ELE225

Electrical Engineering Circuits

Dr Lutfi Albasha
Pressure versus time for an
internal combustion engine
experiencing knock. Sensors
convert pressure to an electrical
signal that is processed to adjust
ignition timing for minimum
pollution and good performance.
 Electrical Engineering Subdivisions
• Communication systems
– Cellular, radio, satellite,
Internet
• Computer systems
– Process & store information
in digital form
• Control systems
– Gather information with
sensors and use electrical
energy to control a physical
process
• Electromagnetics
– Study and applications of
electric and magnetic fields
Slide 2
• Electronics
– Study and applications of
materials, devices, and
circuits in amplifying and
switching electrical
signals
• Photonics
– Controlling photons
rather than electrons
• Power systems
– Convert energy to and
from electrical form and
transmit energy
• Signal Processing
– Extract info from
electrical signals
 Objectives
Electrical circuits are the basis of all branches of electrical
engineering

Electrical systems have two main objectives:

• To gather, store, process, transport, and present
information
• To distribute and convert energy between various
forms
We will
1. Define current, voltage, and power, including their units

2. Solve for currents, voltages, and powers in simple circuits

3. State and apply basic circuit laws

4. Calculate power and energy and determine whether energy

is supplied or absorbed by a circuit element
Slide 4
 Example: Headlight circuit

Slide 5
 Electric Circuit
• Connection of several circuit elements in closed
paths by conductors

Slide 6
 Electrical Current

• Electrical current:
– Flow of electrons through a wire or other
electrical conductor
• Electrons are negatively charged particles

– The time rate of flow of electrical charge through

a conductor or circuit element

– The units are amperes (A), which are equivalent to

coulombs per second (C/s)

• The charge per electron is -1.602×10-19 C

Slide 7
 Electrical Current
dq ( t )
i (t ) =
dt
t
q ( t ) = ∫ i ( t ) dt + q ( t 0 )
t0

A current of 1 ampere (A) is equivalent to one coulomb of charge

passes through the cross section each second

Exercise 1: For q(t) = 2 - 2e-100t, t > 0 and q(t) = 0 for t < 0, find i(t)

Exercise 2: The charge passing through a circuit is q(t) = 0.01sin(200t) C

Find the current as a function of time
Slide 8
 Some Definitions
• A Circuit:
– Typically consists of a power source, connecting wires or
conductors, and a device that uses the electrical energy

– The device that uses the energy is called the load

– For current to flow in an electric circuit, there must be a

complete path from the negative terminal of the power
source, through the connecting wires and load, back to the
positive terminal of the source

– If a complete path does not exist, no current will flow, and

the circuit is called an open circuit

• A Bus:
– An electrical conductor that serves as a common connection
for two or more electrical circuits
– A path where electricity follows

Slide 9
Direct Current (DC) & Alternating Current (AC)

When current is constant with time, we say

that we have direct current, abbreviated
as DC. On the other hand, a current that
varies with time, reversing direction
periodically, is called alternating current,
abbreviated as AC

Slide 10
Direct Current (DC) & Alternating Current (AC)
Examples of DC & AC currents Vs. time

Slide 11
 Voltages

• The force that pushes electricity through a

wire

• The voltage associated with a circuit element

is the energy transferred per unit of charge
that flows through the element. The units of
voltage are volts (V), which are equivalent to
joules per coulomb (J/C)

Slide 12
 Voltage Polarity Indicates Direction of
Energy Flow

Positive charge a circuit element

Energy absorbed by element appears as heat, mechanical

energy, stored chemical energy, etc
Slide 13
 Reference Directions
• Initial directions may be not known in advance
– Start by assigning current variables
– Arbitrarily select a reference direction for each current
– After solving for the currents, we may find currents with
negative values  actual current is opposite to assumed
direction

i2 = 1A i3 = -3A

Slide 14
 Double-Subscript Notation for Currents

iab = -iba

Slide 15
 Reference Polarities

• Initial polarities for voltage may not be known in advance

• Start by assigning voltage variables

• Arbitrarily select a reference polarity for each voltage

• After solving for the voltages, we may find voltages

with negative values  actual polarity is opposite to
assumed polarity

Slide 16
 Double-Subscript Notation for Voltages

vab = -vba

Slide 17
 Power & Energy
Recall that:
Current is the rate of flow of charge and voltage is the
energy transferred per unit of charge

 current × voltage is the rate of energy transfer which

is called power

p (t ) = v (t )i(t )
t 2

w = ∫ p ( t ) dt
t1

Volts × Ampere = (joules/coulomb) × (coulombs/second)

= joules/second
= watts
Slide 18
 Passive Reference Configuration
Does the power p = vi represent energy supplied or
absorbed by the element?

