PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 663

VECTOR BIOLOGY

important aspect
of epidemio- which transmit malarial parasites, snails of
The most certain genera which carry infective larval
is the
of
study factors affecting the
logy
ransmission and
distribution of a disease. A blood flukes or schistosomes (see Table 6.4).
ransmofagents are involved in the (2) Mechanical vectors: This group includes
transmission ofdiseases. It may be a biting or many flies, cockroaches etc. that carry the
variety

a snail, water, parasites through their body parts (external)

hlood-sucking arthropod,
a dust particle. Three types of
even
and thus transmit the diseases from one host
or
syringe to another without involving any develop-
transmission cycles generally involved in
are

the spread of different diseases (1) Direct mental stages of the parasites in their body.
contact: In this method of spread, the agent is Table 6.4: Name of some vectors and diseases
directly transterred from man to man through transmitted by them
scabies and pediculosis,
close contact, e.g.
In this case, the
2)Mechanical transmission: Vectors Diseases transmitted
is transmitted mechanically by
disease agent
1. Mosquito Malaria, Filaria, Viral encepha-
the carrier-agent. The transmission of
litis, Dengue, West Nile, Viral
diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid and trachoma
haemorrhagic fever (e.g., yellow
by the housefly are examples of mechanical
transmission of diseases. (3) Biological fever, dengue haemorrhagic
transmission: When the disease-agent fever).
multiplies or undergoes some developmental 2. Housefly Typhoid and paratyphoid fever,
Diarrhoea, Dysentery, Cholera,
changes with or without multiplication in the Poliomyelitis, Anthrax, Yaws,
carrier-host, is called biological transmission.
Conjunctivitis etc.
(World Health Organization) has
WHO 3. Sandfly Kalaazar, Oriental sore, Oraya
proclaimed five major infectious diseases in fever etc.
human, viz., Malaria, Filariasis, African 4. Tsetse fly Sleeping sickness
Trypanosomiasis, Schistosomiasis and
5. Rat flea Bubonic plague, Endemic
Leishmaniasis, which are still unconquered typhus etc.
mainly because of their biological mode of 6. Hard tick Tick typhus, Viral fevers, Tula
transmission. In case of biologically trans- remia, Viral encephalitis etc.
mitted diseases, most important role is played
7. Soft tick Q fever, Relapsing fever
by the vectors. Vectors are vehicles by which
8. Mite Scrub typhus, Rickettsial-pox.
infections are transmitted from one host to
9. Cyclops Guinea worm diseases
another. In communicable disease termino-
ogy, the word vector means an "organism 10. Snail Schistosomiasis, Fascioliasis
which transmits infection by inoculation into
or through the skin or mucous membrane by Mode of transmission of disease by biological
Diting or by deposit of infective materials on vectors
the skin or on food or other
objects". Biological vectors usually transmit diffe-
Vectors may be classified into two groups, rent diseases by three ways: (1) Propagative
viz., (1)
V12., (1) Biological vectors These are mostly
Biological vectors When the parasite undergoes no cyclical
nimals
different groups of invertebrate animals in change,
change, but
but multiplies in the body of the
n
which the parasite or disease-agent undergoes vector, transmission is aid
said to
to be
ultiplication or some developmental stages e.g.,nlague
plague bacilli
bacilli in
in rat
rat fleas
propagative,
be propagative,
fleas (2) Cyclo-
of e-cycle, e.g.,
Cycle,
e8 anopheline mosquitoes,
(2)yeo
propagative - - The disease-agent or para
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
664 INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL

Larvae: Mosquito-larvae posse

multi-
Site undergoes cyclical change and elongated body
divisible into head,
piies in the body of the vector, e.g.,
malaria
abdomen. They posses a breathingthorax and
parasite in anopheline mosquito, (3) Cyclo air tube on the posterior siphon segment
When the parasite under mandibulate mouth parts. Larvae of
Culex an
developmental -

goes cyclical change but does

not multiply in
in
Aedes remain attached to the
water surfa and
the body of the vector, e.g., filarial parasite their siphon,
but the bodies
are
Culex mosquito and guinea-worm embryo
in
downward (Fig. 6.16A & C). Whereas directed
Cyclops. larvae float
horizontal
(Fig. 6.16B). topheles
are free living, feeders or browajority
filter
MosquITOES microorganisms Some are predaceous or on
constitute the most important insects, including other mosquitoes. Thel other
Mosquitoes
from the stand- stages of growth
8roup of arthropod-vector
Tour
Pass througn
to the
point of human health. They belong
under
family Culicidae of the order Diptera of
the classInsecta. More than 3,000 species
mosquitoes are found in every part of the Egg-rat Individual egg
world which not only c a u s e great torment EGG
efficient
through their bites but also serve as
diseases
vectors for many dreaded human
such as malaria, filaria, yellow fever, dengue
and encephalitis. More than a million people
die every year from malaria. Other mosquito
borne diseases cause incalculable misery,
poverty and debilitation. There is
considerable A LARVA
Hangs by a breathing tube
concern as to whether mosquitoes can
from the surface of water
transmit the AIDS virus. At present,
transmission has not been demonstrated, but PUPA
the potential should not be ignored. Hangs Dy
Respiratory horns
General life history: Mosquitoes undergo Jfrom the water surface

complete metamorphosis with egg, larval,

A .

pupal and adult stages, of which larval and

pupal stages develop only in water.
Eggs Most adult mosquitoes oviposit in
water, singly in loosely arranged clusters, each
with a float of air cells that provide buoyancy,
eg, Anopheles. In others, such as Culex, eggs
are deposited in that are vertically
mass
arranged in 'egg-boats'. Species like Aedes and
Psorophora lay their eggs singly in moist soil
which hatch after a period of drought
followed by flooding. The incubation time
varies, ranging from 12 hours to several days
in case of eggs in water. The
period that CULEX 9
elapses from the moment a blood meal is
taken until the e8gs are laid is called the
gonotrophic cycle", it is about 48 hours in hot Resting position
of adult

and humid tropical areas. 6.16A: Life cycle of Culex

Fig.
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 665

LARVA
EGG Lying parallel to the water LARVA
ventralsurface) surface (breathing positlon)
PosseSses loats
EGG Hangs by a breathing tube
from the surface of water
Singly

