present, but does not meet the requirements’ column.
• If you did not cover any form of description of animals in the biome, you would receive
0, in the ‘Absent’ column, as you did not cover this requirement at all.
Activity 6: Research assignment on a biome
Suggested time:
6 hours
Aim:
To produce a comprehensive report on one biome of South Africa, including drawings, photographs
and graphs showing rainfall and temperature records for the biome.
You will need your workbook, pen, pencil and a ruler. You will also need access to the internet and/or the
library.
Remember that most public libraries offer free wifi and internet access.
What you will do:

1. Select a biome that you would like to study. It should preferably be the biome in which you live. Name and
briefly describe this biome.
2. Collect data about the climate, soils, and altitude of the biome. Some resources you can use are:
a. Knobel, J. & Bredenkamp, G. 2006. The Magnificent Natural Heritage of South Africa. Roggebaai:
Sunbird Publishers.
b. http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/bdc321/ekapa%20cape%20towns%20lowlands/biomes/
intro.htm#2
c. http://pza.sanbi.org/vegetation
d. http://www.everythingmaths.co.za/science/lifesciences/grade-10/08-biosphere-to-ecosystems/
08-biosphere-to-ecosystems-03.cnxmlplus
e. You can find tables showing annual rainfall, average minimum and maximum temperatures on the
following website: https://worldweatheronline.com
3. Collect information about the main plants growing in your biome and the animals that are found in the
biome. Include diagrams, maps, photographs, graphs etc.
4. Collect information about threats to your biome, as well as conservation efforts. You will find suitable
information in the first three references listed previously.
5. Write a comprehensive report on the biome you have chosen. Use your own words.
6. Include a list of references you consulted. (If you do not know how to list the references, go to the end of
this module and see how different sources are referenced.)
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R ES EA RC H I N G A B I O M E I N S O UT H A F RI C A

This activity is a reading-research task. You may find it difficult to access the internet or to consult books to
complete your task. Plan a trip to a public library so that you can spend the whole day working on this task.
Make sure that the library has internet access, so that you can complete the task.
In this activity, you had to research information and present it as your own work, in your own words. You had
to reference your sources. You need to be sure that you do not copy the words of other writers. This is
plagiarism.
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is to use another person’s work and to pass it off as your own. This is wrong. It is
unethical [immoral and dishonest] and illegal [against the law]. You are essentially stealing
someone else’s intellectual property [thoughts, ideas and work someone has created].
You need to reference and acknowledge ideas you have taken from the work of others
carefully. When work is shown to have been plagiarised and large sections of work have been
copied without referencing, the work will be penalised and a low mark or even zero may be
awarded.
Check the rubric to see that you know how your assignment will be assessed.
Aspect of the Meets all the Meets some Meets a few Present, but does Absent
report requirements requirements requirements not meet the
requirements
Title 2 1 0 0 0
Map showing the 3 2 1 0 0

location of the
biome
Description of 5 4 3 1 0
climate
Graphs of 5 4 2 1 0
temperature and
rainfall
Description of soils 4 3 2 1 0
altitude
vegetation
animals
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Aspect of the Meets all the Meets some Meets a few Present, but does Absent
report requirements requirements requirements not meet the
requirements
Threats to the 4 3 2 0 0
biome
Conservation 4 3 2 1 0
efforts
Uses own words; no 3 2 1 0 0

copying from
sources
References given 2 1 0 0 0
Illustrations are 3 2 1 0 0
appropriate
Neat presentation 3 2 1 0 0
TOTAL 50
We do not provide an answer key for this activity.
Sustainable use of plants

What do you currently understand by the term ‘sustainable’? Write down how you would define this word, as it
applies to plants, in your workbook, under the heading ‘Sustainable use of plants’. After reading the notes
that follow, you will come back to this definition and refine it or correct it, using the knowledge you will have
gained.
South Africa has a rich diversity of plant and animal life. However, the Red List shows that more and more
species are becoming threatened or near to extinction. The reasons why so many species are becoming
threatened were given in the previous section. One way that we can help to save our biodiversity is through
sustainable use of plants.
Sustainable use of a plant resource means that we use that plant at a rate that enables the species to
recover, grow and reproduce. If humans destroy habitats and use plants and animals too quickly, those
species will become extinct. We must preserve habitats and not use up plant and animal resources too
quickly.
Over 2 000 plant species are used in the traditional medicine trade in South Africa. Most (97,4%) of medicinal
plants are classified in the Red List as “Least Concern”. They are being harvested sustainably. The remaining
species are classified in the Red List as threatened, near extinction, or extinct.
Among the threatened species are the 24 species of cycads that occur in South Africa. These plants grow
slowly, and have a very slow reproductive rate. Cycads are threatened by the trade in medicinal plants, but
even more threatened by people who collect them to sell to the overseas market or to grow them in their own
gardens. Because of their slow growth and reproductive rates, harvesting cycads is not sustainable.
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S USTA I N A B L E US E O F PL A N TS
Figure 9: Encephalartos woodii, a species of cycad that is extinct in the wild. (This specimen is cultivated in
the Durban Botanical Gardens.)
Remember to go back to your original definition of sustainable and refine or correct it, based on what you
have learnt.
Main idea
Sustainable use of plants means that we use the plants at a rate that allows the plants to
recover, grow and reproduce. If we do not use plants sustainably, many species will become
extinct.
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Summary Assessment
1. Give the correct scientific term for each description.

a. All parts of the Earth where life can exist.
b. An area that has a characteristic climate and type of vegetation.
c. A special feature of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular climate.
d. Species that face a high risk of extinction.
e. Species that no longer exist anywhere on the planet.
f. Red List category of species that maintains healthy populations.
g. A way of using organisms so that they can recover, reproduce and continue to exist on Earth. (7)
2. Match the biome in Column A with the correct description in Column B.
Column A Column B
2.1 Fynbos A. Characteristic vegetation is grassland with scattered trees.
2.2 Forest B. Winter rainfall area, with great diversity of plants.
2.3 Desert C. Area with summer rainfall; mostly at high altitude.
2.4 Albany Thicket D. Winter rainfall area along the west coast of South Africa.
2.5 Savanna E. Summer rainfall area along the east coast of South Africa.
2.6 Nama Karoo F. Area with rainfall all year round and thick bush.
2.7 Succulent Karoo G. Sandy area that receives very little rainfall.
2.8 Grassland H. Small patches of large trees in areas with fertile soils.
2.9 Indian Ocean Coastal Belt I. Semi-desert biome with small shrubs and grasses
(9)
3. Explain what each of the following statements means:

a. Pepperbark trees are extinct in the wild.
b. Fynbos plants are adapted to their climatic conditions.
c. The white rhinoceros is classified as Threatened. (6)
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A SS E SS M E N T
4. Read the following information and the case study that follows:
What is a case study?
A case study is an example of a problem in real-life. What this means is that some problem is
presented to you, not simply as a straightforward set of questions to answer, but in the context
of a real-life situation. You are meant to read through the information from the real-life
situation and then answer the questions given, which will address, and possibly suggest
solutions to the problem.
Christopher was very concerned about the taxi rank just outside his village. He noticed that there were no
places for litter to be thrown, so people were throwing papers, plastic bags, bottles and other litter on the
ground. There were no toilets, so people were urinating in a stream that ran past the taxi rank and defecating
in the bushes around the taxi rank. Taxi drivers would park their taxis off the road killing grass and other
plants. If the taxi drivers stayed in the area overnight, they broke branches of trees to use for fires. According
to what Christopher had learnt, this area was showing signs of serious degradation. He decided that he
would do something about the problem as a school project.
Now answer the following questions:
a. What is the current situation at Christopher’s taxi rank in terms of short-term and long-term risks (to
people and the environment)? (4)
b. Christopher decided to inform the public about the situation at the taxi rank. Who needs to be informed of
the risks? How could he go about informing the public? How could he go about bringing about changes he
thinks are necessary? (4)
5. This question is an extension activity. If you have access to the internet, you can complete this question.
Remember that most public libraries offer free wifi and internet access!
Study the passage below.
Exploitation of indigenous plants
There are many indigenous plants in South Africa which are used for traditional medicinal and nutritional
purposes. Many people generate income from the use of these plants. But there is not always a plan that
promotes sustainable use of these plant resources. As a result, there is a high risk that indigenous plants may be
overexploited for medicinal and nutritional purposes. The over-harvesting of the African potato is an example of
a threat to indigenous plants.
Find out about the uses of the African potato and why it is harvested. Read about the concerns of over-
harvesting the African potato.
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S UM M A RY A SS E SS M E N T
These websites may be useful to you, but you can consult others:
www.botanicalsociety.org.za/ProjectsAndActivities/Downloadable%20articles/
FW04%20African%20potato.pdf
https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/Africanpotato.pdf
http://pza.sanbi.org/hypoxis-hemerocallidea
Write a short essay in which you describe the reasons why the African potato is harvested.
Include at least four ways in which overexploitation of indigenous plants, such as the African potato, impacts
on the environment.
Explain four appropriate management strategies that can reduce such over-exploitation, focusing on the
African potato. (20)
[50]
What is an an essay?
Essays are a means to communicate information in a number of paragraphs written in a

logical order. To write a successful essay, follow these easy steps:
• Read the topic carefully to understand what is required. Analyse what is required, to avoid
including irrelevant information.
• Draw up a mind-map. This will help you to plan your essay and choose the relevant facts
that must be included. After you have your mind-map, number the paragraphs in a specific
order so that the content of your essay will flow from one thought to the next.
• Remember to include an introduction and a conclusion. The introduction will inform the
reader of what you will be discussing. Use the topic as a guideline. The conclusion will
inform the reader that you have in fact discussed the topic. Use the conclusion to tie up all
the content paragraphs by briefly summarising the content or expressing a point of view.
In a scientific essay, marks are allocated for scientific fact and not for ‘flowery’ or creative
language.
Do’s and don’ts for excellent essay writing:
• Do use short sentences that express a fact clearly. When discussing a point, ensure you
provide a statement and a reason. In other words, qualify each statement you make.
• Do break ideas into paragraphs. Never number paragraphs in the essay. Make sure that
each paragraph contains one idea or thought only.
• Do punctuate carefully.
135
A SS E SS M E N T
• Don’t use diagrams in your essay, unless asked for them.

• Don’t use bullet points in an essay. You must write sentence after sentence.
The most common mistake that learners make is to write their essay without actually
answering the question that was asked. Read the essay question very carefully. Think about
what the assessor wants you to answer in the essay. Sometimes, students see only the topic
or subject of the essay, and ignore what the examiner wants them to do with that topic. They
write all the facts they know about the topic, without answering what the examiner asked
them.
136
Answers
Activity 1 Answer key

1. Durban receives more rainfall than Cape Town. You referred to the rainfall graphs. The key and the title on
the right-hand y-axis gives the measure of precipitation (rainfall) in mm. Each bar refers to the number of
mm of rain that fell in each month. If you add up the totals of each of the bars (rainfall for one year), you
will find that Durban received about 1035 mm of rain while Cape Town received about 525 mm of rain.
2. Both cities receive rain throughout the year, but each city has a definite pattern of higher and lower rainfall
months. More rain falls in the winter in Cape Town, whereas more rain falls in summer in Durban. (Note:
when comparing things, remember to show how they are similar as well as how they differ.)
3. a. Durban experiences the most rainy days in the three highest rainfall months. (Remember to describe in
detail how you obtained your result.)
b. Durban’s three highest rainfall months are February, January then November. On average, Durban
experiences about 18 rainfall days in February, followed by 20 rainfall days in January and about 22
rainfall days in November. This makes a total of 60 rainfall days in Durban during the three highest rainfall
months. Cape Town’s highest rainfall months are July, followed by June and August. On average, all three
months appear to experience about 16 days of rain each. This means that Cape Town experiences about
48 days of rain in the rainy months.
4. In winter, Durban is hotter than Cape Town during the day.