In the figure on the right, current enters the

positive polarity of voltage  called passive
reference configuration

+ve power  energy absorbed by element

-ve power  energy supplied by element

Slide 19
 Example: Power Calculations

(a) (b) (c)

P = 12 x 2 = 24 W P = 12 x (-1) = -12 W P = 12 x (-3) = -36 W
Absorbed by element Supplied by element Supplied by element

Slide 20
 Example: Energy Calculations
Given that

v(t ) = 12V and i (t ) = 2e − t A

Find the power and compute the energy from t1 = 0 to t2 = ∞

Solution:
−t
p (t ) = v (t )i (t ) = 24 e W
∞ ∞
−t
energy = ∫ p(t )dt = ∫ 24e dt
0 0

= [−24e−t ]∞0 = −24e−∞ − (−24e0 ) = 24J

Positive energy  absorbed by element
Slide 21
 Prefixes
Prefix Abbreviation Scale Factor
tera- T 1012
giga- G 109
meg- or mega- M 106

kilo- k 103

milli- m 10-3

micro- µ 10-6

nano- n 10-9

pico- p 10-12

femto- f 10-15

Slide 22
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• A node is a point at which two or more circuit

elements are joined together

• KCL: The net current entering a node is zero

• Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a

node equals the sum of the currents leaving a node

Slide 23
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

i1 i3
i1 + i2 − i3 = 0

i2

i3

− i3 + i4 = 0 i4

Slide 24
 Series Circuits
• Two elements are connected in series if there is no
other element connected to the node joining them

• The elements have the same current going through

them

Slide 25
 Examples
Example:
Use KCL to determine the values of the unknown currents

Example:
Identify the groups of elements connected in series

Slide 26
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• A loop is a closed path around a circuit starting at a node

and eventually returning to the starting node

• KVL: The algebraic sum of the voltages equals zero for any
closed path (loop) in an electrical circuit

Slide 27
 Example
Write KVL for the loops identified in the circuit below

Loop1 : −va + vb + vc = 0
Loop2 : −vc − vd + ve = 0
Loop3 : va − ve + vd − vb = 0
Slide 28
 Parallel Circuits
• Two elements are connected in parallel if both ends of
one element are connected directly to corresponding
ends of the other

The voltage across parallel elements are equal (both magnitude and
polarity)

Slide 29
 Exercise

Use KVL to find vc and ve

Slide 30
 Circuit Elements
• Conductors
• Voltage Sources
• Current Sources
• Resistors

Slide 31
 Conductors
• An ideal conductor has no voltage drop across the
ends

• Represented by unbroken lines between ends of other

circuit elements

• Two points are shorted when they are connected by

an ideal conductor

• All points in a circuit connected by ideal conductors

are considered as a single node

Slide 32
 Independent Voltage Sources

• Maintains a specified voltage across its terminals

independent of other elements on the circuit and of
the current flowing through it

12V

Slide 33
 Independent Voltage Sources

vx = 0 due to short circuit

but vx = 12 due to supply!

Caution: Don’t short circuit a battery or a supply since a

large current will pass in a short period of time

 Too much heat: burn the conductors and destroy the

battery or supply
Slide 34
 Dependent (Controlled) Voltage Sources

• Very useful in constructing circuit models for real-world devices such as

transistors and amplifiers

For a voltage controlled source: V = K1vx , K1 is a gain parameter with no units

For a current controlled source: V = K2ix, K2 is a gain parameter with units

[V/A]
Slide 35
 Independent Current Sources
• Forces a specific current to flow through
itself independent of the elements connected
to it and of the voltage across it

2A i

Slide 36
 Dependent (Controlled) Current Sources

• Very useful in constructing circuit models for real-world devices such

as transistors and amplifiers
For a voltage controlled source: I = K3vx, K3 is a gain parameter with units
[A/V]

For a current controlled source: I = K4ix, K4 is a gain parameter with no units

Slide 37
 Resistors
A resistor is a passive element characterized by an algebraic relation
between the voltage across its terminals and the current through it

+ v(t ) − Standard Multiples of Ohm

MΩ Mega Ohm (10 6 Ω)
i (t ) kΩ Kilo Ohm (103 Ω)

A linear resistor obeys Ohm’s Law

v(t ) = R i (t )
The constant, R, is called the resistance of the component and is
measured in units of Ohm (Ω)