P UPA
Hangs by
PUPA Respiratory horns
(Lateral view)
from the water surtace

AEDES
(STEGOMYIA)

7S ANOPHELES

RESTING POSITION
OF ANOPHELES
Head, thorax and abdomen RESTING POSITION OF ADULT
in a straight line

Fig. 6.16B: Life cycle of Anopheles Fig. 6.16C: Life cycle of Atdes (Stegomyia)

"'instars", with moulting between each stage.
The first instar is almost microscopic but the
TOurth instar measures about 8-15 mm in length.
The fourth larval instar after moulting
ranstorms into the pupa. In most cases, the
arval stage ocupies 5-7 days.
Pupae The mosquito pupae are comma-
shaped in appearance with a large round
pnalothorax and a narrow abdomen. A pair
dorsal.spiratory tube or trumpet, located
dorsally on the ceph
ohalothorax replace the
udal siphon of the larva. The pupae are
tremely active and they flutter up and down
in a tumbling action when disturbed. The
pupa represents nonfeeding and active tissue
reorganisational stage in the life history of the
mosquito. The pupation time is short, usually
2-3 days. When fully developed, the skin on
the thorax splits and the adult quickly
emerges to fly away.
Imagos/Adults : Mosquito imagos or
adults are almost similar in morphology. The
minute differences in the common species are
givenin Table 6.5. Adult females live for 4 to
5 months, especially if they undergo a period
of hibernation. During hot summer months,
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
GENERAL

INTRODUCTION
TO
666

Anopheles
and Culex mosquitoes
6.5: Differences between
able Culex

Life stages Anopheles cluster o r rafts, each

1. Laid in raft
containing 100-250 eggs
Eggs 1. Laid singly
2. Eggs are oval-shaped, and not
boat-shaped,
and pro- vided with floats pro-
2. Eggs a r e
lateral floats
vided with 1. Suspended with head downw
to water
surface an angle to water surface at
Larvae 1. Rest parallel
2. Siphon tube present
tube
2. No siphon 3. No palmate hair
on
3. Palmate hair present
abdominal segments
Siphon tube is long and narrow
broad
Siphon tube is short and
Pupae 1. At rest, body exhibits a hunch back
1. At rest, body is inclined at an
Adults
angle to surface
2. Wings unspotted
2 Wings spotted in female
3 Palpi short
3. Palpi long in both
sexe

of filaria in India. This

females live only about two weeks.
Males live vector
species is dark brown in colour, breeds freel
domesti
about a week, but under optimal conditions,
to m o r e than a
around human habitation,
laying egg rats in
their lifespan may extend tin cans, tires, cisterns, clogged rain gutters
month. of water
and, in fact, in all types collection. It
All adult males are vegetarians, feeding is a strong-winged mosquito and highly
o n plant juices, but the
females are either
anthrophilic. It enters the houses at dusk and
nectar feeder or blood-suckers.
reaches maximum density at midnight. The
Biology of some common mosquitoes peak biting time is about midnight. Legs,

Culicidae
The familyChaoborinaecomposed is of two particularly below the knee, are the preferred
subfamilies: and Culicinae. biting sites. During day, it may be seen resting
indoors on walls, underneath furniture, inside
About 3,000 species in more than 30 genera are
empty pots and in dark c o r n e r s . They
are
placed in the subfamily Culicinae. From the
disease vector stand point Culex, Anopheles important vectors of filarial worms Wucherenacan
and Aedes are the most important genera in bancrofti and Dirofilaria immitis. They
our country.
transmit bird malaria, avian pox, arbovir
filana
1. Culex includes over
Genus Culex :
encephalitis in addition to Bancroftian
480 species from various parts of the world. Other important vector species or
Members of this genus can be recognised by the mainve
genus Culex are Culex tarsalis, *
(1) Palpi short in females, less of Western
some
characters:
than one-fifth as long as proboscis; (ii) Body Cpipiens the vector EncephalisTable
of filariasis (see 1a0 6
Equine e 66}

humpbacked when at rest; (i) Tip of abdo- taxonon

men blunt in females, covered
2. Genus Anopheles: Some amily
with broad
place this genus genus separare
under a
scales; (vi) Larvae with prominent siphon, Anophelinae. This includes
tedabot n dcan

armed with numerous tufts of hair;

(vii) Eggs tted

usually deposited in tight floating masses like species which are widely distribu
aracter
characte
r i s t i c s

be
s e x e s

rafts on surface water (Fig. 6.16a). recognised by some of landibes b o t h

Scutellum Palpi
Culex fatigans: C. fatigans is the i) not lobed. (i)
iii) Ma
important usually long as
as as
proboscis. (iii)
probos
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 667

axillae of
and maxillae
females well developed and pair of posteroventral tufts of hair, (vii) Eggs
Wings ally spotted or
usual are deposited singly on water surface or on
ed. (iv) not humpbacked when at
ttied. (v) Body mud (Fig. 6.16c).
t ile feeding, body
but while
is inclined at a
Aedes aegypti This most notorious
the surface of the host. species
angle om of the genus Aedes is the vector of
yellow fever.
sharj
rest paralle to water surfaces and
Larva It is widely distributed in India. The adults are
gs are l a i d singly with associated floats.
(vi)
varies from to
characteristically marked with transverse
Breeding place species bands of silvery white or yellowish white oon
(VI.
species. Som breed in stagnant, mangrove
the abdomen and with vertical thin stripes on
Swamps, others in sunny, partly shaded pools the dorsal surface of the thorax. The
legs are
and still others along the edges of trickling also bounded and the tarsi of the last pairs of
streams.
A few are free-hole breeders (
(Fig legs are white.
6.16b).
This species is a tree-breeding mosquito in
Anopheles spp: More than 45 species of
have been found in sylvatic situations, but when associated with
anopheles mosquitoes human habitation, it breeds freely in
India but only some of them have been containers, cisterns and other water storage
incriminated as vectors of malaria. They are units. The females are fearless biters, and they
A. culicifacies, A. fluviatilis, A. minimum,
A. philippinensis, A. stephensi, A. sundaicus and
bite chiefly during the day. They do not fly
A. leucosphyrus.They differ in their area of over long distance, usually less than 100
metres. A. aegypti is the principal vector for the
distribution. A. fluviatilis andA. minimum are
found in the foothill regions. A. sundaicus and flavivirus causing yellow fever. Another
flavivirus disease transmitted by A. aegypti is
A. stephensi are found in the coastal plain, and
A. culicifacies and A. philippinensis are common dengue, also called breakbone fever and
in the plains. Female Anopheles spp lay many epidemic haemorrhagic fever. Other impor
tant vector species of Aedes mosquitoes are
eggs, depositing them singly on the water. The
eggs with lateral floats remain in contact with tabulated in Table 6.6.