5. Cape Town experiences colder nights during winter than Durban does.
6. A plant unable to tolerate temperatures below 10 °C would not be able to grow outdoors in Cape Town as
the temperature at night in winter drops below 10 °C. It would be able to tolerate minimum temperatures
in Durban. However, if the plant is cultivated in a greenhouse, it would be able to survive living in Cape
Town, as greenhouses are controlled environments for growing plants.
7. A plant requiring high water levels during hot summer months would probably grow well in Durban, but
would not grow well naturally in Cape Town, where there is less rain in summer.
8. There are spaces between the bars on the rainfall graphs because the independent variable (months of
the year) is a discontinuous variable. Each month is discrete in terms of data. The spaces between the
bars indicate this.
9. The independent variable on the temperature graphs is temperature (measured in °C). This is the variable
that the investigator is measuring. It is unknown at the beginning of the investigation and the investigator
does not control this variable.

1. You should be able to use the key to find the biomes on the map. Take your time and work carefully down
the list of biomes. Using a political map of South Africa will help you find the different major cities. You
can then locate your place on the map easier.
2. The three largest biomes are: Nama Karoo, Savanna, and Grassland.
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A N S W E RS
3. The Fynbos and Succulent Karoo biomes are found in the western and southern parts of South Africa
only.
4. The Forest biome is the smallest biome, followed by the Desert biome.

Fynbos western Cape; winter rainfall; low in predominantly many bird 70% endemic
coast of cool, wet nutrients, small-leaved species, insects plant species;
Eastern Cape winters; hot, dry minerals and evergreen and small threatened by
summers organic shrubs e.g. mammals such urbanisation
matter; acidic; protea, erica and as baboon, and agriculture;
sandy rocky restio grysbok fire maintains
soils that do plant
not retain community
water
Succulent west coast and dry winter rich in lime; dwarf succulent insects, birds, 38% endemic
Karoo inland north of rainfall; thin layer on shrubs, small mammals plant species;
Fynbos biome extremely hot rock base; little including vygies e.g. dassie rat, tourist
and dry in organic and stone dune mole attraction in
summer; fog matter; not plants; grasses; ratbat eared fox, spring
provides very fertile, annuals e.g. meerkat and
moisture; hot arid daisies reptiles
dry winds
Desert northern Cape harsh, arid; sand and thin annuals, insects and extremely arid
along Orange temperatures soils on rock; grasses, reptiles; many
River valley very high little organic succulents with are nocturnal
during day and matter water storage hiding in
very low at adaptations burrows during
night; very little the day
rain; fog
provides
moisture
Nama central plateau semi-arid; rich in lime; low plant few animals sheep and goat
Karoo of the western summer little organic density; grasses, today; previously farming, as well
half of South rainfall; rivers matter small shrubs, large herd of as fruit trees
Africa only have water trees along springbok; along rivers
just after rains; rivers insects and
very hot in birds
summer and
cold in winter;
frequent frost
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ACT I V I TY 3 A N S W E R K E Y
Grassland high central high summer deep; rich in grasses and low in the past, large regular fires;
plateau, inland rainfall; cold nutrients growing plants; herds of plants adapted
KZN and winters with trees along herbivores; now to fire;
Eastern Cape frost and snow rivers; high plant agriculture: frequently used
in areas diversity cattle and sheep for agriculture,
farming; many mining and
birds and urban
insects development
Savanna largest biome summer mainly sandy grasses with Large game frequent fires;
in SA; northern rainfall, dry with low scattered trees animals such as game reserves
regions, warm winters fertility and shrubs; high lion, leopard, like the
lowveld, diversity with cheetah, Kgalagadi
Kalahari, KZN characteristic elephant, Transfrontier
and Eastern thorn trees, buffalo, rhino Park and the
Cape. baobab, mopane giraffe, wide Kruger National
range of Park are found
antelope, plains in this region
zebra and
numerous birds.
Albany eastern and transition soil types vary high plant variable e.g. known as
thicket western Cape between winter but mainly diversity; dense, antelope, subtropical
and summer sandy; low in with succulent, elephant, thicket in some
rainfall; low nutrients woody and spiny monkeys; books
rainfall; hot plants e.g. insects and
summers, cold euphorbia, aloes birds
winters with
frost; fog
Indian from subtropical; sandy soils; coastal forest, small mammals, referred to as
Ocean Mozambique high summer many dunes dwarf shrubland, monkeys, Albany thicket
Coastal Belt border to rainfall thicket and reptiles, birds in some books
eastern Cape, although rain grassland and insects
along coastline all year round; species; e.g.
hot summers, cycads, red-hot
warm winters pokers, bitter
aloe, and bird-of-
paradise flower
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A N S W E RS
Forest scattered rainfall most fertile soils high plant insects, birds many
distribution; commonly with high diversity; and small indigenous
well known experienced levels of indigenous mammals such forests have
areas: Knysna throughout humus evergreen trees, as bushpig, been replaced
and year; temperate ferns, bushbuck and by plantations
Tsitstikamma, herbaceous monkeys of alien trees
Ongoye in KZN, plants (e.g. pine
Limpopo and trees);
Mpumalanga harvesting of
indigenous
forest trees is
strictly
controlled
Table 1: Biome comparison table

1. Desert biome (Richtersveld). The photographs depict a dry/arid sandy and rocky region. It can also occur
in the Succulent Karoo and Nama Karoo biomes.
2. Swollen stem – water storage in a biome that experiences very little rainfall. Very few and very small
leaves – limits water loss in the dry, hot environment. Leaves very high up the plant away from ground
level – to reduce foraging on the leaves by ground dwelling animals. Spines on stem and between leaves
– discourage herbivorous animals from eating the leaves/stem.
3. If the sap is toxic, it will discourage herbivores from eating the swollen stems where the plant is storing
water.
There is no Activity 5 Answer key

1. Threatened
2. Extinct
3. Least concern
4. Threatened
5. Least concern
6. Threatened
7. Extinct
8. Least concern
9. A species of conservation concern
10. A species of conservation concern
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U N IT 1 SUM M A RY A SS E SS M E N T A N S W E R K E Y
Unit 1 Summary Assessment Answer Key

1. Terminology
a. biosphere
b. biome
c. adaptation
d. threatened
e. extinct
f. least concern
g. sustainable
(7)
2.
Column A Column B
2.1 Fynbos B Winter rainfall area, with great diversity of plants.
2.2 Forest H Small patches of large trees in areas with fertile soils.
2.3 Desert G Sandy area that receives very little rainfall.
2.4 Albany Thicket F Area with rainfall all year round and thick bush.
2.5 Savanna A Characteristic vegetation is grassland with scattered trees.
2.6 Nama Karoo I Semi-desert biome with small shrubs and grasses
2.7 Succulent Karoo D Winter rainfall area along the west coast of South Africa.
2.8 Grassland C Area with summer rainfall; mostly at high altitude.
2.9 Indian Ocean Coastal Belt E Summer rainfall area along the east coast of South Africa.
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A N S W E RS
(9)
1. a. There are no pepperbark trees left growing in the wild. (2)

b. Plants growing in the fynbos biome have special characteristics that enable them to survive in those
climatic conditions. (2)
c. The white rhinoceros is at risk of becoming extinct. (2)
4. There are no model answers here – you have to interpret the situation in your own way, however, some
guidance is given below:
a. Short-term risks: Littering, possible spread of disease due to wastes, the stream could carry pollutants
into the water sources for the village. Long-term risks: Land degradation could result in loss of
biodiversity and soil erosion. (4)
b. This needs to be done sensitively so that people do not feel they are being attacked, however they
need to see that with small changes, they can still run a business, but not harm the environment and
other humans. Maybe Christopher needs to have a meeting with the taxi owners. They can then work
on ways of parking the taxis and not causing damage to the soil and plants. Maybe local businesses
can be approached to pave the area and place rubbish bins and toilets on the land. They could even
make special bricked areas for fires. Posters can be made by local school children to advertise how
the area is being protected and the benefits of the conservation project to the public. Alien or invasive
trees in the area could be identified as sources for firewood, and indigenous trees could be labelled
and protected. (4)
5. There are no model answers here – you have to interpret the situation in your own way, however, some
guidance is given below. Bullets are only shown for how marks are allocated. An essay would not include
bullets.
Impact on environment
• Plants can become extinct/lead to loss in biodiversity

• Food chains/webs can be destroyed
• Shortage of food
• Could lead to degradation of the environment
• Erosion of ground surface if too many plants are removed
• Increase run-off of water
• Destroy habitats of many organisms
• Alien plant invasion
• Upset the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide/global warming.
(4 points articulately stated: 4 x 2 = 8 marks)
Management practices to reduce over-exploitation
• Sustainable harvesting – over-exploitation must not be allowed

• Research- done to look at reproductive cycle/alternative source of active ingredient /cloning
• Legislation- control harvesting
• Penalties for breaking legislation
• Education/campaign - impact and consequences of over-exploitation
• Establish nurseries/seed banks - to replace plants harvested
142
• Establish more nature reserves - to conserve indigenous plants

• Controlling exploitation- of indigenous plants by international companies
• Provision of free/cheaper food - to reduce dependence on indigenous plants.
(4 points articulately stated: 4 x 2 = 8 marks)
(16 for content; 1 mark for introduction; 1 mark for conclusion; 2 marks for logical flow of paragraphs = 20
marks)
[50]
143
Unit 2: Principles of Classification
145
Introduction
Learning outcomes
1. Demonstrate awareness of the extent of biodiversity in South Africa.
2. Represent biodiversity of the most abundant groups of plants and animals in the form
of graphs and charts.
3. Define a species using the biological species concept.
4. Apply the nested hierarchical classification system to classify species according to

genus, family, order, class, phylum (animals) or division (plants), kingdom.
5. Correctly use the binomial system of naming species.
6. Distinguish among the five kingdoms according to shared characteristics of organisms

