Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the relevant literature and studies that the researcher

considered in strengthening the importance of the present study. It present the

synthesis of the art to fully understand the research for better comprehension of the

study

Related literature

Research has shown that prejudice and stereotyping are contributing

factors to discrimination among students. According to Dovidie et al. (2014), implicit

biases, or unconscious attitudes and beliefs, can lead to discriminatory behavior.

Similarly, Devine (2016) argues that implicit biases can be reduced through awareness

and training.

Discrimination among students in educational institutes is one of the key reasons

for their behavioral changes. Research has increasingly recognized the discriminating

behaviour of teachers, but the impact of perceived discrimination by teachers on

students' behavioral changes has not been investigated enough. Applying a theoretical

model based on Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST), the

present study aimed to investigate the manner in which students' behavioral changes

were determined by their teachers' perceived discrimination, after knowing family

background and how this relationship was moderated by societal influence and cultural

background (Somasundar, 2021).

Discrimination can have significant negative effects on students' academic

performance, mental health, and overall well-being. Research has shown that
discrimination can lead to lower academic achievement, increased school dropout rates,

and mental health issues such as depression and anxiety (Schneider & Dimitrova,

2017).

According to Lewis, T. T., Williams, D. R., Tamene, M., & Clark, C. R. (2014).

Large-scale epidemiologic and community-based studies examining associations

between reports of discrimination and CVD risk have only recently begun to emerge,

despite the fact that researchers have long theorized that exposure to discrimination

may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). In contrast to other psychosocial

risk factors. The research on self-reported discrimination experiences and CVD risk

published between 2011 and 2013 is summarized in this review. We describe the novel

developments in recent work, the noteworthy heterogeneity in these trials, and the

critical need for further research using other objective clinical endpoints besides blood

pressure. The study's implications for racial disparities in CVD and clinical practice are

also covered.

The current study looked at the relationship between teenage perceptions of

discrimination and wellbeing, as well as the moderating effects of close friends'

experiences of discrimination and cross-ethnic friendships. In general, interethnic

friendships and friends' discrimination experiences played a protective function,

reducing the harm that prejudice could have on both socioemotional well-being and

academic performance.(Benner, A. D., & Wang, Y. 2017).

Lv, G., Zhou, Y., & Bing, Q. (2021) conducted a study on the influence of left-

behind adolescents perceived school adaptation. Perceived discrimination is found to

be adversely connected with resilience and school adaptation, while parent-adolescent

cohesion is found to be favourably correlated with both. The first step of the indirect

effect is influenced by the cohesion between parents and adolescents, according to

further investigation, and resilience plays a mediating function between perceived

discrimination and school adaptation. This study improved knowledge of left-behind

adolescents' perceptions of discrimination and their school adaptation while also

shedding information on how to enhance left-behind adolescents' school adaptation.

Mozhgan Ghaffarzadeh (2016). It is the learners' right to get an education free

from discrimination. Discrimination in education ranges from gender to race, age, social

class, financial status, and other characteristics. In this study the focus is on

discrimination in education in regard to social class and financial status. The paper

describes observations of the school building layout and corresponding activities and

behaviours in language education classes. The investigation in this study concluded

that the language classes of most of the public (state) schools and some semi-private

schools included a curriculum based on translation and memorization teaching

methods. In these schools, learners exhibited stress and inattention that disturbed their

learning. In these classes learners were threatened by laughing or rough criticizing by

the teachers. The observation results were analyzed to make comparisons between

schools and inform the level of equality in different schools.

According to Fields, X, & Wotipka, C. M. (2022).By examining patterns of policy

diffusion and the effects of the policies on four measures of students' well-being—self-

reported (1) experiences with bullying at school, (2) cyberbullying, (3) school absences

due to feeling unsafe at school, and (4) grades—this paper seeks to investigate the

relationship between state-level, LGBT anti-discrimination policies and high school

student well-being. The findings of this analysis, which made use of data from the Youth

Risk Behavior Surveillance System of the Centers for Disease Control and linear

regression analysis with time and state fixed effects, demonstrate the advantages of

comprehensive civil rights legislation for LGBT people and the spread of its externalities

to students in U.S. schools.

Lin, Y. (2021) investigated gender discriminations in schools, families and

workplaces. The main conclusion can be drawn is that female is received discrimination

to some extent, which is a serious problem. The aim of this research is to review the

recent progress of gender discriminations and remind people that the existence of

gender bias will influence female’s rights and interests, and then lead to social injustice.

In the accordance of Olsen, A. L., Kyhse‐Andersen, J. H., & Moynihan, D. (2022).

there are two ways that administrators can bias in the delivery of public services. They

decide how to distribute public services, which gives them the opportunity to

discriminate through allocative exclusion. They can discriminate by making legal

processes more difficult for outsiders by putting administrative constraints on them. We

provide evidence for both strategies, whereas earlier audit investigations solely

examined the use of administrative burdens.

