Interactive multimedia:
Interactive multimedia allows the user to control, combine, and
manipulate a variety of media types, such as text, computer
graphics, audio and video materials, as well as animation.
Interactive multimedia integrates computer, storage, data, phone,
TV, and other information technologies.
Non interactive multimedia:
Non-interactive media, on the other hand, refers to services and
systems that individuals do not directly connect to. For example,
when we watch television, we can simply see it and not engage
with it. Just as when we are working on a computer, we can only
command it and it will only follow our instructions
Linear multimedia :
In linear multi-media, information is read or viewed in a
continuous sequence. Usually, these presentations begin at a
predetermined starting point and end at a predetermined end
point. In this type of media, We do not have to interact with the
Media file in playing mode.
Non linear multimedia:
Non-linear media is a form of audiovisual media that can be
interacted with by the viewer, such as by selecting television
shows to watch through a video on demand type service, by
playing a video game, by clicking through a website, or by
interacting through social media.
Generally, information entropy is the average amount of
information conveyed by an event, when considering all possible
outcomes.Information entropy is a measure of how much
information there is in some specific data. It isn't the length of the
data, but the actual amount of information it contains. For
example, one text file could contain “Apples are red.” and
another text file could contain “Apples are red. Apples are red.
Animation is defined as a series of images rapidly changing to
create an illusion of movement. We replace the previous image
with a new image which is a little bit shifted. Animation Industry
is having a huge market nowadays. To make an efficacious
animation there are some principles to be followed.
1 Squash and stretch 2 Anticipation 3 Staging
4 Straight-ahead action and pose-to-pose
5 Follow through and overlapping action 6 Slow in and slow out
7 Arc 8 Secondary action 9 Timing 10 Exaggeration
11 Solid drawing 12 Appeal
Animators are digital artists with competencies that include
conceptual design, drawing, creative development, and curiosity.
They also use animation tools and software. The following list
offers a glimpse of the tools animators use:
1 3ds Max (Autodesk). This commercial animation software tool
allows digital artists to produce 3D animations, including
developing models and rendering them into 2D or 3D images.
2 After Effects (Adobe). Digital artists can use this commercial
tool to add visual effects and motion graphics elements to film,
TV, video, online content, presentations, and more.
3 Animate (Adobe). Users can create animations across multiple
media, from cartoons and banner ads to interactive content for
games, TV shows, academic content, and infographics.
4 Blender (The Blender Foundation). This free open source 3D
graphics creation suite offers a comprehensive feature set to
create animations, digital art, visual effects, 2D and 3D models,
and more.
5 Cartoon Animator 4 (Reallusion). Digital artists across TV, film,
web, and game development using this versatile animation tool
can create 2D animation with 3D motion.
Multimedia tools using a combination of multimedia
technologies or content forms such as text, audio, picture, video
or animation. Multimedia tools are Applications. A Multimedia
Application is an application which uses a multiple media
sources e.g. text, graphics, images, sound/audio, animation
and/or video.
we can define Shannon Fano Algorithm as a data
compression "method of obtaining codes using probability."
The Shannon-Fano code was discovered almost simultaneously
by Shannon and Fano around 1948. Also, the code created by the
Shannon-Fano code is an instantaneous code . However, unlike
the Huffman code , it is not necessarily a compact code.
CEL ANIMATION - Cel animation is a process that involves the
use of cel animation software. It is a way to create films,
television shows and video games.This type of animation is often
used in commercials and other forms of advertising, as well as in
feature films.Cel animation is a type of computer-generated
imagery (CGI) that uses hand-drawn images instead of live
actors.
MPEG
MPEG algorithms compress the data to form small bits that can
be easily transmitted and then decompressed accurately and
quickly to allow high-fidelity reconstruction. MPEG standards aim
for a compression ratio of about 52:1, requiring the reduction of,
for example, 7.7MB to less than 150KB.
In the early days of MPEG, having enough power to perform
these compressions and decompressions was a problem. A PC
needs sufficient processor speed (about 400 MHz), internal
memory and hard-disk space. At 30 frames per second (fps),
digital video requires 235MB of disk space per minute of play.