within each kingdom:
a. Monera: prokaryotic, unicellular, autotrophic, heterotrophic or saprotrophic;
b. Protista: eukaryotic, unicellular or simple multicellular, autotrophic or heterotrophic;
c. Fungi: eukaryotic, having chitin in the cell walls, unicellular or simple multicellular,
saprotrophic;
d. Plantae: eukaryotic, having cellulose in the cell walls, multicellular, most having
differentiated tissues, autotrophic;
e. Animalia: eukaryotic, with no cell walls, multicellular, most having differentiated
tissues, heterotrophic.
In this unit you will cover the following:
1. The extent of biodiversity.
2. Taxonomic levels.
3. Characteristics of the five kingdoms.
147
Introduction
By now, you have learnt that the biosphere is home to an enormous range of living things.
This unit focuses on the two related concepts of biodiversity and classification. You will examine what is
meant by these concepts. You will look in more detail at the biodiversity of South Africa. You will investigate
questions such as: Why are organisms named the way they are? Why do we need classification systems?
What different kinds of organisms are there in the biosphere?
Write a heading in your workbook ‘Biodiversity and classification.’
To understand a little more about biodiversity, you are going to view some videos. As you watch the videos,
pause frequently (e.g. after a concept has been introduced) to note down any ideas in your workbook that
will help you develop your understanding of biodiversity.
Start with this video:
Biodiversity Definition: (Duration 4.12)
After watching the video, select the word that is correct in each sentence:
Watch the video more than once if you need to.
[Can the website version allow students to choose answers?]
1. The areas with the greatest biodiversity tend to be located close to the poles/equator.
2. Today, we are seeing a general decline/increase in biodiversity globally.
3. Invasive species positively/negatively affect the local biodiversity of an area.
4. Humans are seen as the most/least important factor causing loss of biodiversity today.
5. Areas that have suffered loss of biodiversity, generally can/cannot be rehabilitated allowing biodiversity to
once again increase.
Check your answers here:
1. equator
2. decline
3. negatively
4. most
5. can
Move on to the next video, and again pause to note down any ideas in your workbook to add to your
understanding of biodiversity.
Why does biodiversity matter to me? (Duration 4.51)
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PA RTS
The title of this video was “Why does biodiversity matter to me?”
Answer that question now in your workbook, using your own words. (Don’t simply write down the words
spoken in the video)
The word ‘biodiversity’ means the number of different species in an area. There is an enormous variety of
different species of organisms on Earth, or in the whole biosphere.
Figure 10: Pie chart showing biodiversity
It is estimated that there are probably over 5 million species of living organisms on Earth. However, at this
point, only about 1.5 million have been identified and described. The pie chart in Figure 10 gives you an idea
of the range of different species that have already been identified and described. You can see that by far,
insects are the most prolific [plentiful, abundant] life forms on Earth, although some scientists have
suggested that there might be more different types of bacteria than there are insects – we just haven’t
discovered them yet!
What’s a pie chart?
Pie charts were discussed in your student study guide. A pie graph is a circular graph that
shows quantities as percentages of a whole. The complete circle represents the total or 100%.
The circle is divided into sectors (like the pieces of a pie). Each sector (piece) of the circle
represents a percentage of the total. It shows the relative portion of each of the parts. Later in
this unit, you will focus on ways of displaying biodiversity. Remember that the pie chart is a
good way of showing the proportions of different kinds of organisms.
Sometimes when biologists refer to biodiversity, they mean the variety of species in the whole biosphere.
However, they could limit their description by referring to the biodiversity of a particular biome or ecosystem.
When we talk about biodiversity, we do not mean the number of individual organisms in an area, but rather
150
I N T RO D UCT I O N
the number of different species.
Figure 11: Biodiversity vs population density
In Figure 11, let’s imagine that each coloured block represents an organism. Organisms of the same colour
belong to the same species. Which ecosystem has a greater biodiversity? Which has more individual
organisms in it (population density).
Ecosystem 1 has more organisms in it. It has a greater population density. However, although the population
density is lower in Ecosystem 2, Ecosystem 2 has a greater biodiversity than Ecosystem 1. This is because
there are five different species in Ecosystem 2, while there are only 3 different species in Ecosystem 1.
151
PA RTS
The extent of biodiversity
The biological species concept

In the introduction to this unit, you read the word species a number of times.
Is the word ‘species’ singular or plural?
The word species ends in an s, however, it is used as both a singular and plural term. So, for
example, we could say, “This is a list of all the species of mammals in South Africa” and here
the word species is used in the plural. We could also say “The elephants in the Kruger National
Park belong to the species Loxodonta africana.” Here the word species is used in the singular.
There is no such thing as a ‘specie’!
What precisely do we mean when we talk about a species? Write down what you currently understand the
word ‘species’ to mean, in your workbook, under a heading: ‘The biological species concept’.
Watch the following video. When you come to a point in the video where the term ‘species’ is explained,
pause the video and make notes in your workbook. Correct or refine your original definition of the term.
What is a species? (Duration 4.49)
You will have realised from watching the video, that this idea of a species is quite a complex one!
A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed with each other to produce fertile offspring that in turn
can breed.
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THE B I O LO G I C A L S PE C I E S CO N C E PT
Figure 12: Different breeds of dogs
(Mary Bloom, American Kennel Club)
Although members of a species tend to look similar, there can be great variation in physical appearance.
Figure 12 show a variety of different dog breeds. However, even if the members of a species show physical
variation, they can recognise each other as potential mates and produce fertile offspring. All dogs can
interbreed; this means that in spite of the huge physical variation, they are all one species.
In the past, when scientists wanted to decide if two individuals belonged to the same species, they would
look at the physical characteristics only. Nowadays, with advances in technology, scientists also look at the
DNA of the organisms when considering if two individuals belong to the same species. (DNA is the material
that makes genes. Genes control the characteristics we inherit. Members of a species share a “pool” of
genes. In Topic 2: Genetics and heredity, you will learn about DNA in detail. In Topic 3: Evolution, you will
learn more about the gene pool of a species.)
Go back to your notes, and make sure that you have an accurate understanding of the term ‘species’
recorded in your workbook. A lot of the work that you will do later in this module depends on your
understanding of this key concept.
Main idea
A species is a group of organisms that share many characteristics and can reproduce
successfully.
153
PA RTS
Biodiversity in South Africa

How well do you know South African biodiversity?
Make a heading in your workbook ‘Biodiversity in South Africa’.
Make a table in your workbook that looks like this:
Common name I recognise this name I have seen a picture I have seen this Another name for this
of this organism organism in real life organism is…
1. Write down all the names of the following organisms, in the first column (Common name), making 17
rows.
African elephant, cycad, shaggy ink cap, lappet faced vulture, Outeniqua yellowwood tree, king protea, white
rhinoceros, vygie, blue wildebeest, puff adder, earthworm, great white shark, common octopus, citrus
swallowtail, sea anemone and clown fish, tuberculosis bacterium.
These are all organisms that occur in South Africa. Sea anemone and clown fish have a close relationship
whereby the anemone protects the clownfish, which cleans the anemone.
2. Next to the names you wrote down, tick in the next column if you recognise the name of this organism.
3. Tick in the next column if you have seen a picture of this organism.
4. Tick in the next column if you have seen the organism in real life.
5. Are there any of the organisms that you call by a different name (e.g. in your main language)? Add the
name you use for these organisms to the table in the last column. (You will come back to this idea of
what we name organisms later.)
Now have a look at pictures of the organisms in Figure 13.
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BI O D I V E RS I TY I N S O UT H A F RI C A
Figure 13: Biodiversity of South Africa
(Various creative commons photographs – see reference section)
6. When you saw the pictures, did you recognise any of the organisms that you previously did not recognise
by name? Revise the table by adding new ticks.
This next video is extension work and it is not compulsory to watch this video. Watch it if you have internet
access. Remember that most public libraries offer free wifi and internet access.
This video South Africa – Kruger National Park: (Duration 45.16) is rather long. However, it gives you another
perspective of the wide range of plants and animals in South Africa.
South Africa has greater biodiversity than most countries. As you have learnt, this is largely because there
are different biomes with different climates across the country. There is a variety of land forms, such as
mountains, high altitude plains, low altitude plains, swamps, lagoons, and coastal areas. South Africa covers
about 1% of the total land surface of the world, but about 10% of the known bird, fish and plant species in the
world can be found in South Africa.
Most reference books give data for southern Africa, which includes all countries south of the Zambezi and
Cunene Rivers. Southern Africa includes South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and the southern part
of Mozambique. This area has:
• 20 300 species of flowering plants

• 354 mammal species
• 951 bird species
• 517 reptile species
• 115 amphibian species
• Over 80 000 insect species
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PA RTS
Indigenous, endemic and exotic species
In your workbook, write down what you understand by these three terms.
Figure 14: Indigenous, exotic and endemic species
(Elephant, Bugweed, Seahorse)
Indigenous species belong to a particular area. They have not been brought from anywhere else or
introduced to the area. Many animals and plants that are indigenous to South Africa also occur in other parts
of Africa. For example, elephants, lions and giraffe are indigenous to South Africa, but they also occur in
other African countries. Bugweed is a plant that was introduced to South Africa from South America. It is
exotic to South Africa. Endemic species belong to a particular area, but they do not occur anywhere else on
earth. Each biome that you studied in Subtopic 1 has a number of endemic plant species. The Cape
Seahorse shown in Figure 14 is endemic to the Knysna area. It is also at great risk of extinction, because it is
only found in a few river mouth areas around Knysna.
Now go back to your workbook and correct and refine your original definitions of the terms indigenous, exotic
and endemic.
Main idea
Biodiversity is the number of different species in an area. Indigenous species belong to a

particular area. Exotic species have been introduced from another area. Endemic species
belong to a particular area and are not found anywhere else in the world.
Displaying biodiversity
Go back to Figure 10 at the beginning of this unit. You saw that a pie chart could be used to show the relative
proportions of the different groups of organisms on earth. There are many other ways of displaying
biodiversity in tables and graphs.
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D I S PL AY I N G B I O D I V E RS I TY
Activity 7: Displaying biodiversity in tables and graphs
Suggested time:
30 minutes
Aim:
This activity provides you with practice interpreting tables and graphs, and drawing graphs
representing biodiversity. In particular, you will be using bar graphs to illustrate data.
What’s a bar graph?
(Bar graphs are discussed in the Student Study Manual. Look at the example in the Student
Manual to help you understand this note.)
A bar graph uses bars of different lengths to compare different amounts. The numbers are
shown on the Y-axis in sequence and the items being compared are written under each bar,
along the X-axis.
Bar graphs are used when the information on the X-axis does not form a continuous series of
data. The independent variables on the X-axis are not numbers and do not form a sequence;
they are non-continuous, usually separate discrete or distinct things, such as colours, types of
animals, cities etc. Because the items are discrete or non-continuous, spaces are left between
the bars.
When constructing a bar graph, ensure the following:
• Spaces of equal intervals must occur between the bars.

• The bars must all be of equal width.
• Do not attach the first bar to the Y-axis.
• When asked to construct two bar graphs on the same system of axes, place the two bars
next to each other, shade in one of the sets of data and include a key.
What you will do:

Work through the activity as directed.
Vertebrates are animals that have a backbone. There are four groups of vertebrates that live on land:
Mammals, Birds, Reptiles and Amphibians. Southern Africa has a rich biodiversity of each group of
Vertebrates.
Table 2: Biodiversity of each group of terrestrial vertebrates in Southern Africa
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PA RTS
Vertebrate group Number of species
Reptiles 517
Birds 951
Amphibians 115
Mammals 354
The same information can be shown on a bar graph (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Bar graph showing biodiversity of terrestrial vertebrates in Southern Africa
1. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow:

a. Which group of vertebrates has the greatest biodiversity? How did you know this?
b. Which group of vertebrates has the least biodiversity? How did you know this?
c. Which is the dependent variable and where is this data shown?
d. Why has a bar chart been used to display this data? Explain your answer using features of the graph to
justify your comments.
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D I S PL AY I N G B I O D I V E RS I TY
2. Table 3 shows the diversity of four groups of plants that are common in South Africa.
Table 3: Biodiversity of four plant groups common in South Africa
Plant group Number of species
Aloe 150
Acacia 56
Protea 29
Fig 34
Draw a bar graph illustrating this information. (Hint: always use at least half a page for graphs and
diagrams.)