water to survive. Usually they hatch within

2-6 days and develop through four larval
Genus Mansonia: Mansonia includes
some 50 species, which are widely distributed.
instars in about 2 weeks, followed by three These big sized mosquitoes possess the
pupal stages. A. stephensi, the most common following characteristics (i) Postnotum lacks
species of W. Bengal breed in wells, cisterns, setae, (ii) Scutellum trilobed, (iii) Palpi in
roof gutters and females usually one-fourth as long as
any kind of water receptacles.
The females usually bite after
midnight. They
are the important vector of Plasmodium proboscis or
longer, (iv) Bodies humpbacked
when in resting position, (v) Wing scales large
Jalciparum, the causative agent ofmalignant and broad.
malaria. Besides malaria, Anopheles also The common Indian
ranismit bancroftian filariasis in rural species are
settings. M. annulifera, M. uniformis, M. indiana, and
3. Genus Aedes This genus includes M. longipalpis. They breed in ponds and lakes
DOut species which are
800
all overtthe world. Members well-represented
be identified
containing aquatic plants or weeds, especially
water hyacinth. The eggs are laid in star-
by the following characterscan(i) Scutellum shaped clusters on the under surface of the
triloh :
trilobed (ii) Palpi short in females, (ii) Body leaves of these aquatic plants. Thel larvae and
umpbacked in resting position, (iv) Spira pupae are found attached to the rootlets of
cular bristles
esent, (v) Abdomen of females these plants through which they take air for
pointed non metallic in colour and bears cerci, respiration. When about to become adult, the
vi) Claws come to the surface of water and the
oothed
with short brea in females, Larvae
(vii) pupae
single fully formed adults emerge and escape. They
Oreathing siphons bearing a
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. I1]
GENERAL
TO
668 INTRODUCTION

Table 6.6: Some diseases, their

causative agents and common vector
mosquito
mosquito
species
.

Disease Causative agent

Common vector
mosquito species

1. Genus Culex
Filariasis
Wuchereria bancrofti
C. pipiens
Filariasis
Dirofilaria immitis
C. fatigans Western Equine encephalitis Alpha virus
C. tarsalis Flavivirus
St. Louis encephalitis
Flavivirus
Japanese encephalitis
C. tritaeniorhynchus
and other Culex spp
2. Genus Anopheles
Malaria
A. stephensi
P. vivax, P. vale, P.
malariae,
A. minimus
|P. falciparum
A. philippinensis
A. freeborni
3. Genus Aedes
Dengue fever Flavivirus
A. aegypti Yellow fever
Flavivirus

Eastern equine encephalitis Alpha virus

A. taeniorhynclus
A. sollicitans
Japanese encephalitis
virus (JBE) FlaviviruS
A. albop. .S

microfilariae A. stephensi prefer to bite at late night whie

arethe important vectors of female A. aegypti is found to bite during day.
and
(Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi
fever virus (3) Breeding habits Generally, anophelines
immitis) and the yellow
Dirofilaria
in the tropics. prefer clean water for breeding; the culicine
Habits of mosquitoes : The habits of prefer dirty and polluted water; the aedes
mosquitoes have been extensively
studied by prefer artificial collection of water. The
mansonia breed in water containing certain
different entomologists. Here a part of the
habis
knowledge of these habits that are
essential types of aquatic vegetation. (4) Resting
- Mosquitoes obscure themselves during the
from the of view of controlling the
point
in dark and cool carners. Some rest
mosquitoes as well as for a proper under- day
indoors (endophilia) and some outdoors
standing of the part they play in disease include dars
transmission will be discussed : (1) Feeding (exophilia). The indoor places
habits-The males never bite human for blood Corners of houses, upper part of walls, benun
meal, they subsist on plant juices. The females pictures and under furnitures.
outdou The

on the contrary are haematophagous, require are vegetation shrubs,

tree holes, calnt
a blood m e a l once in 2-3 days for the splaces
h e d s and walls etc. (5) Dispersal - MOs

breeding Pla
development of eggs. However, some females toes do not fly far from their
currents. The rang
are anthrophilic, prefer human blood, some unless swept by wind ra
and may h a r e
prefer animal blood (zoophilic) and some are flightvaries with the species
and ships
indifferent their Aircrafts
both
in choice and
may on
and animals. (2) Time of biting- In
feed up to 11 kms.
increased the possibility
of the an dispers
dispersà
man
general mosquitoes bite in the evening or in to
intry.

mosquitoes from country

early part of the night, but there are great of mosquitoe
danger of introduction India,
variations among the species. For example with yellow fever into
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 669

have no past experience of the malaria, live long enough to feed on human
ulation

is well-recog
blood repeatedly. In this way, mosquito,
diseaseis specially Anopheles spp act as vector for
as
mosquitoes
human malarial parasites.
Roleof not only vicious pests but
uitoes are 2. Filaria: Filariasis in human is caused
v e c t o r s for various pathogenic
s e r v e
as mainly by nematode worm Wuchereria bancrofti
also Some major mosquito-transmitted (Bancrofti filaria) and Brugia malayi (Malayan
occuring in India with special refe- filariasis). Unlike the malarial parasite, filarial
d i s e a s e s