KINEMATICS:The term “kinematics” refers to the study of the
translational and rotational motion of objects without reference
to mass, force or torque. Kinematics equations are used to
describe three-dimensional motion of a multi-body system in
terms of translational and rotational motions, and optionally,
linear and angular velocities. Kinematics analysis becomes
important in the animation of articulated models and skeletal
structures containing serial chains of joints and links.
INVERSE KINEMATICS: IK is a popular tool in Unity and
computer graphics, but if this is the first time you’ve tried to
create or use an Inverse Kinematics system then you might want
more details. I’m going to explain what IK is, define the
vocabulary, and review the uses.
2d & 3d ANIMATION: In traditional 2D animation, everything
was hand-drawn, frame by frame. In 3D animation, you animate
your characters and objects in a 3D environment using 3D
animation software to manipulate these characters and objects.
While drawing is an added benefit, it is not a necessity in 3D
animation. In 2D animation, animators use characters, Visual FX
(VFX), and backgrounds to create an illusion of movement within
a two-dimensional space by sequencing individual drawings
together over a set period.
JPEG is intended for compressing images that will be looked at
by humans. MPEG is short for Moving Picture Experts Group,
and pronounced m-peg. MPEG achieves high compression rate
by storing only the changes from one frame to another, instead of
each entire frame.
Video and audio software is used to process audio and video
signals. Products include video and audio recorders, video and
audio editors, video and audio encoders and decoders, and video
and audio conversion and playback software. Video and audio
software for motion analysis is also available.
Video – WondershareFilmora ,imovie , Adobe Premiere Pro
Audio – Adobe Audition , Garage Band , Logic Pro X
Lossy compression is a type of data encoding and The term compression ratio refers to a fraction, percentage or
compression that intentionally discards some data during the ratio that expresses the difference between the size of a file
compression process. The lossy compression method filters and before it was compressed and after the compression process is
discards unnecessary and redundant data to lower the quantity complete. This ratio depends on multiple different factors –
compressed and then executed on a computer. mostly, the state of the initial file and the algorithm used to
Lossy compression reduces the size of a file to a large extent. compress the file.
Lossless compression entails compressing that data so that Multimedia authoring is a process of assembling different
when the compression is reversed, the original dataset is fully types of media contents like text, audio, image, animations and
recreated. This differs from "lossy" compression, in which some video as a single stream of information with the help of various
data is lost during the reversing process. Lossless audio software tools available in the market. Multimedia authoring tools
compression is another name for lossless compression. give an integrated environment for joining together the different
Lossless compression reduces the size but less as compared to elements of a multimedia production. It gives the framework for
lossy compression. organizing and editing the components of a multimedia project. It
enables the developer to create interactive presentation by
hardwares required for multimedia applications. combining text, audio, video, graphics and animation.
1ProcessorThe heart of any multimedia computer is its Features of Authoring Tools:
processor. Today Core 15 or higher processor is recommended 1 Editing Features- Most authoring environment and packages
for a multimedia computer. exhibit capabilities to create edit and transform different kinds of
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. media that they support. For example, Macromedia Flash comes
CPU performs all types of data processing operations. bundled with its own sound editor. This eliminates the need for
2 Memory and Storage Devices - You need memory for buying dedicated software to edit sound data. So authoring
storing various files used during production, original audio and systems include editing tools to create, edit and convert
video clips, edited pieces and final mined pieces. You also need multimedia components such as animation and video clips.
memory for backup of your project files. 2 Organizing Features- The process of organization, design and
3 Input Devices - production of multimedia involve navigation diagrams or
Keyboard- Most common and very popular input device is storyboarding and flowcharting. Some of the authoring tools
keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the data to the provide a system of visual flowcharting or overview facility to
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional showcase your project's structure at a macro level.
typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for 3 Visual programming with icons or objects- It is simplest and
easiest authoring process. For example, if you want to play a
performing some additional functions
Mouse - Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very sound then just clicks on its icon.
famous cursor-control device. It is a small palm size box with a 4 Document Development tools- Some authoring tools offers
round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and direct importing of pre-formatted text, to index facilities, to use
complex text search mechanism and to use hypertext link-ing
sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. tools.