Tables and graphs are important ways of summarizing information and illustrating the relationship between
variables. You can revise tabulation and bar graphing in your Study Guide.
When you are asked to interpret information from a graph, you must read and analyse the information from
the graph.
Make sure you know what the independent and dependent variables are. You can remind yourself of how to
identify these in the Study Guide.
Work out what is the trend or pattern that is being illustrated by the graph.
Use the graph to back up or justify comments you make.
When you draw a graph, you need to ensure that certain criteria are met: the graph must have a heading, the
axes must be correctly allocated (independent variable on the x-axis and dependent variable on the y-axis),
the axes must be appropriately scaled and the data must be correctly plotted in the body of the graph.
Some common errors that students make when drawing a graph:

The heading does not include both variables.
The axes are muddled up.
When drawing a bar graph, spaces are not left between the bars, indicating discrete or discontinuous data.
Graphs are drawn in too little space, resulting in cramping the information and drawing an inaccurate graph.
Check that you haven’t made these errors!
Main idea
159
PA RTS
Biodiversity of an area can be represented in tables and graphs for easy understanding and
interpretation.
160
W H AT I S C L A SS I F I C AT I O N ?
Taxonomic levels
You have been focusing on biodiversity to this point. You will now turn your attention to the classification of
biodiversity.
What is classification?
Write a heading in your workbook: ‘What is classification?’ and turn to the next page in your workbook.
Write the question ‘What is taxonomy?’ Turn to the next page.
Write the question ‘Why do we need a way of classifying living things on earth?’
Turn to the next page.
Write the question ‘How are living things classified?’
You now have four blank pages, each headed with a different question.
Now, answer each question to the best of your ability, with the knowledge you currently have.
We recommend that you do not continue reading in this learning guide until you have answered the
questions.
Once you have completed that introductory task, you are going to view a PowerPoint slide show and watch a
video that introduce the concept of classification. As you watch the slide show and the video, pause them
frequently to add to and refine your answers to the four questions posed above.
PowerPoint on Sweet Classification (see Sweet classification for Module 1 Unit 2)
Kingdoms, Phyla and More: (Duration 20.52)
(Note on the video: The video introduces the idea of classification and then gives many examples of how the
organisms that live in the sea are classified. Remember that this video applies the general information about
classification and taxonomy to sea life only.)
Now read through the notes that follow. If you come across something that will add to the notes you have
already made in your workbook, use the new ideas to supplement (add to) what you have already recorded.
Also, correct any mistakes you may have made.
Classification is sorting objects into groups according to their similarities or features that they share.
Classification is a way of organising things. When you classify things, you put them into groups or ‘classes’
because they have certain characteristics in common. Classifying things is something we do all the time
without thinking because it helps us to see patterns and to keep things organised. People classify things to
make it easier to understand and find them.
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You use classification every day at home! Classifying and grouping things in the kitchen makes it easier for
you to find them again (Figure 16).
Figure 16: Classification in the kitchen
If you wash and dry the dishes after a meal, you will probably put the cutlery (knives, forks, spoons) in one
place, the plates in another and the cups and saucers somewhere else. This means that you will find them
easily next time you need these items. It also makes your kitchen more organised. Even a visitor in your
home would be able to find the cups and plates and cutlery.
Imagine walking into a supermarket to do some shopping and all the goods were displayed randomly on the
shelves! Shop owners display their goods in groups of similar items, in order to make shopping far easier. All
the fresh vegetables are in one area, all the baked goods in another area, all tinned foods in another area etc.
Classifying simplifies a situation. You find things more easily if they are organised.
When early scientists began to observe the large numbers of organisms on earth, they placed them into
groups that shared key similarities. Classification allows us to create order out of the large number of living
organisms on the Earth.
Main idea
Classifying means grouping objects that share certain similarities. Classification allows us to
create order out of large numbers of objects.
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Classifying living organisms

When you watched the videos earlier, you were introduced to ways in which scientists classify living things.
You are now going to focus more closely on this idea.
Scientists use a classification scheme called a nested hierarchy. Think of a nested hierarchy as being like a
box within a bigger box, within an even bigger box up to the largest box of all. Each box contains more and
more organisms up to the biggest box of all, which is all living things on earth.
Figure 17: Russian nesting dolls called matrioshkas
Figure 17 shows the concept of a nested hierarchy, using traditional Russian dolls. These are actually boxes
that fit into each other.
• The smallest unit of a nested hierarchy is a species. All members of a species share many
characteristics. They can breed together.
• Two or more species share a number of characteristics. They are placed in the same Genus. Different
species of the same genus cannot breed together.
• Two or more Genera (plural of genus) share some characteristics. They are placed in the same Family.
• Two or more Families share some characteristics. They are placed in the same Order.
• Two or more Orders share a few characteristics. They are placed in the same Class.
• Two or more Classes share a few key characteristics. They are placed in the same Phylum. Plants have
Divisions instead of Phyla (plural of Phylum).
• Two or more phyla share some key characteristics. They are placed in the same Kingdom.
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Figure 18: Classification of four species of Hyaena using the main classification groups
Did you notice, when you read about the hyaena and the secretary bird, that the genus name and the species
name were both written in italics? If you write the names by hand, you must underline the names.
There are two rules for writing the scientific name of a species:
1. The genus name must begin with a capital letter. The species name must begin with a lower case letter.
2. The name must be written in italics or it must be underlined.
We can illustrate the nested hierarchy as a tree diagram. Figure 18 shows a classification tree for animals.
We can use the classification tree to give the full classification for the Spotted hyaena. Follow the steps in
Figure 18. Start at the bottom of the tree to get the correct idea.
• The spotted hyaena, Crocuta crocuta, is a species that belongs to the genus Crocuta.
• The genera Crocuta, Proteles and Hyaena belong to the Family Hyaenidae.
• The families Hyaenidae, Viverridae, Felidae, Canidae and other families belong to the Order Carnivora.
• The orders Carnivora, Insectivora, Cetacea, Chiroptera and other orders belong to the Class Mammalia.
• Classes Mammalia, Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves belong to the Phylum Chordata.
• Phylum Chordata, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Annelida and other phyla belong to the Kingdom Animalia.
The names of the levels of classification are written in Latin. This is done so that everyone in the world will
use the same names. The scientific way of writing the full classification of a species is from the largest
category to the smallest. The scientific classification of a spotted hyaena is therefore:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
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CL A SS I F Y I N G L I V I N G O RGA N I S M S
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Hyaenidae
Genus: Crocuta
Species: Crocuta crocuta
Before you continue with the next activity, watch the following videos which will reinforce what you have
been learning about classifying organisms and take you forward into the content you are going to focus on
next.
How are organisms classified? (Duration: 3.10)

Kingdoms – The classification system (Duration: 4.00)
Classifying life (Duration:7.37)
Five Kingdoms of classification (Duration: 3.53)
Main idea
The classification scheme for living organisms is a nested hierarchy. It has seven main levels:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
Activity 8: Interpreting the classification of hyaenas
Suggested time:
15 minutes
Aim:
You have learnt about how hyaenas are classified. This activity tests your understanding of what you
have learnt.
What you will do:

Refer to Figure 18 and answer the following questions:
1. To which genus do the brown hyaena and the striped hyaena belong?
2. To which family do the genera Hyaena, Crocuta and Proteles belong?
3. Name three families that belong in the order Carnivora.
4. To which class does the order Carnivora belong?
5. How many classes in the phylum Chordata? What are the names of these classes?
6. To which kingdom does the phylum Chordata belong?
7. If you were thinking about the idea of nested boxes ranging from larger boxes that held smaller boxes,
which group would be the largest group (or box) in this classification system and which is the smallest
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group (or box)?

8. Which organism is more closely related to the brown hyaena, the striped hyaena or the spotted hyaena?
Give a reason for your decision.

Please do not worry about learning the Latin names for hyaenas and other organisms! The names are given
as an example. In a test or exam, you will be provided with this information. You need to be able to apply the
underlying concepts of how we classify organisms.
Before you begin to answer the questions, make sure you completely understand the information provided in
Figure 18. Use Figure 18 to help you answer the questions accurately.
The binomial naming system

In Activity 8, did you notice that each of the hyaena species has two names? The first name is the name of
the genus, and the second name is the name of the species. The full scientific name of each hyaena is:
• Aardwolf: Proteles cristatus

• Brown hyaena: Hyaena brunnea
• Striped hyaena: Hyaena hyaena
• Spotted hyaena: Crocuta crocuta
Why do we have this system of naming organisms?
Figure 19: Secretary bird
Figure 19 shows a bird found in South Africa as well as in other African countries.
If you are English speaking, you will say that this is a Secretary Bird. If you speak Afrikaans, you will call it the
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Sekretarisvoël. isiXhosa speakers will call it Ingxangxosi. iNtungunono is its isiZulu name. In Tswana it is
called Tlhamê. In Southern Sotho, it would be called Koto-li-peli, but in Northern Sotho it is Thlame. And
those are just some of the names South Africans have for this animal! There are other African names for this
bird, as well as French, Italian, German and even Japanese names for it. Which name should we use?
We are not sure, but its English common name is thought to come from the crest of long quill-like feathers,
which give the bird the appearance of a secretary with pens tucked behind his or her ear. Another hypothesis
is that “secretary” is a mispronunciation of the Arabic saqr-et-tair or “hunter-bird.”
Scientists from all over the world do research on this bird and need to name it in such a way that they cannot
mistake or misidentify the Secretary Bird as any other bird. To avoid confusion, scientists use a biological
name for each species that has been identified and described. The scientific or biological name for the
Secretary Bird is Sagittarius serpentarius.
Why does the scientific name for this bird look so strange? Why is it so hard to pronounce? The two words
come from Latin, an ancient language that was spoken centuries ago in Europe and was used by scientists,
doctors and other academic people as a common language for communication between people of different
nationalities and home languages. Today we still use the Latin (and sometimes Greek) names as scientific
names. Even new species that are discovered are given Latin or Greek names. (Greek was also a language of
learning and academia many hundreds of years ago.)
The first name, which is the genus name, is ‘Sagittarius’. This is Latin for ‘archer’, perhaps comparing the
Secretary Bird’s quill feathers on its head to a quiver of arrows. The second name, the species name,
‘serpentarius’ is Latin for serpent or snake; this describes the bird’s skill as a hunter of snakes.
When these names are used to identify the Secretary Bird, scientists from all over the world, irrespective of
their home language, will know precisely which bird is being referred to.
This system of biological naming is called binomial nomenclature.