role played by vector mosquito worms show little specificity in regard to

to the
iefly discussed below
rence

ecies
are mosquito hosts. The parasites can utilise Culex
malarial spp, Aedes spp, Mansonia spp, Anopheles spp and
Malaria: The human
Plasmodium requires two types of
rasite Pl Psorophora spp as vectors equally well.
and a (mosquito)
osts,
an
inverteb:
Adult W. bancrofti lives in the major
tebrate (reptile, bird or mammal). Different
vertet lymphatic ducts of human where the ovovi-
necies of Anopheles mosquito serve as the viparous female worms produce thousands of
vectors of human infecting malarial
cuitable juveniles, known as microfilariae. Most
narasites. In addition to Anopheles, some Culex microfilariae then sweep into peripheral blood
Spp and Aedes spp
are the major vectors for stream at certain time.
avian m a l a r i a .
Mosquitoes ingest
microfilariae along with their blood meal
When an infected mosquito takes blood when biting human. Ingested microfilariae
from a vertebrate, it injects saliva containing pass through mosquito gut and develop to
tiny, elongated sporozoites into the blood filariform Ja through first and second stage
stream. Thus it transmits the pathogen too a juveniles (Ji and J2). The infective J3 migrates
definitive host. After entry in man, the throughout the haemocoel, eventually reach
sporozoites first undergo exoerythrocytic the labium or proboscis sheath from which
schizogony in liver and then erythrocytic they enter the definitive host (human) through
schizogony in RBC where gametocytes are the skin wound made by the mosquito. After
produced: Erythrocytes containing gametocytes migrations through the peripheral lymphatics,
when imbibed by susceptible female Anopheles, the worm settle in the large lymph vessels
the parasites get transferred to its intermediate where they mature. In this way infective
hosts. In the stomach of mosquito, the formation mosquitoes transmit filarial parasite to
of macro- and microgametes and fertilization do humans. It has been determined that the
oCcur. The resultant diploid zygotes soon infection of mosquitoes can only occur if 15 or
become a motile ookinete that penetrates the more microfilariae are
peritrophic membrane in the mosquito's gut present in every 20
mm3 of blood. If there are 100 or more
and migrates to the haemocoel side of the gut. microfilariae in every 20 mm*of blood, the
here it first transforms into
oocyst. Within mosquito is commonly killed.
0Ocyst, many sporoblasts are formed which in 3. Dengue : Dengue is an acute viral
um
develop into sporozoites that break out of
OCyst into haemocoel and migrtate throughout infection, caused by at least 4 serotypes (1,2,3
and 4) of dengue viruses which are arbo-
tne mosquito's body. On contacting the salivary viruses. Aedes A. albopictus, A. poly-
Bland, sporozoites enter its channels from nesiensis are theaegypti,
main vector mosquito species
where these can be injected into a new host at
the time of of dengue (Table 6.6). The infection may be
next feeding. asymptomatic or may lead to (a) "classical"
Once infected, a mosquito remains dengue fever or (b) dengue haemorrhagic
ective for
malaria to everylife,susceptible
capable of transmitting
vertebrate it bites.
fever with or without shock. Dengue fever can
occur
epidemically or endemically. Epidemics
nophelesspp thus are od vectors for human may be explosive and often start. during the
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. I1]
GENERAL
670 INTRODUCTION TO
infection with more than e
rainy season when the breeding of the vector
mosquitoes is generally abundant. Tempe-
The severe illness is thought
double infection with denngu
dengue
to be virus
due
sensitizeviruses
the
rature also plays important role in
transmission of
an
dengue viruses by mos-
first infection probably sensitize
while the second appears to the pat the
produceent
to
quitoes. Mosquitoes kept at 26°C fail immunological catastrophy. It is
transmit DEN-2 virus. Dengue viruses are ansmn
by aegYpl. rollowing inc
A. an
mitte
of 4-6 days, the illness comme ation eriod
countries like India,
now endemic in many
Burma (Myaanmar), Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
abruptly with highfever accom only beg
Thailand and Malaysia facial flushing and
raciai ushing headache, npanied1
and headach"Panio
The reservoir of dengue infection is both
man (no other vertebrate) and mosquito.
The
vomiting, tenderness
margin. The major pathophysiologi
anorexia,
at the right
stal
transmission cycle is "man-mosquito-man".
The mosquito becomes infective by feeding on
that determine the severity oof
differentiate it from
changes
this dise
dengue fever areease and
5th
patient from the day before onset to the
ostasisplasmaand
a leakage and abnormal ha
day (viraemia stage) of illness. After
an
thrombocytopenia.
extrinsic incubation period of 8 to 14 days, the
able to Mosquito Control Measures
mosquito becomes infective and is also
transmit the infection. Once the mosquito While there are
many methods
becomes infective it remains so for life, but mosquito control, experts now recommend aof
never pass to next generation. However, trans- an
"integrated approach", that is an
Ovarian transmission of dengue virus has been which avoids excessive use of anv approa
demonstrated in laboratory., Following entry
few viruses invade
method, e.g., insecticides. Simultaneousone
in mosquito body, only a
such approach tries to combine one or mo
its tissues, where the viruses undergo proli- ore
feration. The viruses then go to the salivary
methods with a view to obtain
maximum
results with minimum inputs and also prevent
gland from where they enter the host body at environmental pollution with toxic chemicals
the time of biting. Infection with one dengue
and development of insecticide resistance. The
serotype give immunity against that particular
various methods of mosquito control may be
serotype and partial protection against others. classified as follows
All ages and both sexes are susceptible to
1. Anti-larval measures:
dengue fever. In man, the illness is characte- (a) Environmental control
rised by an incubation period of 3 to 10 days
(commonly 5-6 The onset is sudden
days). (b) Chemical control
with chills and high fever, intense headache, (c) Biological control
muscle and joint pains. Within 24 hours retro-
orbital pain and photophobia develop. Other 2. Anti-adult measures:
common symptoms include extreme weak- (a) Residual sprays
ness, anorexia, constipation, colicky pain, (b) Space sprays
abdominal tenderness, dragging pain in
(c) Genetic control
inguinal region, sore throat etc. Skin eruption
appears in 80% of cases during the remission 3. Protection against mosquito bites
or during second febrile phase, which may last (a) Mosquito net
for 1-2 days. Fever lasts for about 5 days,
rarely more than 7 days after which recovery
(b) Screening
is usually complete although convalescence (c) Repellents
may be protracted. The fatality case is low. 1. Anti-larval measures
7viron-
Dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF) is a (a) Environmental controliro
severe form of dengue fever caused by reduction" is the most importa
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNLOGY
671
measure that includes minor Common synthetic mosquito-larvicides
mental +al control
such as filling, levelling include several
ngineering
metho.
organophosphorous com-
pounds like fenthion, chloropyrifos and abate.
of breeding places, and water
drainage
and
management,
irrigation to
, i.e., ntermittent These are hydrolysed quickly in water and
Source reductic needs less toxic to other animals.
breeding
field. Dosage of these
accurate
knowledg of the breeding habits of compound are given in Table 6.7(a).
For Culex, abolition of Table 6.7(a)
ferent mosquitoes.
d i t t e r
peridomestic sources of
:Synthetic larvicides employed
domestic
and as mosquito control
such as cesspools, open ditches and
breeding
angement
for disposal of sewage and waste Toxicant Dosage (gm/hectare)
required. In case of Aedes larva
water are Abate 56-112
environment should be cleaned up
control, the Malathion 224-672
of water holding containers like
and got rid Fenthion 22-112
discarded tins, empty pots, broken bottles,
similar artificial collection Chloropyrifos 11-16
coconut shells and
of water. If Anopheles mosquitoes
are a
(c) Biological control : In recent years,
problem, their breeding places should be there has been a revival of interest in the
abolished by engineering measures such as biological control of mosquito through the use
filling and drainage. For Mansonia larvae of fish. A wide range of small fishes, feed
control, the aquatic plants to which the larvae readily on mosquito larvae. The most common
attach themselves should be removed or
destroyed by herbicides.
are the Gambusia affinis and Lebister reticulate.
These fishes (larvicidal fishes) can be cultured
(b) Chemical control: The most in burrow pits, sewage oxidation ponds,
commonly used larvicides (chemicals that kill cisterns and farm ponds. However, it is now
the larvae) are (i) mineral oil, (ii) Paris green, recognised that biological control can be
and (ii) synthetic insecticides. Most commonly effective only when used in conjunction with
used mineral oils are the diesel oil, fuel oil, other methods.
kerosene and various fractions of crude oils.
When applied on water, oil spreads and form 2. Anti-adults measures
a thin film which cuts off the air supply to the (a) Residual sprays: Adult mosquitoes
mosquito larvae and pupae. It is customary to are most commonly controlled
by spraying
apply oil once a week on all breeding places. houses with residual insecticides like
However, oil has some disadvantages, it malathion, propoxur (OMS-33) and gamma-
renders water unfit for drinking and it kills HCH (lindane). Dosage and average duration
fishes and other aquatic animals also. of the effectiveness are given below (Table
Paris green or copper acetoarsenite is an 6.7b)
emerald green, micro-crystalline powder t h a t a b l e 6.7(b):Toxicants suitable against mos-
quito as residual spray appli-
also contains 50 per cent arsenious oxide. It is cations
nsoluble in water and acts as a stomach poison.
Thus, to be effective it must be ingested by the Duration of
Toxicant Dosage
larvae. P'aris green mainly kills the Anopheles (gm/m) effectiveness
arvae because they are surface-feeders. It is (months)
applied by mixing 2 kg of Paris green and 98 kg Li
Lindane 0.5 3
Ta dilutant such as soap-stone powder or
Malathion 2 3
laked lime in a "rotary mixer". The recommen-
OMS-33 2 3
aed dose is 1 kg of actual paris green per hectare
or Water surface. This dose is not harmful to fhish, Resistance to insecticides has
become
nan or other domestic animals. especially after
Common among mosquitoes,
 ZOOLOGY
[Vol. II]
GENERAL
TO also effo
ective: inda
INTRODUCTION
hich are
are others whi
672 late, dimethyl
dimethyl phthala
that
essential R e p e l l e n t s are
So it is etc.
ed
Several vears
p e r i o d i c tests
of exposure.