4 Output Devices -
Monitors - Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit 5 Simple branching- Offers the ability to go to another section of
(VDU) is the main output device of a computer. It forms images the multimedia production.
from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged in a rectangular 6 Conditional branching- Supports a go to base on the result of
IF-THEN decision or events.
form.
Printers - Printer is the most important output device, which is
used to print information on paper. A multimedia project is a classic software project which is
developed using multimedia technology with the specific aim of
MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS distributing information in an entertaining and compelling
For the creation of multimedia on the PC there are hundreds of manner. Multimedia projects require creativity, artistic as well as
software packages that are available from manufacturers all over programming skills
the world. Following are the basic stages of multimedia project
These software packages can cost anything from being development.
absolutely free (normally this software is called freeware or 1 Project conceptualization:
shareware) to anything upwards of £500. Every project begins with a concept. A multimedia project
1 Adobe CS4 -Adobe CS4 is a collection of graphic design, video concept is actually the definition of the project. To define the
editing, and web development applications made by Adobe project, it is required for the development team and the clients to
Systems many of which are the industry standard that includes do the various meetings and discussions to identify the actual
2 Google Sketchup -SketchUp is a 3D modeling program problem. It may be the upgradation of the existing one or the
designed for architects, civil engineers, filmmakers, game entirely new one.
developers, and related professions. 2 Planning and Costing:
3 Microsoft Powerpoint -Powerpoint Presentations are generally In this stage, the analysis of the idea is done which is to be
made up of slides may contain text, graphics, movies, and other translated into a multimedia project. This idea can be further
objects, which may be arranged freely on the slide. refined by outlining its messages and objectives. Before starting
4 Adobe Fireworks- A graphics package that allows users to to develop the multimedia project, it is necessary to plan what
create bitmap and vector graphics editor with features such as: writing skills, graphic art, music, video, and other multimedia
slices, the ability to add hotspots etc.) for rapidly creating skills will be required.
website prototypes and application interfaces. 3 Design and Production:
Once the project is taken up for development, the laborious
project development cycle starts. Under this stage, the various
sub-stages are to be carried out. 1-Data gathering ,2-Navigation
Run-length encoding (RLE) is a lossless compression map structure design, 3-Media content design ,4-Interface
method where sequences that display redundant data are stored designing, 5-Storyboarding , 6-Integration (multimedia authoring)
as a single data value representing the repeated block and how 4 In
Testing:
every project, the Testing stage ensures that the product to be
many times it appears in the image. Later, during decompression, free from bugs. Apart from bug elimination, another aspect of
the image can be reconstructed exactly from this information.
This type of compression works best with simple images and testing is to ensure that the multimedia application meets the
animations that have a lot of redundant pixels. It's useful for multimedia project worksItproperly
objectives of the project. is also necessary to test whether the
on the planned delivery
black and white images in particular. For complex images and platforms and meets the needs of the clients.
animations, if there aren't many redundant sections, RLE can 5 Delivery:
make the file size bigger rather than smaller. Thus it's important The final stage of the multimedia application development is to
to understand the content and whether this algorithm will help or pack the project and deliver the complete project to the end-user.
hinder. This stage has several steps such as: 1-Implementation,
2-Maintenance, 3-Shipping and marketing
Aliasing is the visual stair-stepping of edges that occurs in an
image when the resolution is too low. Anti-aliasing is the Multimedia is a representation of information in an attractive and
smoothing of jagged edges in digital images by averaging the interactive manner with the use of a combination of text, audio,
colors of the pixels at a boundary. The letter on the left is aliased. video, graphics and animation. In other words we can say that
Multimedia is a computerized method of presenting information
Applications of Multimedia combining textual data, audio, visuals (video), graphics and
Engineering - Multimedia is frequently used by software animations. For examples: E-Mail, Yahoo Messenger, Video
engineers in computer simulations for military or industrial Conferencing, and Multimedia Message Service (MMS).
training. It’s also used for software interfaces created by creative Multimedia as name suggests is the combination of Multi and
experts and software engineers in partnership. Only multimedia Media that is many types of media (hardware/software) used for
is used to perform all the minute calculations. communication of information.