‘Nomenclature’ means naming system and ‘binomial’ means two names.
Why do scientists use two names when identifying an organism? Who invented this system?
A Swedish scientist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), invented the binomial system. He did this because at
that time, organisms’ names were long and clumsy descriptions. They were also in different languages. The
same organism was called by many different names and it was very confusing for scientists. Linnaeus
wanted to standardise and simplify the naming systems.
Linnaeus gave every type of organism one species name, and one group name called the genus (plural
genera). A genus is a group of very similar species, given the same generic name. A genus never has two
species with the same species name. Every binomial is unique. Linnaeus published books on plants and on
animals in the mid 18th century, using his system of naming. He said that once a name is given it must not
be changed. These books were the beginning of a worldwide system of naming species. Linnaeus was so
convinced that his naming system was a good idea that he even changed his own name! His birth name was
Carl von Linné which he Latinised to Carolus Linnaeus. Would you go that far for your science?
Go back to your workbook notes to make sure you have not broken the biological nomenclature rule.
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Quiz
Have you understood what you have learnt? Can you apply the binomial rules?
Draw up a copy of the following table in your workbook.
Correct the scientific names of each species that are written incorrectly.
Common name Scientific name
Giraffe Giraffa Camelopardis
African elephant Loxodonta africana
Southern African Python Python natalensis
Natal cycad encephalartos Natalensis
Ostrich Struthio camelus
Human Homo Sapiens

Check your work to see if you understand how to name organisms.
Common name Scientific name
Giraffe Giraffa camelopardis
African elephant Loxodonta africana
Southern African Python Python natalensis
Natal cycad Encephalartos natalensis
Ostrich Struthio camelus
Human Homo sapiens

Main idea
Each species has two names: first the name of the genus, and second, the name of the
species. This is called the binomial naming system.
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Characteristics of the five kingdoms
You have learnt how and why scientists classify biodiversity. Now you will learn more about the five-kingdom
classification system.
Classification systems
Originally, biologists, including Linnaeus, said that there were two kingdoms of living organisms: the Plant
Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom.
Over time, as biologists learned more about other organisms, they added kingdoms in recognition of basic
differences they discovered among organisms. For example, during Linnaeus’s time, the microscope had not
been invented so Linnaeus did not know about the existence of many different kinds of micro-organisms
[very tiny organisms that either cannot be seen with the naked eye or cannot easily be seen with the naked
eye]. Once micro-organisms were discovered, a new classification system with three kingdoms for plants,
animals and micro-organisms had to be developed.
In the early 1970s, Robert Whittaker proposed that there are actually five Kingdoms. The five-kingdom
system is based on:
• the structure of the cells,

• the way of feeding,
• whether the organisms consist of one cell or many cells, and
• where they live (in water or on land).
Based on his observations, Whittaker identified five kingdoms:
• Monera (bacteria)
• Protista
• Fungi
• Plantae
• Animalia.
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Figure 20: The five kingdom classification system
Figure 21: Examples of organisms in the five kingdoms
Note on the terms prokaryote and eukaryote:
(pronounced pro-carry-ot and you-carry-ot)
You are a eukaryote! This means that in your cells, the DNA which makes your linear [strands
with two ends] chromosomes, is enclosed in a membrane inside the cell organelle called a
nucleus. You have other organelles in your cells, such as mitochondria that make energy
available to the cell, that are also surrounded by a membrane. Organelles perform different
functions for the cell. A prokaryote, on the other hand, does not have membranes inside the
cell. The DNA floats loosely in the cytoplasm, and there are no membrane-bound organelles.
Both cell types have ribosomes, although prokaryote ribosomes are smaller than eukaryote
ones. You will learn in Topic 2 that ribosomes are important organelles that help the cell make
proteins. Prokaryote cells tend to be smaller than eukaryote cells too.
As new information was discovered about cells, scientists found new ways to investigate the similarities
between organisms, for example by identifying and comparing the chemicals such as DNA and RNA, the
carbohydrates that make up cell walls and the enzymes involved in metabolic activities such as the making
of proteins in cells. During the late 1970s an American microbiologist, Carl Woese, discovered some micro-
organisms that live in exceptionally hot habitats such as hot springs and volcanic vents. At first these micro-
organisms were identified as bacteria. Woese soon discovered that the chemistry of these micro-organisms
is very different to the chemicals and functioning of bacteria. He put these micro-organisms into a different
group called the Archaebacteria meaning ‘very ancient bacteria’. Other types of Archaebacteria have also
been found in salty habitats such as salt marshes and salt lakes, as well as in the oceans. It was difficult to
know where to put these micro-organisms in the five kingdom classification, as they were prokaryotic, but
very different to bacteria.
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In 1990 Woese suggested a new way to classify living organisms by grouping the kingdoms into three
groups called domains. Each domain contains several different kingdoms. In this new classification system,
animals, plants, fungi and protists are kingdoms in the Eukaryota domain because they all have cells with a
nucleus. The Bacteria and Archaea are Prokaryota. However, they differ greatly in their chemistry and so are
placed in two different domains.
Table 4: The three domain classification system
All living organisms
Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Domain Eukarya
Many kingdoms Many kingdoms Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Quiz
Have you understood what you have learnt?
Answer the following questions:
1. Into which Domain and Kingdom would you place the group of heterotrophic multicellular organisms
whose cells have nuclei but no cell walls?
2. Into which Domain and Kingdom would you place the group of autotrophic multicellular organisms whose
cells have nuclei and cell walls?
3. Into which Domain and Kingdom would you place the heterotrophic organisms whose cells have nuclei
and cell walls?
4. Who was the inventor of the system of binomial nomenclature?
5. Which is a fairly recently discovered domain of prokaryotes that has organisms in it more ancient than
bacteria?
6. What do we call a group of similar species?
7. What is the smallest unit of classification?
8. In the Five Kingdom system, into which Kingdom are all prokaryotes placed?
9. In both the Domain system of classification and the Five Kingdom system of classification, how many
kingdoms of eukaryotes are there? Name them.
10. You discover an organism with the following characteristics: it lives in freshwater where it swims around
rapidly; it is unicellular with a proper nucleus; it eats algae. Into which Domain and Kingdom would you
place it?
Before you check the answers to these questions, watch the two videos on classification. Then go through
the questions again, to make sure you have answered correctly.
Kingdoms: The Classification System: (Duration: 4.00)

Five kingdoms of classification: (Duration: 3.53)
You can also follow these links to read more about classification systems and the five kingdom system and
see excellent photographs of the different organisms in each kingdom:
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Classification Schemes:
Five Kingdom System:

Check your answers to see if you understand how the classification systems work.
1. Domain: Eukarya; Kingdom: Animalia

2. Domain: Eukarya; Kingdom: Plantae
3. Domain: Eukarya; Kingdom: Fungi
4. Carolus Linnaeus
5. Domain: Archaea
6. Genus
7. Species
8. Monera
9. Four: Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia
10. Domain: Eukarya; Kingdom: Protista
Main idea
In the Five Kingdom classification system, prokaryotes such as bacteria fall into the Kingdom
Monera. The other eukaryotic kingdoms are: Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
The story of how classification systems have changed over time helps us to understand that scientific ideas
change over time. As new information becomes available, scientists often have to modify what they had
originally proposed or suggested. This shows that science is tentative – it changes over time with new
knowledge. Sometimes the new ideas are very different to the old ideas and we have to discard our old
ideas. Other times, the new ideas can be incorporated into our existing knowledge. (You learnt about the
tentative nature of scientific knowledge in the Nature of Science Module. You can refer back to that module if
you need to revise this issue.)
Distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms

In this section, you will review some of the distinguishing characteristics of organisms belonging to the five
kingdoms.
Write a heading in your workbook: ‘Distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms’.
Under the heading, explain what you think is meant by the heading.
Earlier in this unit, you learnt that when you classify things, you put them into groups or classes because they
have certain characteristics in common. These characteristics are distinctive features or properties. They are
qualities that make something unique. In biology, we call these properties distinguishing characteristics. They
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are qualities that help us place organisms in different groups and also tell the groups apart from each other.
In the previous section, you learnt about two types of organisms, based on their cell structure: prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. In order to make sure you understand what distinguishing characteristics are (and remind
you about prokaryotes and eukaryotes!), you will do this short activity in your workbook.
Activity 9: Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells
Suggested time:
20 minutes
Aim:
This activity will help you to consolidate what you understand about prokaryotes and eukaryotes as
well as what distinguishing characteristics are.
What you will do:

Watch this video:
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells: (Duration: 3.15)
Look at the two diagrams in Figure 22.

Copy table 5 into your workbook.
Based on the structure of the cell in each diagram, decide which of the distinguishing characteristics apply to
each picture. Complete the table.
Figure 22: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Table 5: Comparing eukaryote and prokaryote cells
Feature Prokaryote or eukaryote or both?
membrane-enclosed organelles such as mitochondria
ribosomes
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cytoplasm
circular strand of DNA as a chromosome
linear chromosomes of DNA
chromosomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane to form a nucleus
cell wall may be present
cell membrane is present
the smaller of the two cell types

Now use the table to write down the distinguishing characteristics of prokaryote cells and eukaryote cells.

Tables are excellent ways of summarising information. Sometimes we stop at making the table, because all
we required was a summary. But sometimes, a table is a tool for further writing. That is the purpose of the
table in this activity. You will first produce a table. Then you will use the table to make a list of
characteristics.
Start the activity by making a copy of the table in your workbook.
You may already have knowledge that allows you to complete some of the rows in the table, by identifying if
the statement in the left hand column applies to prokaryotes only, eukaryotes only or both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes. Why don’t you put down what you think are the correct answers in your table, in pencil? As you
continue with the activity, you can see if your first ideas were correct, or correct them if they were not correct.
Watch the video. Pause the video often to complete different aspects of the table.
Study the diagrams. Complete your table.
You should then be able to write up your lists of distinguishing characteristics once you completed a
comparison table.
Distinguishing characteristics of prokaryote cells:
• no membrane-enclosed organelles
• no nucleus
• circular strand of DNA as a chromosome
• smaller than eukaryote cells
Distinguishing characteristics of eukaryote cells:
• membrane-enclosed organelles
• nuclear membrane around a nucleus
• linear chromosomes
• larger than prokaryote cells
Notice that you did not include the features that the two cell types have in common. They both have cell
membranes, ribosomes and cytoplasm. Therefore, these characteristics cannot be used to tell the two cell
types apart. They are not distinguishing characteristics.
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Ready to move on? Refine or correct your definition of distinguishing characteristics in your workbook, and
then continue!
Activity 10: Comparing the distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms
Suggested time:
45 minutes
Aim:
This activity will help you to consolidate all the distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms
into a comparison table.
What you will do:

In your workbook you may find it easier to create your table in landscape (i.e. turn your page sideways), or to
work on double sheets of A4 paper which you can later attach into your workbook.
You are going to read through the notes on the distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms of
organisms. You will also watch some videos.
In your workbook, summarise what you are learning into a large comparison table. (If you need to be
reminded of how to produce a comparison table, check back to Unit 1, Activity 3, where you compiled a
comparison table as a consolidation of what you were learning.)
Here is an idea for the headings of your table, although you may wish to add in columns of your own:
Table 6: Comparison of the distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms
Table comparing the distinguishing characteristics of the five kingdoms
Kingdom Prokaryote or Unicellular or Form of Examples Any other