should be
made to
species
to
determine the
the
hexanediol
application
on
the skin
1s
o
acurate
mainlyoTheifor
mats, cOils.
Susceptibility

Various
of d i f f e r e n t
insecticides,
so
only potent
that
p r
ief
o t e c t
advantage

i o n . .
duration of
insecticides can be used.
are
Space sprays of a TICKS AND MITES
Space sprays form
(b) in the
into the a t m o s p h e r e space
applied
mist o r fog to kill i n s e c t s . The
pyrethrin,
common

an S i n c e the
entomology, parasitologists havet
udy ofof medica
beginning of study .

sprays
used to kill
mosquito
are

flowers
which acts a s
a
m u c h i n t e r e s t o n ticks and
been paying
mite
extract of p y r e t h r u m
kills mosquito
instantly on because (i) these two arachnids play main
nerve poison
contact.
and
It is
in reducing
effective
the

reduction
is
role in
of many
pathoge
transmission
important
that
mere

mosquitoes
but the
action.
their role
a s vectors,
and (ii) they also i
number of
since it has no
residual serveas
intermediatehosts of many parasites. All ticks
only temporary generally
ectoparasites livino
sources

Reinfestation
from outside
For ultra
low
and a
number of mites
s h o r t time. though some
pecies of
within a animna
on
Occurs n e w equiP mostly
spraying, on plants.
(ULV) space also parasiti The
volume

has been
developed.
The most
exten-

and
mites
of ticks and
are
detail
mites are enormo
and diverse. The basic body plan (seg mous
ment malathion morphology
insecticides are
used
sively
fenitrothion for ULV fogging. tation) arthropods is quite
of arachnid
:Control of mos-
(c) Genetic
control
such as
sterile different from arthropods. other classes of
methods
Moreover, in the subclass Acari to which icks
quitoes by genetic incompatibility,
cytoplasmic
male technique,
translocation, sex
distortion,
and mites belong,
a
special nomenclature tor
chromosomal

have been explored. the body regions

are given by Savory which i
and gene replacement over
have several advantages asfollows:
Genetic controls and more
Gnathosoma
chemical methods, being cheaper vector
subject to (Segments of mouth
above all not
potential and country, the
resistance. However, in our and its appendages)
is still in
"research phase". Proterosoma
genetic control Propodosoma

3. Protection against mosquito bite (Segments of first

The mosquito net and second legs) Podo- ldio
(a) Mosquito net :
bite during soma som
offers protection against mosquito Metapodosoma
vent hole or
sleep.There should not be a single (Segments of third
in the net is
in the net. The size ofthe openings and fourth legs).
of utmost importance
the size should noot
-