Fine Arts
Multimedia artists work in the fine arts, combining approaches
employing many media and incorporating viewer involvement in Multimedia in Hospital- Multimedia best use in hospitals is for
some form. For example, a variety of digital mediums can be real time monitoring of conditions of patients in critical illness or
used to combine movies and operas. accident. The conditions are displayed continuously on a
Business computer screen and can alert the doctor/nurse on duty if any
Marketing, advertising, product demos, presentation, training, changes are observed on the screen. Multimedia makes it
networked communication, etc. are applications of multimedia possible to consult a surgeon or an expert who can watch an
that are helpful in many businesses. The audience can quickly ongoing surgery line on his PC monitor and give online advice at
understand an idea when multimedia presentations are used. any crucial juncture.
In hospitals multimedia can also be used to diagnose an illness
Components of Multimedia with CD-ROMs/ Cassettes/ DVDs full of multimedia based
Multimedia consists of the following 5 components: information about various diseases and their treatment.Some
1.Text- Characters are used to form words, phrases, and hospitals extensively use multimedia presentations in training
paragraphs in the text. Text appears in all multimedia creations of their junior staff of doctors and nurses. Multimedia displays are
some kind. The text can be in a variety of fonts and sizes to now extensively used during critical surgeries.
match the multimedia software’s professional presentation.
2.Graphics- Non-text information, such as a sketch, chart, or A peripheral is a piece of computer hardware that is added to a
photograph, is represented digitally. Graphics add to the appeal computer in order to expand its abilities. The term peripheral is
of the multimedia application. In many circumstances, people used to describe those devices that are optional in nature, as
dislike reading big amounts of material on computers. As a opposed to hardware that is either demanded or always required
result, pictures are more frequently used than words to clarify in principle. There are all different kinds of peripherals you can
concepts, offer background information, and so on. Graphics are add your computer. The main disctinction among peripherals is
at the heart of any multimedia presentation. The use of visuals in the way they are connected to your computer.
multimedia enhances the effectiveness and presentation of the
concept. Q-Suppose a router receives an IP packet containing 600 data
3.Animations- A sequence of still photographs is being flipped bytes and has to forward the packet to a network with maximum
through. It’s a set of visuals that give the impression of transmission unit of 200 bytes. Assume that IP header is 20 bytes
movement. Animation is the process of making a still image long. What are fragment offset values for divided packets?
appear to move. A presentation can also be made lighter and Answer—DATA=600B, MTU = 200B ,IP HEADER = 20B.
more appealing by using animation. So in each frame 20B is reserved for IP HEADER ==> remaining is
4.Video- Photographic images that appear to be in full motion 180B
and are played back at speeds of 15 to 30 frames per second. The 180 is not divisible by 8 , so we take 176 (nearest ones divisible
term video refers to a moving image that is accompanied by by 8) as data along with 20B header.
sound, such as a television picture. Of course, text can be we will get four segments like
included in videos, either as captioning for spoken words or as
text embedded in an image, as in a slide presentation.
5.Audio- Any sound, whether it’s music, conversation, or
something else. Sound is the most serious aspect of multimedia,
delivering the joy of music, special effects, and other forms of
entertainment. Decibels are a unit of measurement for volume
and sound pressure level. Audio files are used as part of the
application context as well as to enhance interaction.
we will get fragment offset by dividing the datasent with 8 like 0
,176 / 8 (22) , (176+176) / 8 (44) ,(176+176+176) / 8 (66).
ANS :22,44,66
Huffman Encoding can be used for finding a solution to the
given problem statement.
Developed by David Huffman in 1951, this technique is the basis
for all data compression and encoding schemes
It is a famous algorithm used for lossless data encoding
It follows a Greedy approach since it deals with generating
minimum-length prefix-free binary codes
It uses a variable-length encoding scheme for assigning binary
codes to characters depending on how frequently they occur in
the given text. The character that occurs most frequently is
assigned the smallest code and the one that occurs least
frequently gets the largest code
Differences between Huffman and Shannon Fano algorithm are
as follows:
Results produced by Huffman encoding are always optimal.
Unlike Huffman coding, Shannon Fano sometimes does not
achieve the lowest possible expected code word length.
The Huffman coding uses prefix code conditions while Shannon
fano coding uses cumulative distribution function.However
Shannon Fano algorithm also produces prefix codes
Shannon Fano coding
Advantages :
Shannon-Fano codes are easy to implement using recursion.