eukaryote multicellular nutrition interesting fact/s
We suggest you do not simply copy all the given notes into your table but summarise the information
effectively (remember that summarising is discussed in the student study guide).
Kingdom Monera
The kingdom Monera consists of unicellular [single-celled] microscopic organisms. They can only be seen
with a microscope. The most common organisms in this kingdom are the bacteria (singular bacterium). They
have simple cells, with no membrane-enclosed organelles. They have one chromosome that is a ring of DNA,
called a nucleoid. There is no membrane around the chromosome. The cells are prokaryotic.
Many bacteria have a slime capsule around the outside of a cell wall. Inside the cell wall is the plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane is often folded into membrane structures called mesosomes. Some
mesosomes carry pigments and can photosynthesise, while others are able to convert glucose into ATP.
Other mesosomes are able to fix nitrogen.
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Some bacteria are able to move, and are described as motile. Some of the motile forms have a few flagella
(singular = flagellum) which are long whip-like structures that revolve rapidly to drive the bacteria forward.
Other motile bacteria have many smaller hair-like structures called fimbriae (singular = fimbria) which help
them move. Sometimes, bacterial cells form long chains, but each cell can survive on its own.
Figure 23: Prokaryote: A generalised bacterium
Bacteria obtain their nutrition in many different ways.
• Some Monera contain membranes that carry out photosynthesis. They are autotrophic.
• Some Monera feed by secreting enzymes into the food and absorbing the digested material. They are
saprotrophic.
• Some Monera are parasites living on or in other organisms. They are heterotrophic because they do not
make their own food, but rely on other organisms for their nutrition.
Watch the following video on bacteria and the Kingdom Monera to learn more:
Structure of bacteria: (Duration: 2.57)
Add what you have learnt about the Kingdom Monera to your comparison table (Table 6).
Kingdom Protista
Watch this video before you start to read the notes:
Protists: (Duration: 10.50)
See what you can already write into your summary table (Table 6).
Now read the notes and complete the table for Protista.
The Kingdom Protista consists of microscopic unicellular organisms, however, there are also some large very
simple multicellular algae (seaweeds). Larger protista have a simple structure with no specialised tissues [a
group of cells that perform a particular function, e.g. muscle tissue]. All their cells are very similar.
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Figure 24: Examples of Protista
Watch this video to help you understand the difference between unicellular and multicellular organisms:
Unicellular vs multicellular: (Duration: 3.17)
The Protist cell has a nuclear membrane around its chromosomes, and it has membrane-bound organelles
such as mitochondria. Protist cells are therefore eukaryotic.
The Protista are divided into two groups:
• Plant-like protists are single-celled organisms that contain chlorophyll and have a cell wall. They obtain
their energy by photosynthesis. They live mainly in water and often make stagnant or slow moving water
go green in colour. Seaweeds and freshwater algae such as Chlamydomonas are members of this group.
• Animal-like protists are single-celled organisms with no chlorophyll and no cell wall. They feed by
ingesting [consuming] other organisms or absorbing organic substances through the cell membrane.
They live mainly in water or as parasites in other organisms. They may cause diseases if they are
parasitic. Malaria and bilharzia are caused by protist parasites. Amoeba and Paramoecium are members
of this group.
Protists have a variety of ways of obtaining nutrition:
• Some species are autotrophs, e.g. algae (freshwater algae and seaweeds).
• Some species are heterotrophs, e.g. protozoa such as Amoeba.
• Some species are saprotrophs (e.g. slime moulds).
• Some species are parasites that can cause serious diseases in animals including humans.
Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are multicellular organisms that have chitin [a kind of carbohydrate that strengthens the cell walls, also
found in crab shells for example] in their cell walls. Their cells are eukaryotic. Some fungi are single-celled
organisms (e.g. yeast), while others are multicellular (e.g. mushrooms). The body of a fungus is made of
microscopic threads called hyphae. The hyphae (singular: hypha) mass together into a mycelium (plural:
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mycelia).
Fungi live on land or in water. Fungi cannot photosynthesise. They are heterotrophic. Fungi store their excess
food in oil droplets and as a carbohydrate called glycogen. Animals store their food in cells in the same way.
Most species are saprotrophs, which play an important role in decomposing dead organisms. Some species
are parasites that feed on living organisms. Athlete’s foot and ringworm are examples of parasitic fungi that
affect humans.
Figure 25: Examples of fungi
Watch this video to learn more about Fungi. Add what you learn to your comparison table (Table 6).
Biodiversity 3 – Fungi: (Duration:4.20)
Kingdom Plantae
Plants are multicellular organisms. The cells are organised into tissues such as support tissue, conducting
tissue and storage tissue. The cells are eukaryotic and have a cell wall composed of cellulose.
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Figure 26: Examples of plants
Plants live on land. Many simpler plants, such as mosses and even ferns, are reliant on water for
reproduction. Other plants, such as seed bearing gymnosperms (cone bearing plants such as pine trees) and
angiosperms (flowering plants), are not reliant on water for reproduction. Simpler plants also have less
developed water transport and support tissue, so they tend to be smaller. Plants with well developed
transport and support tissue can grow to extremely tall heights.
All species of the Kingdom Plantae are autotrophic and make their food by photosynthesis. They store their
food as starch. Plants cannot move from one place to another.
Watch the following video and then complete your comparison table: Plant classification: (Duration: 3.13)
Kingdom Animalia
Try and complete this row in your comparison table before you watch the video or read the notes!
Now watch this video: Animal Classification: (Duration: 3.58)
Animals are multicellular organisms. They have eukaryotic cells with no cell wall. The cells are organised into
different tissues, such as muscles, skin, and nerves. There is a wide variety of body plans within the Kingdom
Animalia.
All animals are heterotrophic. Some are saprotrophic and some are parasitic. They are all dependent on other
organisms for their nutrition.
Some animal species live on land, while others live in water. With the exception of sponges, animals can
move from one place to another.
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Figure 27: Examples of animals
Complete your comparison table(Table 6).

This activity spans over much reading work. Similarly to Activity 3, you will need to read a great deal of text in
this activity. How will you remember this information? There seems to be so much writing! An excellent way
to consolidate [combine a number of things into a single more effective or coherent whole] and summarise
all the information in these notes on the five kingdoms is to insert just the most important information into a
table. Tabulating the information will mean that the work is far easier to revise closer to exams. Tabulation
skills are covered in your Study Guide, so have a look there if you are unsure of how to proceed in making a
table.
Draw up your table outline first. You will find that your table becomes very large. Try using a double page in
your workbook, or sticking two sheets of exam pad paper together. The outline of the table is given in the
activity. You may decide to add extra columns to your comparison table such as: component of cell walls,
motility (whether or not the organism can move around) etc.
Then, as you read through the information on each kingdom and study the pictures that have been
referenced, enter the information for that kingdom into the table.
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Move onto the next kingdom.
We suggest you don’t simply copy all the given notes into your table but summarise the information
effectively (remember that summarising is discussed in the Student Guide).
You should now have a comprehensive comparison table. A ‘comprehensive’ piece of work means that the
work is complete and deals with all the aspects or elements of the topic. This table will be useful when you
revise this work.
A suggested table is given in the Answer Key at the end of the unit. Remember that your table may not look
identical to the one given in the Answer Key, but check to see that all the important details have been
included in your table.
Main idea
All living organisms can be classified into one of five Kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae or Animalia.
Activity 11: Practical activities
Suggested time:
Carry out the activity over a few days; 30 minutes to write up the activity.
Aim:
These are two simple practical activities that will give you an opportunity to observe Protista and
Fungi.
What you will do:

Task 1: Observing and investigating the behaviour of Protista
You will need:
• a small empty glass jar (an old clean peanut butter or mayonnaise bottle for example)
• some pond, river or dam water
• black paper
• scissors
• sticky tape
Cut a piece of black paper so that it covers the outside of the jar. Now cut some holes in the paper.
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Figure 28: Preparing the jar for the activity
Fill the jar with pond water, seal it and attach the black paper with the holes in it to the outside of the jar with
sticky tape (Figure 28). Put the jar on a windowsill in full sunlight.
After a few hours of sunlight, remove the jar from the windowsill and remove the black paper.
1. What do you observe?

2. What is the aim or hypothesis of this investigation?
3. What variable were you testing?
4. What other variables can you identify? How did you control them? Were they well controlled? Reasons.
5. Identify any limitations associated with this investigation.
6. Give reasons for what you observed.
7. What do your results tell you about the motility of protistans? Explain your answer.
Task 2: Cultivating Fungi
You will need:
• 1 thick slice of bread

• 1 slice of cheese
• 1 soft fruit (e.g. plum, peach)
• 3 clear plastic bags (sandwich / freezer bags)
• masking tape and marking pen
• If you have a magnifying glass, or can borrow one, this will allow you to see the fungi more clearly.
Slightly dampen the bread, cheese and fruit by sprinkling them with a bit of water. Do not make them very
wet. Leave the food out on a table overnight. The next morning, put each piece of food in its own plastic bag.
Loosely fold the top of the bag over.
Observe your samples every day over the next few days and record what you see. You may use diagrams as
well as words to describe your observations.
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Communicate your observations. You may do this in any meaningful way. You may decide to use tables,
diagrams, a daily diary with written notes, etc. Make sure your report is easy to read, neat and accurate.

It is very exciting to observe organisms that you may never have considered important previously. Actually
seeing organisms and watching how they grow and behave, is an important aspect of Biology. These
activities provide you with some experience of practical work.
Make sure you read through the instructions for each task carefully before you begin.
Assemble all the things you will need before doing the practical work.
Make careful observations. If you have a cell phone that has a camera, take photos of what you observe.
Write up your observations and practical reports neatly. Remember that when a scientist writes up a report,
he/she is expecting others to read the report. Make sure that your work communicates precisely what you
observed, by answering the questions in full. Support your answers with photos if you can.
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Assessment
1. Refer to Figure 19 when you answer this question. The first one has been done for you. 1.1 The striped
hyaena, the hedgehog and the tortoise belong to the same ………….
Answer: Phylum
1.2 The brown hyaena and the striped hyaena belong to the same ………….
1.3 The aardwolf, the cat and the whale belong to the same ……………
1.4 The spotted hyaena and the aardwolf belong to the same ………….
1.5 The frog, the aardwolf, the bat and the butterfly belong to the same …………
1.6 The brown hyaena and the jackal belong to the same …………….. (5)
2. Choose the correct answer for each of the following questions.

2.1 What does “classification” mean to biologists?
a. Naming organisms.
b. Sorting organisms into groups that share certain similarities.
c. Identifying organisms.
d. Describing organisms.
2.2 The scientist who introduced the five-kingdom classification system was ..
a. Charles Darwin
b. Carolus Linnaeus
c. Carl Woese
d. Robert Whitaker
2.3 The correct order of taxonomic categories from largest to smallest is …..
a. Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom?
b. Genus, species, kingdom, class, order, family, phylum?
c. Phylum, order, class, kingdom, genus, family, species?
d. Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,?genus, species?
2.4 The correct way of writing the scientific name for a spotted hyaena is …
a. Crocuta crocuta
b. Crocuta Crocuta
c. Crocuta crocuta
d. Crocuta crocuta
2.5 Encephalartos natalensis and Encephalartos princeps are two types of cycads. The two cycads belong
to the same:
a. Species
b. Ecosystem
c. Genus
d. Biome (10)
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3. Explain the difference between each pair of terms.

3.1 Indigenous and endemic
3.2 Prokaryote and eukaryote
3.3 Extinct and Threatened
3.4 Monera and Protista (8)
4. Each description in the table below fits one or more of the Kingdoms. Choose the Kingdom/s that match
each description.
Descriptions
4.1 Includes autotrophic organisms.
4.2 Organisms that have eukaryotic cells.
4.3 Photosynthetic organisms that live on land.
4.4 Unicellular organisms that have no nuclear membrane.
4.5 Eukaryotic organisms that have no tissues.
4.6 Prokaryotic one-celled organisms.
4.7 Bodies are made up of hyphae.
4.8. Multicellular organisms that can move around.
4.9. Includes saprotrophic organisms.

(15)
5. Re-draw the mindmap shown in figure 29, and insert the kingdoms into the boxes.
Figure 29: Characteristics of the five kingdoms
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6. Study Figure 30 and answer the questions that follow.
Figure 30: Classification of dogs and cats
6.1 If you were thinking about the idea of nested boxes ranging from larger boxes that held smaller boxes,
which group would be the largest group (or box) in this classification system and which is the smallest group
(or box)? 6.2 There is a group larger than the one you have indicated in 6.1, that is not shown in this diagram.
What is the name of this general group? If you included this larger group in this classification scheme, what
would the name of this group be, given the organisms being classified? 6.3 Which group in the classification
system is just smaller than an Order? 6.4 How many other species of organisms are shown to be very closely
related to a lion? 6.5 Which organism is more closely related to a domestic dog: a wolf or an African Wild
Dog? Give a reason for your answer. 6.6 Are jackals more closely related to African Wild dogs or to Wild cats?
Give a reason. (7)
7. Originally, Fungi were classified in the Plant Kingdom. Evaluate the decision to move them into their own
kingdom by justifying why they are not plants. (6)
[60]
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Answers

1. a. Birds have the greatest biodiversity. The bar for birds reaches the highest on the graph, representing
the greatest number of species.
b. Amphibians have the lowest biodiversity. The bar representing amphibians is the smallest, indicating
the lowest number of species.
c. The dependent variable is the number of species, shown on the y-axis. d. A bar chart has been used
because the information on the x-axis does not form a continuous series of data. The independent
variable is groups of vertebrates and therefore is non-numerical. The data is represented by vertical bars
that do not touch each other.
2.
Figure 31: Bar graph showing biodiversity of four plant groups in South Africa
Ensure that the following criteria are present in your graph:

Title
X and y-axes correctly allocated and labeled
Axes are scaled appropriately
Bars correctly plotted
Spaces between bars
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1. Hyaena
2. Hyaenidae
3. Viverridae, Felidae and Canidae well as the family Hyaenidae
4. Mammalia
5. There are five classes: Mammalia, Pisces. Reptilia, Amphibia, Aves
6. Animalia
7. Kingdom is the largest group (box) and species is the smallest group (box).
8. The striped hyaena is more closely related to the brown hyaena than the spotted hyaena. The brown and
striped hyaena are placed in the same genus. The spotted hyaena is in a different genus.