Hysterosoma Opisthosoma
exceed 0.0475 inch in diameter.
(Segmernts posterior
(b) Screening : Screening building
of
with copper o r bronze gauze having 16 tolegs)
meshes to the inch, is recommended. The and Mites
Outline classification of Ticks
0.0475 inch.
aperture should not be larger than to the
subclas

Screening of building is costly, but gives A c aTicks

ri of. the mites
and c lass belong
rachnida under
fdiffee
erent

excellent results. of di
The study i n e e

(c)
(c) Repellent: Diethyltoluamide (Det) phylum Arthropoda. very active discipi
Specie

has been found to be an outstanding all- acari or acarology is a very many

book.

purpose repellent. It has been found to remain biologists a r e describing

vever, in this still
active against C. fatigans for 18-20 hours. There under thia subclass. Howeve
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY
673

dopt the
scheme proposed by G.O. hypostoma is located a pair of chelicerae, on
w
Evil
a l
n. (1992).
According to him the subclass each side of the mouth. The free terminal of
consisted
o f seven orders. Out of those
seu each chelicera is forked (chelate), giving rise to
i c k s and mites belong to five a dorsal, fixed toothed
seven
acari orders ticks
t
digitus externus and
iz., Ixodida (ticks), Mesostigma lateral movable digitus internus. The cheli-
orders,
Astigmata and Oribatida. cerae function as piercing, tearing and
rostigmata,,
anchoring structure by means of which the
host's integument is opened and the entire
TICKS
agents o r vectors has capitulum or at least the toothed hypostome is
Ticks' importance asIn inserted into the host. (iii) A pair of palpi or
recognised. general, ticks are
been pedipalpi arises from the anteroventral
long
arasites of animals. Most species oof
margin of the basis capitulum. These struc-
ertebrates higher than fishes are subjected to
particularl mammals whose tures act as counter-anchors while the tick is
by ticks,
attack

is highly attractive to ticks. They attached to the host. The mouth-parts show
rm blood
man and other domesticated characteristic differences among different
arasitise
mals fortuitousl The high potency of species and also between male and female of
of isease of man and the same species (Fig. 6.17B).
ticks in the spread
due to some factors like The body proper also shows differences
animals are
1. They persistant blood suckers.
are among members of different families. However,
They attach firmly
while feeding and cannot it bears four pairs of legs, each is subdivided
Most species have a wide into six segments known as coxa, trochanter,
be dislodged easily.
range of host, thus ensuring a relatively femur, genu, tibia and tortus. In some species,
certain source of blood. some of these units fused. The
are
legs
2. Longevity. Most species have a long life characteristically terminate in a pair of claws on
or more. It is helpful for
span, may be 5 years
them to carry the infection for several years.
3. High reproductive potential. The Gnatho
soma
reproductive potential is Some
quite high.
species may deposit as many as 18,000 eggs.
Some have the power to regenerate lost parts. Body

General morphology: Ticks (Fig. 6.17A)

characterised
are
by a leathery integument
and larger size in
comparison to mites. Bodyi
segmented but without readily visible
Segments. The body is divided into two
regions: (1) the capitulum (also referred to as
gnathosoma) and (2) the body proper. A
Lapitulum is not the true head though it is
Commonly referred to as such. It projects
anteroventrally
a
and bears the mouth parts and
basal chitinous segment known as basis
capitulum. The ring-like basis capitulum
Connects the
capitulum to the body proper. B

he mouth parts include 3 types of
structures: (1) ventral to the mouth is toothed,
ngated hypostoma, its free end
Orly. (ii) on the dorsal surface of
Fig.6.17: Tick structures. A. Dorsal view of male
Amblyomma showing two main regions of body.
B. The chelicerae of lxodes reduvius. Left, dorsal
projects and ventral views of male. Right, dorsal and
ventral views of female
 ZOOLOGY[Vol.
II]
GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
TO
674
a.Eggs The gravid females rop

eg8Sontoin thethe
located on the ground, where she deposits the
orifice is
the tarsi. The genital the first and
second humus. H a r d ticks lav
soil
aousands, alleggs in a
or
midventro line between located, thou
one few
even
ventrally hundreds or at
The a n u s is also
20 torne100
a i s of legs. batches in t
level of fourth pair of legs The soft ticks lay egES
equidistant from the The
and the posterior margin
of the body
in
over long a eggs
period.
hatch in l to
difference present weeks.

On the basis of the in The. larva of ticks

recognised
body proper,
wo
families

family
are

Ixodidae and
family
b.Larvae
They
pairs of legs. till a
lie in wait amor ossesses
ng
the order lxodida;
of Ixodidae
a r e commonly
and herbiage
suitable host grasses
Argasidae. Members
while those of arganidae
are
which it attaches
itself..After a blood appears to
called hard ticks morphological i n c o u r s e of time i t
mea t
known a s soft
ticks. The

of these
are
two
families
drops ott, a n d
become a nymph.
moults to
The duration of the
characteristics

stage may vary

from 3 to 13 davs larval
discussed in Table 6.8.

history: In the
life cycle of all ticks, Nymphs: The
nymph resembles
Life
could be recognised-egg
c.

adult in having
of legs, but
44 pairs of. b it legs, the
four basic stages of ticks has no
and adult. The life cycle The nymph a r e all
larva, nymph
weeks to 3 years
to complete
in genital pore.
and they attach themselve to
blood-suckers
suitable ho
requires 6
different species.

Differences between hard

tick and soft tick
Table 6.8:
Argasidae (soft tick
Ixodidae (hard tick)
Characteristics
in dorsal
Ventral or subterminal end can not
Terminal end can be seen
be seen in dorsal view.
1. Capitulum
view.
various Leg-like with subequal segments
Rigid, not leg-like and of
Papli form No porose areas on basis capituli.
Females have many small pits
Basis capituli a r e a s on their basis
called porose
capituli

2 Body
Present. It c o v e r s the entire back
Scutum in males but only a small portion Absent
in front in females.
Absent
Generally present
Festoons
Lateral on supra-coxal folds
Dorsal on the sides of the scutum
Eyes (when present)
3 Legs Unarmed
Usually armed with spurs
Coxae Without ventral spurs.
Generally armed with 1 or 2
Tarsi
ventral spurs
Absent or rudimentary.
Pulvilli Always present
instars.
4 Life cycle Only one nymphal instar Two to eight nymphal

