CHAPTER 1

SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
• Dimensions and units
o Definitions
o SI-units
o Imperial units

• Unit conversions

• Dimensional homogeneity

• Significant figures
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 DEFINITIONS
o DIMENSION = Physical quantity
E.g. length, time, mass, temperature etc.

o UNIT = a means of expressing dimensions

E.g. meters, seconds, kilograms, degrees Celsius etc.

A number is meaningless without a unit

o CONVERSION FACTOR = ratio of equivalent

quantities in different units / means to express
dimensions in different unit systems
E.g. 1 h = 3600 s, 1 kg = 1000 g, 1 inch = 25.4 mm

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 In 1999 NASA lost a $125million Mars orbiter
Because half the project staff were using
Metric units and the other half Imperial

Image courtesy NASA

 Sec. 1.4

DIMENSIONS & 7 SI BASE UNITS

Physical quantity Basic SI-unit Unit
(Dimension) name abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time seconds s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

o Numerous derived units – combinations of

fundamental units (SI base units); E.g. speed: m/s
o All units can be reduced to basic SI units
4
 Sec. 1.4

COMMON DECIMAL PREFIXES USED

WITH SI UNITS

5
 Sec. 1.4

COMMON SI-ENGLISH EQUIVALENT

QUANTITIES

Dimension SI-unit English Equivalent

Length 1 kilometer (km) 0.62 miles (mi)
1 meter (m) 1.094 yards (yd)
39.37 inches (in)
1 centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inches (in)
Volume 1 cubic meter (m3) 35.2 cubic feet (ft3)
1 cubic decimeter (dm3) 0.2642 gallon (US gal)
1.057 quarts (qt)
1 cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.0338 fluid ounce
Mass 1 kilogram (kg) 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 gram (g) 0.03527 ounce (oz)
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CONVERSION TABLE

7
 UNIT CONVERSIONS
• Convert 600.01 m to ft

1. Write down the quantity to be converted and its units

2. Identify the conversion factor; 1m = 3.2808 ft
3. Multiply by the conversion factor or its reciprocal
4. Check that the units match up
5. Complete the calculation
6. Check – Is the answer realistic? Conversion Factor
X

600.01 m 3.2808 ft
= 1968.5 ft
÷
1m
 UNIT CONVERSIONS – TIPS

o Write all units together with numerical values during

calculations

o Choose conversion factors so that all the units

cancel out except for those necessary for the
answer

o Make sure you include the unit together with the

numerical value in your answer

o Check for a realistic value in answer

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 UNIT CONVERSIONS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3
What is the price (in SA Rand) of a 325 cm piece of copper wire
that costs $0.15/ft ? (Assume $1=R17)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.4

The volume of an irregularly shaped solid can be determined
from the volume of water that it displaces. When a small piece
of galena (an ore of lead) is added to a graduated cylinder
containing water, the ore sinks and the volume of water
increases from 19.9 mL to 24.5 mL. What is the volume of the
piece of galena in cm3 and in L?

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 UNIT CONVERSIONS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.5
International computer communications are often carried by
optical fibres in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of
optical fibre weighs 1.19x10-3 lbm/m, what is the mass (in kg) of
a cable made of six strands of optical fibre, each long enough to
link New York and Paris (8.84x103 km)?

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.6

Lithium (Li), a soft, grey solid that has the lowest density of any
metal, is an essential component in certain advanced batteries.
If a small rectangular slab of lithium weights 1.49x103 mg and
has sides that measure 20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm, what
is the density of lithium in g/cm3?