Feature Prokaryote or eukaryote or both?
membrane-enclosed organelles such as mitochondria eukaryote
ribosomes both
cytoplasm both
circular strand of DNA as a chromosome prokaryote
linear chromosomes of DNA eukaryote
chromosomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane to form a nucleus eukaryote
cell walls may be present both
cell membrane is present both
the smaller of the two cell types prokaryote

Table 5: Comparing eukaryote and prokaryote cells

Kingdom Prokaryote or Unicellular or Form of nutrition Examples Any other

eukaryote multicellular interesting fact/s
Monera prokaryote unicellular autotrophic, bacteria some can move

saprotrophic or using flagella or
heterotrophic fimbriae; often have
a slime capsule
around the cell wall
Protista eukaryote unicellular; some autotrophic, algae, seaweeds, many can move,
simple saprotrophic, Amoeba, parasitic forms can
multicellular heterotrophic, Paramoecium cause disease,
forms but no some are parasites some have cell
organisation into walls, others only
tissues cell membranes
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ACT I V I TY 1 1 A N S W E R K E YS
Fungi eukaryotic unicellular and heterotrophic, mushrooms, cannot move, cell

multicellular saprotrophic or yeasts, rusts walls with chitin
forms; hyphae parasitic, food
form mycelia stored as oil
droplets and
glycogen
Plantae eukaryotic multicellular, autotrophic, food mosses, ferns, cannot move, cell
various tissues stored as starch pine trees, daisies walls have cellulose
exist which are
less developed in
simpler plants
and well
developed in
other plants
Animalia eukaryotic multicellular, heterotrophic, sponges, jellyfish, two main groups

various tissues some are snails, insects, exist: invertebrates
and a variety of saprotrophic and earthworms, fish, and vertebrates; no
body plans some are parasitic amphibians, cell walls
reptiles, birds and
mammals
Activity 11 Answer keys

Task 1
1. You should observe patches of green where the holes were – indicating the presence of photosynthetic
protista.
2. To demonstrate that photosynthetic protista can move to areas of light/Show the presence of green
organisms in pond water/Light has an effect on the behaviour of protista etc. Any reasonable ideas.
3. This will depend on the hypothesis that you state and what the focus is of the investigation, in your
opinion. Light is a variable.
4. Heat, for example is another variable. It is very difficult to control this variable as the windowsill is likely to
be warm-hot. Use of a fan to keep the heat down could be one way you control the variable.
5. Does not demonstrate the behaviour of non-photosynthetic or heterotrophic protistans; it focuses only on
the autotrophic algae.
6. The protista moved to the areas where the holes were in the black paper i.e. to areas where sunlight was
allowed through to shine into the water. The protista moved to the patches of sunlight so they could
photosynthesise.
7. Protista are able to move in the water. This is shown by the fact that there were no patches of green
initially and after the exposure of limited areas of sunlight, the protista moved to these patches of
sunlight.
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Task 2
Did you
• make diagrams of what you saw?

• measure the size of the mycelial growth?
• describe the way the fungi spread?
• describe colour changes?
• compare the growth of the fungi on the different foods?
Do you think you grew more than one type of fungus? Reasons?
Unit 2 Summary Assessment Answer Key

1.1 Answer is given
1.2 Genus
1.3 Class
1.4 Family
1.5 Kingdom
1.6 Order (5)
2.1 B
2.2 D
2.3 D
2.4 A
2.5 C (10)
3.1 Indigenous means belonging to a particular geographic area. Endemic means occurring in a particular
geographic area and nowhere else on earth.
3.2 Prokaryote means a cell that has no nuclear membrane, and no membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryote
means a cell that has a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles.
3.3 Extinct means there are no more of that species left in an area or in the world. Threatened means there
are a few individuals, but the species may become extinct if not protected. 3.4 Monera are prokaryotic,
unicellular organisms. Protista are eukaryotic, unicellular or simple multicellular organisms. (8)
4.
Descriptions
4.1 Monera, Protista, Plantae (3)
4.2 Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia (4)
4.3 Plantae (1)
4.4 Monera (1)
4.5 Protista (1)
4.6 Monera (1)
4.7 Fungi (1)
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4.8. Animalia (1)
4.9. Monera, Fungi (2)

(15)
5.
(5)
6.1 phylum = largest; species = smallest (2)

6.2 Kingdom: Animalia (2)
6.3 Family (1)
6.4 3 (1)
6.5 Wolf; domestic dogs and African Wild dogs belong to different genera, however, wolves and dogs belong
to the same genus, Canis. (2) 6.6 Jackals more closely related to Wild dogs than Wild cats. This is because
although jackals and wild dogs belong to separate genera, they belong to the same family (Canidae) and wild
cats belong to the family Felidae. (3) (11)
7. Fungi are not plants, because:

• they are heterotrophic and cannot make their own food;
• they do not possess the same type of tissues that plants have;
• their cell walls are made from chitin and not cellulose;
• they do not store food as starch but as oil droplets and glycogen. However, they are also not animals,
because:
• they are usually attached to a substrate and are not motile;
• they do not possess the same kinds of tissues that animals have;
• they have cell walls around their cells. For these reasons, Fungi are placed in their own kingdom. (6)
[60]
You have completed the unit: Principles of classification. In the next unit, the focus is on the history of life on
Earth.
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Unit 3: The History of Life
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Unit 3: Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to construct a timeline showing key events in the history of life on
earth.
Introduction
So far in this Topic, we have focussed on biodiversity at the level of the diversity of biomes in South Africa,
and the diversity of species living on Earth at present. Diversity has another dimension: time.
The diversity of living organisms we see around us at present is about 10% of the biodiversity that has
existed in the past.
This short unit focuses on the organisms that have existed on earth for at least 3 500 million years as well as
the main events in the history of the Earth.
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Earth has an extremely long history
We know that different species of organisms existed in the past, because their remains are preserved as
fossils.
Fossils are the preserved remains of once-living organisms, or preserved traces left behind by living
organisms. Examples of fossils are fossilised bones, wood, footprints, tree resin and even faeces. Fossils tell
us about the kinds of life that existed in the past.
Figure 32: Fossils are evidence of organisms that lived millions of years ago
(Ammonites; Fish; Lizard )
How old is life on Earth?
Scientists have found ways of measuring the age of fossils. We know that the Earth formed about 4,6 billion
years ago. The oldest fossils of living things are at least 3,5 billion years old. They are bacterial cells.
Scientists have discovered some even older fossils that suggest that life may have evolved even earlier.
For the next 2 billion years, bacteria were the only life forms on Earth. Eukaryotic cells evolved about 1,4
billion years ago. At first, life existed only in the oceans. From about 540 million years ago, diversity
expanded. The first fish evolved about 460 million years ago. The first land plants evolved about 420 million
years ago.
Table 7 shows some significant events in the history of life on Earth. It shows the approximate dates that
various groups of organisms evolved.
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Table 7: Some important events in the history of life
Some important events and when they occurred in the history of life
Event Time in millions of years ago (mya)
First bacteria 3 500 mya
First eukaryotes 2 100 mya
First fish 460 mya
First land plants 420 mya
First amphibians 370 mya
First reptiles 340 mya
First mammals 230 mya
First birds 195 mya
First flowering plants 141 mya
First pre-humans 5 mya

What’s with millions and billions?
How many millions are equal to 1 billion?
A million is equal to a thousand thousands (1,000 x 1,000 = 1 000 000).
A billion is equal to a thousand millions (1,000 x 1,000,000 – 1 000 000 000).
So looking at the numbers in Table 7, the first bacteria occurred 3 500 million years ago, which
is the same as saying 3.5 billion years.
Let’s try and get a better idea of how much time is represented by a million years, to get a better
understanding of the time frames in Table 7.
You can hold your breath for 10 seconds, can’t you? Easy!
Could you hold your breath for 100 seconds? How long is 100 seconds? 1.7 minutes! Maybe you can hold
your breath that long.
How about 1 000 seconds…could you hold your breath for a 1 000 seconds? That’s 16.7 minutes! You
definitely can’t hold your breath that long!
What about 1 000 000 seconds? How long is 1 million seconds? Can you believe – it’s 11.5 days!
If you wanted to count to 1 million, 1 second per number, for 24 hours a day, it would take you about 12 days.
There are 32 million seconds in a year and 5 days!
So how many days is one billion seconds? (That’s 1 000 000 000 seconds.) It’s 31.7 years.
Starting to get an idea of how big a million and a billion are?
What about this…
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If you had one million millilitres of water – would you drink it? bath in it? swim in it? And what about a billion
millilitres?
Well, 1 ml of water is about two drops of water. 5ml of water is a teaspoonful.
What if you had a 1 000 ml of water? That’s pretty easy; it’s one litre of water.
What about 10 000 ml of water? Easy…10 litres. That would be about a basin of water to wash dishes.
What about 100 000 ml of water? That’s 100 litres. An average bath holds about 180 litres at overflow level,
so you would probably bath in about 100 litres comfortably (not if you were saving water though!).
So 1 000 000 ml of water? That’s 1 000 litres. We’re looking at the size of a small swimming pool of water.
And 1 billion millilitres? That’s a million litres. An Olympic sized swimming pool holds 2.5 million litres. That’s
a lot of drops!
Here’s another idea.
The average workbook or exam pad page has 32 lines.