Higher the probability of occurrence, the shorter the code length
in Shannon Fano Coding.
For Shannon Fano coding we do not need to build the entire
codeblock again and again. Instead, we simply obtain the code
for the tag corresponding to a given sequence.
Disadvantages :
Shannon-Fano codes are not compact codes.
In Shannon-Fano coding, we cannot be sure about the codes
generated. There may be two different codes for the same symbol packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides a
depending on the way we build our tree.
Shannon Fanon coding is not a unique code. So in case of errors identification for each device.
or loss during data transmission, we have to start from the
beginning.
Advantages of Huffman Encoding-
This encoding scheme results in saving lot of storage space,
since the binary codes generated are variable in length
It generates shorter binary codes for encoding
symbols/characters that appear more frequently in the input
string.
The binary codes generated are prefix-free
Disadvantages of Huffman Encoding-
Huffman encoding is suitable only for encoding text and program
files and is unsuitable for encoding digital images.
Huffman encoding is a relatively slower process since it uses two
passes- one for building the statistical model and another for
encoding.
Since the length of all the binary codes is different, it becomes
difficult for the decoding software to detect whether the encoded
data is corrupt. This can result in incorrect decoding and
subsequently, a wrong output.
The Huffman tree is the binary tree with minimum external path
weight, i.e., the one with the minimum sum of weighted path
lengths for the given set of leaves. So the goal is to build a tree
with the minimum external path weight.
A Shannon–Fano tree is built according to a specification
designed to define an effective code table. The actual algorithm
is simple: For a given list of symbols, develop a corresponding
list of probabilities or frequency counts so that each symbol's
relative frequency of occurrence is known.
AIM:-To bounce a ball using 3D Animation.
STEPS:-
Step 1: Select ‗Animation‘ from main menu bar.
Step 2: Click ‗Create‘ on Maya title bar and then click on
‗Polygon‘s primitives‘ and then click
on ‗Sphere‘.
Step 3: Click ‗Move‘ tool to move the ball to position in a frame.
Step 4: Fix the position of the ball in a frame by pressing the
‗Set‘ key(Shortcut-S).
Step 5: Move to the next frame and set another position of the
ball using Set key.
Step 6: Click ‗Play‘ to view the moving ball.
Morping is a popular effect in which one emage transform into transmission
another .In morping the warping of one still or moving image into Parallel Data Transmission
another take place. This ia rather like twinning in that you define
the start image and the end image but the two images are
completely different. The software works out a sequence of steps
so that the first image appear to change gradually into the
second object. In morphing setting keypoint is cruicial for
smooth transition between two images.
Morphing automatically animate the change of one image into
another as a special effect. It is the wrapping of one still or
moving image into another. Some products that offer morphing
features are black belt’s easy morph and winimages. Human
software squizz, valis group flo,metaflo and movieflo.
The morphed images were built at a rate of 8 frames per second
with each transition taking a total of 4 second and the number of
keypoints was held to a minimum to shorten rendering time. The
point you set in the start image will move to the corresponding
point in the end image. This is important for things like eyes and
noses which you want to end up in about the same place after the
transition. The more keypoints the smoother the morph.
COMMUNICATION DEVICES: -
Many multimedia application are developed in workgroups
comprising instructional designers, writers, graphics artists,
programmers, and musician
located in the same office space or building. The workgroup
member's computers typically arc connected on a local area
network (LAN) the client's computers, however, may he thousand
miles distant, requiring other methods of good communication.
1) MODEMS:
Modems can be connected to your computer externally at the
serial port or internally as a separate board. Internal modems
often include fax capability.Be sure that the modem is Hayes
compatible. Hayes AT standard command set allows us to work
with most software communication packages.
2) ISDN:
For higher transmission speed, we will need to use Integrated
Service Digital Network (ISDN), switched -56, TI, T3, DSL, ATM
etc. ISDN lines are popular because of their fast 128 kbps data
transfer rate- four to five times faster than the more common 28.8
kbps analog modem. ISDN lines are important for Internet
accessing, Networking and audio and video conferencing. They
are more expensive than the convention analog lines, so analyze
your costs and benefits carefully before upgrading to ISDN.