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 Sec. 1.4

UNIT CONVERSIONS – TEMPERATURE

Celsius scale
o Based on phase change of
water

Kelvin (absolute) scale

o Same size degree unit as Celsius
scale
o Different zero point
o 0 K = absolute zero

T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15

T (°C) = T (K) – 273.15
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 Sec. 1.4

UNIT CONVERSIONS – TEMPERATURE

Fahrenheit scale
o Different size degree
unit than Celsius &
Kelvin scales
o Different zero point

T (°F) = (9/5)T (°C) + 32

T (°C) = [T (°F) – 32](5/9)
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 Sec. 1.4

UNIT CONVERSIONS - TEMPERATURE

Rankine (absolute) scale

o Same size degree unit as 180
Fahrenheit scale Rankines

o Different zero point

o 0° R = absolute zero

T (°R) = T (°F) + 459.67 14

UNIT CONVERSIONS - TEMPERATURE
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine

Absolute zero
-273.15 °C 0K -459.67 °F 0 °R
(by definition)
Freezing point
0 °C 273.15 K 32 °F 491.67 °R
of water
Boiling point
100 °C 373. 15 K 212 °F 671.64 °R
of water

Difference between boiling point and freezing point

Δ 100 °C Δ 100 K Δ 180 °F Δ 180 °R

EQUIVALENT 1.8 ∆°F = ∆°C ∆°F = ∆°R

TEMPERATURE CHANGES 1.8 ∆°R = ∆K ∆°C = ∆K
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UNIT CONVERSIONS - TEMPERATURE

T(°C): 0 1 2 3 4 5

T(K): 273 274 275 276 277 278

T(°F): 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

T(°R): 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501

NB: 1.8 °F in 1 °C 1 °F in 1 °R
Temperature
Intervals 1.8 °R in 1 K 1 °C in 1 K

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UNIT CONVERSIONS - TEMPERATURE
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.7
A child has a body temperature of 38.7 °C.
a) If normal body temperature is 98.6 °F, does the child have a
fever?
b) What is the child’s temperature in Kelvin?

CLASS EXAMPLE 1
Convert 1.2 kcal/g°F to kcal/g°C .

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
o A valid equation must be dimensionally
homogeneous. i.e., all terms (when combined) on
both sides of the = sign must have the same
dimensions.

o Consistent units must be used for the dimensions

E.g. v = u + at
m/s m/s m/s2 s

o Dimensionless numbers have no units – all units

cancel out when consistent units are used.

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 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
An example of a dimensionless number is the Nusselt number:
Heat transfer coefficient
W Diameter
m2K m

hD
Nusselt number Nu 
DIMENSIONLESS k Thermal conductivity
J
smK

CLASS EXAMPLE 2:
Calculate the numerical value of the Nusselt number (apply suitable
unit conversions as required):
o h = 0.15 kW/m2 °C
o D = 22.5 mm
o k = 0.10 Btu/h ft °F

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 Sec. 1.5

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

o The number of significant figures in a measurement depends upon the

uncertainty of the measuring device.
o Thermometer A – 32.33 °C (4 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES)
Thermometer B – 32.3 °C (3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES)
o Thermometer A is more certain than thermometer B

more significant figures in a measurement = higher certainty

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 Sec. 1.5

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES - GUIDELINES

o Any number except for zero is significant
E.g. 845 cm 3
1.234 kg 4
o Zeros in between non-zero numbers are significant
E.g. 606 3
40.501 kg 5
o Zeros to the left of the first non-zero number are not significant
E.g. 0.08 L 1
0.0000349 3
o For numbers larger than 1, all numbers to the right of the decimal are significant
E.g. 2.0 mg 2
3.040 dm 4
o For numbers less than 1, zeros at the end and in between non-zero numbers are
significant
E.g. 0.090 2
0.3005 L 4
o For numbers without a decimal point, zeros at the end are not significant
E.g. 400
Assume zeros are not significant, i.e. 1 significant number. In
the case where zeros are significant, represent number using
scientific notation, eg. 4.0x102 → 2 4.00x102 → 3
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 Sec. 1.5

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES – GUIDELINES

o MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION
The answer contains the same number of significant figures
as there are in the measurement with the fewest significant
figures.

o ADDITION & SUBTRACTION:

The answer has the same number of decimal places as there
are in the measurement with the fewest decimal places.

CLASS EXAMPLE 3
a) 3.21 X 2.3217 = 7.452657
b) 23.25 + 21.213 = 44.463

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 Sec. 1.5

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES – GUIDELINES

o MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION
The answer contains the same number of significant figures
as there are in the measurement with the fewest significant
figures.

o ADDITION & SUBTRACTION:

The answer has the same number of decimal places as there
are in the measurement with the fewest decimal places.