Draw 125 dots on each line! (You can actually do this if you like!)
Your 1 page will then have 4 000 dots on it.
How many pages will have 10 000 dots? Don’t draw them all, but you’re looking at 2.5 pages.
How many pages will have 100 000 dots? That’s 25 pages, right?
And a million dots? 250 pages! Your average exam pad has 100 pages, so we’re talking about 2 and a half
exam pads for 1 million dots.
What about 1 billion dots? 250 000 pages! That’s 2500 exam pads!
A million and a billion are very large numbers! Scientists who work with geological time and fossils, work in
millions and billions of years.
Activity 12: Constructing a timeline to represent history of life on Earth
Suggested time:
45 minutes
Aim:
By constructing this timeline, drawn to scale, you will gain a better understanding of the time frames
between the major events in life’s history.
What’s a timeline?
A timeline is a graphical or diagrammatic representation of a period of time, on which

important events are marked in chronological order. That means that the events are arranged
along a line in the time order that they happened. It is important that time is marked on the
line. The units of time will vary depending on what you are illustrating. Time could be shown in
hours (as in a diary), days (as in a calendar) or years. It is important to show the units of time
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along the timeline to scale, so that an accurate idea of lengths of time can be seen on the
timeline. You can also add pictures to a timeline. You can search on the Internet for examples
of timelines to get an idea of what they look like and how they are used.
What you will need:

You may need paper, labels, a pair of scissors, prestik and other stationery items. Your precise needs will
depend on the design of your timeline. Once you have decided how you will construct your timeline, make a
list of everything you think you will need. Then you can collect these items together.
What you will do:

Watch the following videos that give you some idea of the history of life on Earth.
As you watch the videos, make notes on ideas for constructing a timeline.
The whole history of the Earth and Life Parts 1 - 5:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yElkGO-ZgSc (Duration: 3.06)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nR6tetKEIw (Duration: 4.17)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ECqK14nuK5s (Duration: 4.10)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYUJDEaDjvQ (Duration: 5.56)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psH2pi4N7_M (Duration: 4.13)
These websites are also useful. If you are able to access the internet, you will find the information in these
articles will help you. Remember that public libraries often offer free internet access.
Important events in the history of life:
Comparing the history of life to a clock:

Read through the instructions for this task carefully.
If you are still unsure about how to go about constructing the timeline, here is an idea:
Single ply toilet paper comes in rolls that are divided into sections called sheets. Each roll has 500 sheets of
toilet paper. If you make one sheet = 5 million years, one toilet roll will give you 2 500 million years of history.
Since most of the history of life took place in the last 500 million years, you can unroll 100 sheets, and leave
the rest of the paper rolled up. You can attach the toilet paper to a long wall (or one wall in a room, and make
the timeline go around the room) with sticky tape or Prestik. You will need some large sticky labels as well.
1. The first sheet is the last 5 million years of the history of life. Attach a label to the sheet: “5mya: first pre-
humans”.
2. Count in 5s from the first sheet until you reach 140-145 mya. This sheet is the time at which the first
flowering plants evolved. Label the sheet: “141 mya: first flowering plants”.
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3. Count in 5s from the 140 mya to the 195 mya mark. The first birds evolved about 195 mya. Label that
sheet: “195 mya: first birds”.
4. Keep working in this way until you have labelled all the events shown in Table 7, except the first
eukaryotes and the first prokaryotes. Stick a label on a toothpick near the beginning of the toilet paper to
mark the first eukaryotes. The first prokaryotes would be a long distance before this mark and we don’t
show them on this scale.
5. You can add pictures that you print from the internet to your timeline to add interest.
If you have a Study Buddy, or are studying at a college, why not do this activity as a group task? It could be
fun to work together on this task!
Take photographs of your completed timeline.
Use this rubric to check your timeline.
Rubric to assess timeline
Criterion Missing : 0 Poor: 1 mark Fair: 2 Good: 3 Excellent: 4

marks marks marks marks
All the events in Table 7 have been recorded

on the timeline.
Chronological order is correct.
The timeline is correctly scaled.
The timeline is well constructed and easy to

read.
Attention to presentation: illustrations,

spelling etc.
No model answers are given for this activity, as your timelines will all differ.
Keep the timeline if you can, as you will refer to it again in Topic 3, Unit 2.
Main idea
Living organisms have existed on earth for 3 500 million years.
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Unit 3: Assessment
Answer the following multiple choice questions, using the knowledge you have gained from this Unit.
1. Which of the following is NOT regarded as fossil evidence for life that existed in the past? a. Shells that
have been turned into stone when the chemicals that originally formed the shell have been replaced by
minerals that form rock. b. Insects embedded in tree resin that has hardened into amber. c. Stone tools
made by ancestors of modern humans. d. 195 million year old dinosaur footprint imprinted in rock.
2. Which is the most likely age of the Earth, based on the evidence we have today?
a. 4.6 million years old.
b. 3.5 billion years old.
c. 4.6 billion years old.
d. 2 billion years old.
3. What is the age of the oldest fossils of living things?

a. 3.5 billion years old.
b. 3.5 million years old.
c. 350 000 years old.
d. 35 000 years old.
4. Which statement about the earliest life forms is FALSE?

a. For 2 billion years, prokaryotes were the only organisms on Earth.
b. The earliest life forms existed only in the oceans.
c. Cells with a membrane-bound nucleus evolved about 1,4 billion years ago.
d. Prokayrote and eukaryote cells evolved at more or less the same time.
5. Which is the correct order for the evolution of different groups of living things?
a. bacteria, fish, eukaryotes, amphibians, land plants, birds.
b. bacteria, fish, land plants, reptiles, mammals.
c. eukaryotes, land plants, reptiles, amphibians, mammals.
d. reptiles, birds, mammals, flowering plants.
6. One billion is equal to

a. a thousand millions.
b. a thousand thousands.
c. ten million.
d. a million millions.
Questions 7 – 10 relate to the following diagram, which is one version of a timeline showing important
events in the history of life:
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A SS E SS M E N T
Timeline showing important events in the history of life
(Timeline)
7. Eukaryote cells evolved

a. before the ability of organisms to photosynthesise
b. 1 billion years ago
c. after there was oxygen in the atmosphere
d. at the time of the Cambrian Explosion
8. According to this timeline, which of the following statements is correct?

a. The Cambrian Explosion occurred after the evolution of tetrapods.
b. Prokaryotes evolved before the ability of cells to photosynthesise.
c. The Moon was formed before the Earth was formed.
d. All insects evolved at the same time as flowering plants.
9. According to this timeline, it is safe to suggest that multicellular organisms evolved

a. at the same time as eukaryotes.
b. at about 0.5 billion years.
c. at the time of the Cambrian Explosion.
d. after the evolution of protozoa but before the evolution of sponges and fungi.
10. The circled numerals reading from left to right, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 represent
a. thousands of years.
b. hundreds of thousands of years.
c. millions of years.
d. billions of years.
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Unit 3: Answers

Take photographs of your completed timeline.
Use this rubric to check your timeline.
Rubric to assess timeline
Criterion Missing : 0 Poor: 1 mark Fair: 2 Good: 3 Excellent: 4

marks marks marks marks
All the events in Table 7 have been recorded

on the timeline.
Chronological order is correct.
The timeline is correctly scaled.
The timeline is well constructed and easy to

read.
Attention to presentation: illustrations,

spelling etc.
[20]
Unit 3 Summary Assessment Activity Answer key

1. c
2. c
3. a
4. d
5. b
6. a
7. c
8. b
9. d
10. d
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Key Learning Points
The unit Biodiversity and the Biomes of South Africa focussed on the following key points:
• South Africa has an extremely rich biodiversity.

• The biosphere is all parts of the Earth where life can exist. The biosphere receives energy from the Sun,
but all other requirements for life are recycled within the biosphere.
• A biome is a region that has a particular type of plant life, which is controlled by climatic conditions.
• Climate and soil control the type of vegetation that grows in a biome. South Africa has great diversity of
climate and soil types across the country.
• South Africa has nine major biomes.
• Each biome has characteristic climate, soils and vegetation.
• Plants are adapted to the climatic conditions of each biome.
• The Red List is used to identify organisms that are threatened with extinction and therefore need special
conservation measures.
• Sustainable use of plants means that we use the plants at a rate that allows the plants to recover, grow
and reproduce. If we do not use plants sustainably, many species will become extinct.
The unit Principles of Classification focussed on the following key points:
• Species are groups of organisms that share many characteristics and can reproduce successfully.
• Biodiversity is the number of different species in an area.
• Indigenous species belong to a particular area.
• Exotic species have been introduced from another area.
• Endemic species belong to a particular area and are not found anywhere else in the world.
• Biodiversity of an area can be represented in tables and graphs for easy understanding and interpretation.
• Classifying means grouping objects that share certain similarities. Classification allows us to create
order out of large numbers of objects.
• The classification scheme for living organisms is a nested hierarchy. It has seven main levels: Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
• Each species has two names: first the name of the genus, and second, the name of the species. This is
called the binomial naming system.
• In the Five Kingdom classification system, prokaryotes such as bacteria fall into the Kingdom Monera.
The other eukaryotic kingdoms are: Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
• Monera are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms that are autotrophic, heterotrophic or saprotrophic
organisms.
• Protista are eukaryotic, unicellular or simple multicellular organisms that are autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that have chitin in their cell walls. They are unicellular or simple
multicellular, saprotrophic organisms.
• Plantae are eukaryotic organisms that have cellulose in their cell walls. They are multicellular, and most
plants have tissues. They are autotrophic.
• Animalia are eukaryotic organisms with no cell walls. They are multicellular, and most animals have
tissues. They are heterotrophic.
209
K E Y PO I N TS
We tend to be more aware of members of the Plantae and Animalia kingdoms, as these organisms are
relatively large and we come into contact with them often. However, micro-organisms are extremely
interesting! If you enjoyed learning about Protista, you may enjoy watching this video. It shows a hunting
battle between two heterotrophic, unicellular protistans, Amoeba (the blob-like organism) and Stentor (the
tube-shaped organism with the cilia at one end). Imagine this battle going on in a pond or river near you!
Before the video starts, guess which organism will win the battle? Who will become lunch? Or does ‘lunch’
manage to escape leaving only part of itself behind?
[Amoeba meets Stentor:]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FcCvhYmjaXE) (Duration: 6.30)
The unit the history of life focussed on the following key point:
• Living organisms have existed on earth for 3 500 million years.
210

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National Senior Certificate for

Department of Higher Education and Training

Module: Nature of Science 11

Topic 1: What is Natural Science? 13

Unit 1: The Nature of Science and Scientific Knowledge 15

Unit 2: Science in Society 31

Topic 2: Scientific Inquiry 49

Unit 1: The Process of Scientific Inquiry 51

Unit 2: Presenting Scientific Reports 77

Unit 1 - Biodiversity and the Biomes of South Africa 97

Unit 2: Principles of Classification 145

Unit 3 - The History of Life 195

Key Points 209

Saide: Management, course design, development and production.

progressive development within each of these sections.

Exit level outcomes

1. Understand and use subject-specific knowledge with regard to:

2. Know and apply subject specific skills, namely:

Structure of the content in Natural Sciences

The Natural Sciences content is divided into four modules, as follows:

Module: The Nature of Science

Credits and learning time in Natural Sciences

Nature of science? Natural science? Are they the same?

Topic 1 comprises 2 units. The structure of this topic is depicted in Figure 1:

Figure 1: Structure of this topic

1. Describe the nature of science as a comprehensive and reliable way of understanding

2. Demonstrate understanding that although much scientific knowledge is long-lasting, it

In this unit you will be exploring the following:

2. Scientific knowledge grows and changes.

3. Science is organised into scientific disciplines.

Activity 1: What do you understand by ‘science’?

What you will do:

Record your answers in your workbook.

Discussion of the activity

The Nature of Science: (Duration: 3.02)

Discussion of the quiz

The answer to each of the questions in the quiz is Yes!

• Is science the stuff you find in science textbooks?

An example of how a theory was developed

All living things are made up of cells.

Figure 2: Robert Hooke’s cork cells

Microscopy and Cell Theory:(Duration: 9.16)

Scientific knowledge grows and changes

Activity 2: Scientific knowledge changes over time

What you will do:

Read the following carefully:

Answer the questions in your workbook, under the heading Activity 2.

Discussion of the activity

Why do you need to know about scientific disciplines?

Activity 3: Understanding different scientific disciplines

What you will do:

Figure 3: Example of a Venn diagram

What’s a Venn diagram?

1. The study of animals.

Discussion of the activity

What is biology?(Duration: 2.34)

Figure 4: Answer to Activity 3

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the value of science for human society.

In this unit you will explore the following:

1. Science has value for human society.

2. Science provides opportunity for employment.

3. Future careers in science.