3) CABLE MODEM:
Cable modems usually send and receive data symmetrically -they
receive more (faster) than they send. In the downstream direction
from provider to user, the data is modulated and placed on a
common 6 Mhz television carrier, somewhere between 42 MHz &
750 MHz.
MIDI
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) is a standard to
transmit and store music, originally designed for digital music
synthesizers. MIDI does not transmit recorded sounds. Instead, it
includes musical notes, timings and pitch information, which the Isochronous transmission is similar to synchronous
receiving device uses to play music from its own sound library. transmission but the time interval between blocks is almost zero.
In this transmission synchronous and asynchronous data is
AVI Format collected from several devices within a time slot (125
AVI stands for Audio Video Interleave, a widely used video file micro-second)
format created by Microsoft in 1992. Native to all Microsoft frame through a synchronous data link one after another.
Windows operating systems, this file format is compatible for
synchronized playback of different types of video and audio
streams.
Transmission Modes:-
Transmission mode means transferring data between two
IPv4 IPv6 devices. It is also known as a communication mode. Buses and
networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types
of transmission mode:-
1. Simplex Mode –
IPv4 has a 32-bit address In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
length IPv6 has a 128-bit address one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can
length transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use
It Supports Manual and the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
DHCP address configuration It supports Auto and Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can
renumbering address only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.
In IPv4 end to end, configuration 2. Half-Duplex Mode –
connection integrity is In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive,
Unachievable In IPv6 end to end, connection but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other
integrity is Achievable can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
It can generate 4.29×109 cases where there is no need for communication in both
address space Address space of IPv6 is quite directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the channel
large it can produce 3.4×1038 can be utilized for each direction.
The Security feature is address space Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time
dependent on application and messages are sent in both directions.
IPSEC is an inbuilt security 3. Full-Duplex Mode –
IPv4’s IP addresses are feature in the IPv6 protocol In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive
divided into five different simultaneously. In full_duplex mode, signals going in one
classes. Class A , Class B, IPv6 does not have any classes direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
Class C , Class D , Class E. of IP address. another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission
paths, one for sending and the other for receiving.
Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both
directions.
IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used for packet-switched
networks. It operates on a best effort delivery model, in which Algorithm of JPEG Data Compression :
neither delivery is guaranteed, nor proper sequencing or We perform such type of compression to reduce the size of the
avoidance of duplicate delivery is assured. Internet Protocol file without damaging its quality. By reducing the size we can
Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the Internet Protocol and store it in a huge amount which was not possible earlier.
a widely used protocol in data communication over different Reducing the size of images will also improve the efficiency of
kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used in the system as it will give less load on it.
1. Splitting – We split our image into the blocks of 8*8 blocks. It
logical connection between network devices by providing forms 64 blocks in which each block is referred to as 1 pixel.
2. Color Space Transform – In this phase, we convert R, G, B to Y,
Cb, Cr model. Here Y is for brightness, Cb is color blueness and
Cr stands for Color redness. We transform it into chromium
colors as these are less sensitive to human eyes thus can be
removed.
3. Apply DCT – We apply Direct cosine transform on each block.
The discrete cosine transform (DCT) represents an image as a
sum of sinusoids of varying magnitudes and frequencies.
4.Quantization – In the Quantization process, we quantize our
data using the quantization table.
5. Serialization – In serialization, we perform the zig-zag scanning
pattern to exploit redundancy.
6. Vectoring – We apply DPCM (differential pulse code modeling)
on DC elements. DC elements are used to define the strength of
colors.
7. Encoding – In the last stage, we apply to encode either
run-length encoding or Huffman encoding. The main aim is to
convert the image into text and by applying any encoding we
convert it into binary form (0, 1) to compress the data.
Fragmentation is done by the network layer when the
maximum size of datagram is greater than maximum size of data
that can be held in a frame i.e., its Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU). The network layer divides the datagram received from the
transport layer into fragments so that data flow is not disrupted.
Since there are 16 bits for total length in IP header so, the
maximum size of IP datagram = 216 – 1 = 65, 535 bytes.
It is done by the network layer at the destination side and is
usually done at routers.