CLASS EXAMPLE 3
a) 3.21 X 2.3217 = 7.452657  7.45
b) 23.25 + 21.213 = 44.463  44.46

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 Sec. 1.5

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES – GUIDELINES

o ROUNDING OFF:

1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases by 1.

E.g. 5.379 rounds to 5.38 if three significant figures are retained and to 5.4 if two
significant figures are retained.

2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is unchanged.

E.g. 0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if three significant figures are retained and to 0.24 if two
significant figures are retained.

3. If the digit removed is 5, and is followed by non-zeros, rule 1 is followed.

E.g. 17.6513 rounds to 17.7 if three significant figures are retained.
4. If the digit removed is 5, and is followed only by zeros, the preceding
number increases by 1 if it is odd and remains unchanged if it is even.
E.g. 17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65 rounds to 17.6.
5. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures through a
multistep calculation and round off only the final answer.

CLASS EXAMPLE 4
(2.45 + 17.3)/4.0
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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES –
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

o Sample problem 1.8

Determine the number of significant

figures:

a) 0.0030 L
b) 0.1044 g
c) 53.069 mL
d) 0.00004715 m
e) 57600. s
f) 0.0000007160 cm3

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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES –
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES

o Sample problem 1.8

Determine the number of significant

figures:

a) 0.0030 L 2
b) 0.1044 g 4
c) 53.069 mL 5
d) 0.00004715 m 4 (4.715 x 10-5)
e) 57600. s 5 (5.7600 x 104)
f) 0.0000007160 cm3 4 (7.160 x 10-7)

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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES –
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
o Sample problem 1.9

Perform the following calculations and round the answer to

the correct number of significant figures:

a)

b)

Exact numbers – have no uncertainty and do not limit the

number of significant figures in the answer
(e.g. conversion factors)
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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES –
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
o HOMEWORK:

Determine the number of significant figures:

a) 777 mm
b) 5.00 mL
c) 0.134 ton
d) 0.062 kg
e) 4.820 x 104
f) 60 m

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 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES –
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
o HOMEWORK:

Calculate the following (present the final answer to the

correct number of significant figures):

a) 2.282 + 10.60 + 1.003 + 32.7

b) 7.310/5.70
c) 3.26 x 10-3 – 7.88 x 10-5
d) 2.8 x 4.5039
f) (126.57+12.1)x(16.779-1.99797)/(15.987+15.9)
g) (25.65 + 37.4)/73.55
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 PRECISION, ACCURACY &
ERRORS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT
o PRECISION = how close the measurements are to one
another (reproducibility)

o ACCURACY = how close a measurement is to the actual

value

o SYSTEMATIC ERROR = values that are either all

higher or all lower than the
actual values (so called ‘offset’
in measurement apparatus)

o RANDOM ERROR = in the absence of systematic error,

values that are higher and lower
than the actual value
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 PRECISION, ACCURACY &
ERRORS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENT

Precision and accuracy in a laboratory:

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Engineering Chemistry 123
PROBLEM SOLVING

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 PROBLEM SOLVING

Discipline Goal Method

 Gather
Social sciences To interpret  Criticize
 Synthesize/compile

 Observe
Natural sciences To explain  Hypothesize
 Test

 Specify
 Design/calculate
Engineering To solve
 Verify
 Scientific

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 Sec. 1.3

PROBLEM SOLVING: SCIENTIFIC

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
o Plan:
o Define and understand the problem statement
o Decide what assumptions can be made, and if any additional
information is required, e.g. physical property data
o Sketch the problem schematically
o Choose a suitable basis if none is given
o Break complex problems down into smaller manageable parts

o Solve:
o Ensure that mathematical steps and calculations are correct
o Explain assumptions and simplifications

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 Sec. 1.3

PROBLEM SOLVING: SCIENTIFIC

SYSTEMATIC APPROACH
o Check:
o Determine whether or not the magnitude of the answer is
reasonable
o Determine whether or not the correct units were used

o Comment:
o Applications
o Significance
o Alternative approaches, etc.

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