Students Experiences on Discrimination

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017) i Experiencing

discrimination can provoke feelings of inferiority and anxiety. The effects,  inevitable

behaviors of discrimination, are so pervasive that it is at times unclear without close

observation how it truly effects those who experience it.

 Biases in schools from administration to teachers ultimately affect engagement

with students. Learned stereotypes dictate how individuals perceive and behave toward

one another. If a teacher is to believe a negative stereotype about particular students,

they will react accordingly.

Experiences of discrimination can lead to increased stress and negative health

outcomes. Similarly, Pasco and Smart Richman (2016) argue that discrimination can

lead to negative self-perceptions and reduced academic motivation.

According to Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2011).Through their effects on

perceptions of school climate, higher levels of discrimination and increases in

discrimination over time had an indirect impact on Latino adolescents' academic results

(i.e., grades, absences). The results draw attention to previously unresearched personal

and institutional contexts that influence discrimination experiences as well as the

mechanisms through which prejudice indirectly affects Latino teenagers' outcomes.

Even in school education, the gender Discrimination still exist. Victims of gender

bias are negative. They bear so much psychological pressure that they are not willing to

stand up and speak out for their injustice in public. Girls are in such an unfair

educational environment. The result is that generations of female have been trained to

be te "perfect female" in traditional society or people's mond. "Over the course of years,

the uneven distribution of teacher time, energy, attention, and talent, with boys getting

the lion's share, takes its toll on girls". Teachers are often unaware that their teaching

behavior is biased because they are simply teaching what they are supposed to teach,

and subtle gender inequalities found in teaching materials are often overlooked. "Boys
and Girls have different educations, although they enjoy the same classrooms, books

and the same teachers". During the period of time, girls are continuous receive an unfair

education (Yiting Lin, 2021).

Schafer, E. S. (2023) investigated that black pupils reported the highest levels of

perceived teacher discrimination, according to responses to the teacher discrimination

questionnaire. Hispanic children have the lowest educational expectations. individuals

who identified as Hispanic or other at wave three reported having the worst general

health, whereas White individuals had significantly higher general health than the other

three categories at wave four. Eight and fifteen years later, it was discovered that

teacher discrimination was a highly significant predictor of educational expectations,

financial expectations, and general health.

In the accordance of Olsen, A. L., Kyhse‐Andersen, J. H., & Moynihan, D. (2022).

there are two ways that administrators can bias in the delivery of public services. They

decide how to distribute public services, which gives them the opportunity to

discriminate through allocative exclusion. They can discriminate by making legal

processes more difficult for outsiders by putting administrative constraints on them. We

provide evidence for both strategies, whereas earlier audit investigations solely

examined the use of administrative burdens.

Recent reports on discrimination in private schools have prompted some

observers to criticize the practice of some populations being excluded from enrollment

and employment at private and charter schools that receive public tax funding. Others,

however, point out that in these and similar cases, the schools have not broken any
laws. Both could be correct. How is this possible? This policy brief examines prejudice

in an era of privatized education to provide a response to that question as stated by

Mead, J. F., & Eckes, S. E. (2018).

According to Chen, S, Wei, W, Witherspoon, D. P., & Kim. S. Y. (2022).The

findings showed that while higher levels of neighborhood disadvantage were linked to

more juvenile discrimination, acculturation was associated with fewer instances of

discrimination. When teenagers preserved more of their Chinese culture, mothers'

experiences with prejudice were linked to adolescents' experiences with discrimination.

The study's findings emphasize the significance of taking into account how contextual

and individual factors interact to shape teenagers' development.

Chen, S, Alers-Rijas, F, Benner, A., & Gleason M. (2022) investigated that

results indicated the complex functions of everyday support. While parental support

seems to be supportive of better sleep quality, support from friends was inversely

correlated with sleep length. Teenagers were shielded from the detrimental impacts of

discrimination on sleep duration by their teachers. Discussion is held regarding the

implications for future therapies aimed at treating discrimination-related sleep disorders.

According to Morris, K. S., Seaton, E. K., Iida, M., & Lindstrom Johnson, S.

(2020). with a specific focus on schools with a majority of White students, we

investigated the interaction effects of school belonging as a stress buffer for racial

discrimination. Analysis showed relationships between school affiliation and academic

efficacy, competency, and skepticism. Additionally, school involvement reduced the

negative effects of racial discrimination stress on Black students' academic performance

in schools with a predominance of White students. These results show that risk and

protective factors co-occur among Black kids and show the cumulative effect of school

racial makeup on academic attitudes and beliefs. The theoretical and practical

ramifications of these findings show how important school context is for comprehending

risk and protective factors for Black youth's academic attitudes and beliefs.