Reassembly of Fragments –
It takes place only at the destination and not at routers since
packets take an independent path(datagram packet switching),
so all may not meet at a router and hence a need of
fragmentation may arise again. The fragments may arrive out of
order also.
Why IPv4 Datagram Fragmentation required?
AIFF Format Different Networks may have different maximum transmission
Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) is an audio file format unit (MTU), for example due to differences in LAN technology.
standard used for storing sound data for personal computers and When one network wants to transmit datagrams to a network with
other electronic audio devices. The format was developed by a smaller MTU, the routers on path may fragment and reassemble
Apple Inc. datagrams.
This file format comes up with a standard for storing sampled
sounds. The format is good enough in flexibility, and enables the How is Fragmentation done?
storage of monaural or multichannel sampled sounds at various When a packet is received at the router, destination address is
sample rates and sample widths examined and MTU is determined. If size of the packet is bigger
than the MTU, and the ‘Do not Fragment (DF)’ bit is set to 0 in
In data communication system the method used to establish link header, then the packet is fragmented into parts and sent one by
to different devices and bit synchronization with time for data one. The maximum size of each fragment is the MTU minus the IP
within is called data transmission method. header size (Minimum 20 bytes and Maximum 60 bytes).
Each fragment is converted to a packet and the following
changes happen in the datagram header:
In Parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are sent at the 1. The total length field is changed to the size of the fragment.
same time over multiple channels. Each channel carries one bit 2.The More Fragment bit (MF bit) is set for all the fragment
at the same time. Parallel transmission is used when:1-A large packets except the last one.
amount of data is being sent;2-The data being sent is 3.The fragment offset field is set, based on the number of
time-sensitive; And the data needs to be sent quickly. For fragment that is being set and the MTU.
example- Parallel transmission is used to send data in video 4. Header Checksum is re-calculated.
streaming. Because video streaming requires the transmission of
large volumes of data. The data being sent is also time-sensitive
as slow data streams result in poor viewer experience. Quality of Service (QoS) is used to set up priority to specific
Serial Data Transmission devices, services or applications within the network through the
In Serial data transmission, data bits are sent one after another router, so that the maximum amount of available throughput and
over a single channel. Each bit has a clock pulse rate. Eight bits speed can be used.
are transmitted at a time with a start and stop bit known as a A protocol is designed to handle real-time traffic (like audio and
parity bit, which is 0 and 1, respectively. It is viewed as a reliable video) of the Internet, is known as Real Time Transport Protocol
data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the
previous data bit has already been received. It ensures that data (RTP). RTP must be used with UDP. It does not have any delivery
integrity is maintained as it transmits the data bits in a specific mechanism like multicasting or port numbers. RTP supports
order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received different formats of files like MPEG and MJPEG. It is very
in-sync with one another. sensitive to packet delays and less sensitive to packet loss.
Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) allows only that type of
message, which carries data from the source to the destination.
But in some cases, we need some other type of messages in a
Synchronous Asynchronous session. The messages that can control the transmission and
Transmission Transmission quality of data as well as also allow the recipients so that they
can send feedback to the source or sources. A protocol designed
for this purpose, which is known as Real-time Transport Control
Protocol (RTCP).
In Synchronous transmission, In Asynchronous A program to implement run length encoding in python?
data is sent in form of blocks transmission, data is sent in def encode(message):
or frames. form of bytes or characters. encoded_message = ""
i=0
Synchronous transmission is Asynchronous transmission is
fast. slow. while (i <= len(message)-1):
count = 1
Synchronous transmission is Asynchronous transmission is ch = message[i]
costly. economical j=i
while (j < len(message)-1):
In Synchronous transmission, In Asynchronous if (message[j] == message[j+1]):
the time interval of transmission, the time interval count = count+1
transmission is constant. of transmission is not j = j+1
constant, it is random else:
In this transmission, users break
have to wait till the Here, users do not have to encoded_message=encoded_message+str(count)+ch
transmission is complete wait for the completion of i = j+1
before getting a response transmission in order to get a return encoded_message
back from the server. response from the server #Provide different values for message and test your program
encoded_message=encode("ABBBBCCCCCCCCAB")
In Synchronous transmission, In Asynchronous print(encoded_message)
there is no gap present transmission, there is a gap
between data present between data.
and then passed those collected data as time