From a dimensional point of view, Ohms is a derived unit of Volt/Amp

Slide 38
 Resistors
+ v(t ) −

i (t )
Conductance
Instead of expressing voltage as a function of current one can
express current in terms of voltage. In this case, Ohm’s law can
be written as:
1
i= v
R
1
We define G = as Conductanc e
R
of the component and write
i = Gv

The unit of conductance is Siemens

Slide 39
 Some Practical Resistors
Symbol

High
Power

Slide 40
 In Real Life..
i Two special resistor values
+
Notice passive sign
v R + i=0
convention
− v=0
Circuit
CircuitRepresent ation
Representation −
Short Open
i “A touch of Circuit Circuit
reality” R=0 R=∞
G=∞ G=0

Linear approximation

v
Ohm’s Law is a valid approximation
Linear range when voltages and currents remain
in the Linear Range
Actual v-I relationship
Slide 41
 Ohm’s Law Problem Solving Tip
v = Ri i = Gv OHM' s Law
Given Voltage and Resistance
One equation and three variables.
Given ANY two the third can be found
Compute Current
I = 4[ A]
+
Given current and resistance V
I=
Find the voltage V = RI 12[V ] R = 3Ω R
−
I = 2A +
Determine direction of the current
R = 5Ω V = 10[V ]
using passive sign convention
−
T a b le 1 K e e p in g U n its S tra ig h t
V o lta g e C u rre n t R e sista n c e
Given Current and Voltage
Find Resistance V o lts Am ps Ohm s

+ I = 4[ A]
V o lts mA kΩ
20[V ] V
R= mV A mΩ
I
−
mV mA Ω
R = 5Ω
Slide 42
 Ohm’s Law

Slide 43
 Resistance Related to Physical Parameters

ρL
R=
A
• Resistance is affected by the dimensions and
geometry of the resistor as well as the particular
material used

• is the resistivity of the material in ohm meters

[Ωm]
– Conductors (Aluminum, Carbon, Copper, Gold)
– Insulators (Glass, Teflon)
– Semiconductors (Silicon)
Slide 44
 Resistors & Electric Power
Resistors are passive components A matter of units
that can only absorb energy.
Working with the units Volt, Ampere
Combining Ohm’s law and the Watt, Ohm, there is never a problem.
expressions for power we can derive One must be careful when using
several useful expressions multiples or sub multiples.

P = vi (Power)
EXAMPLE : R = 40 kΩ, i = 2mA
v = Ri , or i = Gv (Ohm' s Law)
The basic strategy is to express
Given v, R all given variables in SI units
Given P , i
v 2
v v = (40 *103 Ω) * (2 *10 −3 A) = 80[V ]
P v i= , P = vi =
v= ,R = P = Ri 2 = (40 *103 Ω) * (2 *10 −3 A) 2 =
i i R R
160 *10 −3 [W ]
Given P, R
Given i, R P
i= , v = Ri = PR
v = Ri , P = vi = Ri 2 R
If not given, the reference direction for voltage or current
can be chosen and the other is given by the passive sign
convention
Slide 45
 Using KVL, KCL, and Ohm’s Law to Solve a
Circuit Problem

Example:
Find the source voltage in the following circuit

Slide 46
 Example (cont.)

iy =
15 V
=3A v x = 10ix = 20 V
5Ω
Vs = v x + 15
ix + 0.5ix = i y
Vs = 35 V
ix = 2 A
Slide 47
 Another Example

Find Vx

Slide 48
 Circuit Elements
Passive Elements

Voltage
dependent
sources

Absorb energy (may store)

Independent Sources

Current
dependent
sources

Supply energy
Slide 49
How Many KCL or KVL Equations are Needed?
In the circuit define
N Number of nodes
B Number of branches

N −1 Linearly Independent
KCL Equations
B − ( N − 1) Linearly Independent
KVL Equations

EXAMPLE:
For the circuit shown we have
N = 6, B = 7. Hence there are only
two independent kvl equations

The third equation is the sum of the other two!!

Slide 50
 Another Example
Dependent sources are handled with
Find the voltages Vae & Vec the same ease

Given the choice use the simplest loop

Slide 51
Electrical circuits are analogous to fluid-flow
systems

Battery  Pump
Charge  fluid
Conductors  pipes
Electric current  flow rate of fluid
Voltage  pressure difference
Electrical resistance  constriction in a fluid

Slide 52
 To do ..

• Read Practical Application 1.1 from textbook

(Page 32):
• Using Resistance to Measure Strain

Slide 53