5. Sexual dimorphism Marked Slight

Ornithodorus mouba,
Examples Dermacentor andersoni,
Haemophysalis spinigera, Otobius megnint,
Argas persicus etc.
Ixodes, Scabularis etc.
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 675

meal. Members of
Ixodidae have by the spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi (see
1nd meal.
blood

have as Table 6.9). The high prevalence of lyme

instar, but argasids
a
for
o n e
nymphal disease is attributed to the relatively
many as tive.

for a year unselected feeding habits of the tick, especially

Adult ticks may live
d.Adults:live longer than hard ticks.
the nymphal stages, and the participation of
Softticks rodent, deer, cats, chicken, lizard as reservoirs.
ormore. of
that o c c u r o n the
copulation,
Att
t the
time
ticks produce a spermatophore,
Lyme disease is a classic zoonosis, where
host,themnalei u n d e r the genital operculum transovarial and transstadial passage of
which is placed blood
B. burgdorferi has been reported.
af the
female. Females usually require
In Asia and Europe, tick-borne encepha-
production, although exceptions
meal for e88 ticks feed o n a litis is known to be transmitted by the bite of
are there. Most opportunist
host-specific. xodes ricinus and I. persulcatus.
variety of hosts, while few are
withstand a period of star- Dermacentor: This genus (subfamily:
Hard ticks can 2.
16 years.
vation as long as :
Amblyominae, family Ixodidae) contains
The tick is called a one-host tick when all about 30 species of which many are important
instars occur vectors of some human diseases. Dermacentor
nymphal moulting through all
on the same host, e.g., Boophilus sp.
When the andersoni, also known as Rocky mountain
moults to adult and attaches wood tick serves as the vector of Rickettsia
nymph drops off,
to another host, the tick is said a two-host tick. rickettsii, the causative agent of Rocky
Most ixodids are three-host ticks whereas mountain spotted fever (Table 6.9). Following
argasids with their multiple nymphal stages copulation, the gravid females fall off the host
are many-host ticks. Use of such a series of and in about 7 days, lay the eggs. After 35
hosts actually increases the opportunities for days, the hexapod larvae known as seed ticks
transmission of pathogens. hatch and actively become attached to small
hosts like rabbits, ground squirrels etc.
Biology of important ticks and their role as

vectors Following blood sucking for a period of 3-5

Hard ticks
1Ixodes: Ixodes (family Ixodidae) is the
largest genus of hard ticks consisting of over
200 species. Ixodes scapularis (formerly known
as Ixodes dommini) and I. pacificus act as
important vector for the lyme disease, caused
days, they drop off and metamorphose into
octapod nymph. The nymph hibernates in soil;
comes to surface in spring and attach to larger
hosts (marmots, porcupines, etc.) on which
they remain engorged for 4-9 days. After
feeding, the nymph undergoes moulting to
adult. The adults feed on blood of large

able 6.9: Some diseases transmitted by ticks

Disease Eitiologic agent Tick vectors

Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi lxodes spp.

(spirochaete)
Human granulocytic Ehrlichia spp. (bacteria) I. scapularis
ehrlichiosis (HGE)
Dermacentor andersoni
Kocky mountain spotted fever Rickettsia rickettsii
Ornithodoros spp., 0. moubata
or, African relapsing fever Spirochaeta duttoni

East coast fever (Cattle) Theileria parva (protozoa) Rhipicephalus spP:

rimean-Congo Boophilus spp.
fever (Cattle) haemorrhagiC
Anaplasmna marginale
(rickettsia)
 676 GENERAL ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
INTRODUCTION TO

A great majority of persoDne

mammals like deer, cattle, sheep and human.
All stages of D. andersoni can withstand
Rocky mountain fever give a with cases
2to
daysinctbefore
histor
of tick bite from 2 to T0 or 12 d-
prolong starvation. 12
onset of the disease. The e
Role in transmission Man is usually
bitten only by adult D. andersoni. The infection
is acquired from the reservoir animals by
that contain the athogen
very small, (not higher than.
Dercentreported
is age tick.t.
of
a danger period transmission percent), De
of
feeding tick in any stage of its life history and
is passed on from
early spring to July. The ppat
The
ans from
stage to stage. Example, transovarially transmitted fror ogen can
infected blood is ingested by the larva, the
intection is passed into nymph and then to andersoni to offsprings. In additi female be
mountain fever, this tick ion to D
also acts ast
the adult which in turn may infect. At least
some infected adult females will pass the
for several human diseases like ne veRock
owassan encephalitis tick
pathogen (R. rickettsii) through their eggs to
the larvae of next generation. When normal
fever 1rus and dian tick typhus. paralysis
virus, Colorado
adult ticks are fed on an infected host, just Soft ticks,
Ornithodoros
long enough to ensure ingestion of the includes more than 90
species of
This genus
Pathogen, and then they are transferred
directly to a normal host. A normal period of
ticks. All are ectoparasite
of the most dreaded
soft-bor
tick mammals.odied
on
9to 12 days lie between ingestion of this One
and Ornithodoros moubata, which is the enus i
transmission of the pathogens. Infection is not
Spirochaeta duttoni, the vectorr ifor
transmitted by the same stage of the tick that
African relapsing fever.pathogen that cau
acquires it, but by the next and subsequent causes
stages. The paghogen of Rocky mountain Other important vector
fever is
probably transferred to the host Ornithodoros are tabulated in
species
through the salivary secretion of the tick while Table 6.10.
Adult O. moubata are
biting. Salivary gland of infected adult was from 8 to 11 mm in eyeless, measurine
shown to contain the length
pathogen. greenish in colour. They -dusty brown to
usually remain hide
Table 6.10:
Important vector species of Ornithodoros
Disease Eitiologic Agent Tick Vectors
Endemic Areas
Tick-borne Borrelia duttoni
relapsing fever B. venezuelense
Ornithodoros moubata Africa, central Panama,
O. rudis Colombia,
B. hispanica
O. erraticus Venezuela, Ecuadoor
Spirochaetes B. persica Spain, Portugal, North Africa
B. neotropicales
B turicatae
O. talaje
B. hermsi O. turicata Panama
O. hermsi
Texas
B. parkeri
O. parkeri Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast
Borrelia sp. O. tholozani Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coas
Avian
Borrelia anserina Central Asia
spirochaetosis Argas persicus
Epizootic bovine India, Australia, Brazil, Egypt
abortion Borrelia-like O. coriaceus eastern Asia Minor
spirochaete Western United States, Mexico
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY
677
revices of huts, and feed
in the dus Parasitic mites show different
and engorge rapidly. Eggs are types of
transmission modes, on the basis of which
hietly
atnight
batches 35 to 340, at intervals
of they
sited in
during the lifetime of the
can
roughly be grouped into 3 categories:
e rb l o o d m e a l s

The ation period lasts from 7 to Group 1: Some mites spend their entire
mode of life span on
temales

and over. Larva. are totally quiescent mammals. They pass many
gregarious birds and
1 days
losely applied to the body. Within a generations on a
with legs
moult by splitting egg shell
larvae
single host. Transmission from host to host is
tew
hours
direct, resulting from direct contact between
the first nymphal stage. They pass about 5
efore hosts, e.g, feather mites, mange mites and fur
1oulting stages getting sexual
mites.
turity.
This species feeds on man, chicken,
rats,
rabbits and on some wild animals Group 2: Another group of mites are
pigs,
warthogS
ike Transmission
and porcupines etc. haematophagous and are found only on their
of relapsing fever O. hosts during the breeding periods. They take
mOubata appear to be essentially a parasite ocategory.
greater amount
They dropofloff
blood
theirthan
host after
do thefeeding
first
man. It is a man-to tick-to man vector of
relapsing fever. The newly hatched t i c k s u are found in or near the host's nest. They
DrOved to be infective. Once infected, the ticks frequently parasitise several hosts of the same
remain so, and the infection may be species during their lifespan and thus are very
transmitted from generation to generation (at important vectors, eg., nidicolous mites.
least for 3 generations). Shortly after the Group 3 Third group of mites have
spirochaetes are ingested by the ticks, they greatest opportunity in eack generation to
penetrate the stomach wall and reach the body parasitise several hosts of the same species or
cavity where they multiply. The pathogens several species of hosts. These mites are
then invade salivary glands and coxal attached to their hosts only while
glands feeding.
of the ticks. From the saliva and coxal fluid the After feeding they
spirochaetes may be introduced into the bite
drop from their hosts
anywhere and can survive for relatively long
would caused by the ticks on the host's skin or period without a blood meal. When ready to
even the pathogen can
penetrate the unbroken feed again, they climb to some
vantage point
skin of the host. (surface of soil or tip of a grass blade) and
The infection is transmitted await the passing of suitable hosts. There-
a
by the bite of
either the male or female ticks fore, these acarines are
very important from
during all its
active stages. The attack of the fever in the stand
trom
human point of disease transmission,
e.g.
takes place from 5 to 10 days after the tick has larval
aval chiggers.
cggers.
bitten.
General morphology : In mites the body
MITES shows segmentation like other acarines.
Dorsally the idiosoma is often covered by a
Mites are very small sized acarines (body single, scleratised
plate, the carapace. The
ranges from 0.5-2.0 mm in length) gnathosoma
off from thecapitulum
or is usually sharply
Elonging to 5/6 orders. Some of these minute set idiosome and carries the
arthropods are ectoparasitic on animals (both feeding appendages like chelicerae and
vertebrates
Plants. a nand
d invertebrates) and others on pedipalps. Chelicerae may be chelate (pincer-
plants. Certain vectors for
species serve as like) in scavenging and predatory mites, but in
microorgar
free By far, majority of mites are parasitic mites, they are modified to form
aquaticliving
areas.inhabitin; both terrestrial and stylets or bear teeth for piercing. Pedipalps
may be leg like or chelate or reduced in size
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
GENERAL
TO
678 INTRODUCTION

Chelicera
Palpus

Hypostome

Tritosternum

Coxa
Sternal plate
Trochanter,
- Peritreme

Femur

Spiracle
Patella
Tibia-

Metapodal
plate

Tarsus

Carunclee Anal
Claw plate Genitoventral
plate

mite (ventral view)

Fig.6.18: Generalised mesostigmatid

and organs. Ventrally

s e r v e as s e n s e
the fused nymph) in the life cycle. The numbere
be less
coxae of the pedipalp extend forward
to formn nymphal generation may or morei

the hypostome (Figs. 6.18 and 6.19). some species.

Acarines typically have four pairs of legs,

but only one to three pairs may be present
in
s o m e species of mites. Segments
of legs are
like those of ticks. The a n u s is n e a r the
posterior end of the body, but gonopore
location is variable. Some male mites do
possess an intromittent organ or aedeagus.
The gonopare opens generally through a
highly scleratised area, the genital plate. Some
mites have urstigmata, between the coxae of
the first and second legs, that act as humidity
receptors.
General life history: Like ticks, the life
cycle of all mites include four stages - egg,
larva, nymph and adult. However, there are
Echinolael
typically a single larval stage and two female.
Tig.6.19: Ventral view of
nymphal stages (the protonymph and deut the common rat mite
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 679

Biokogy o f m p o r t a n
tant mites
and their role as and adults may be found, sometimes in great
numbers, in building, in the vicinity of rodent
ectors nests and runways.
of nites are important from
M o s ts p e c i e s
Rickettsialpox is a mild febrile disease,
standpoint o f veterenary
of
science as they
several diseases to with no signs except a vesicular rash that
of
transmisSion follows the onset of the fever by 3 or 4 days.
ause .
as other subhuman
well
stic as
also transmit human
There is an scar or initial lesion caused by the
Some species
veriebrates bite of the mites.
iseases(see
Table 6.11) cluding allergy.
those participates as vector 2. Chigger mites: These mites belong-
mite species,
Here ea
ror human d i s e as
ses vill be discussed in brief. ing to the family Trombiculidae, order

mouse mite The house Prostimata, comprise group of mites

a

1. The house parasitic to human only at their larval stage.

mite, Liponyssus
sanguineu belongs to
se
Musostigmata and family Nymph and adults are free-living, feeding on
the This mite is known to occur insect eggs. Important chigger mites include
Dermanyssidae

Asia, Europe and US and is Trombicula akamushi causing scrub typhus to

e northern Africa,that has been
the onlyatedone definitely
in the transmission of a human
eriminatedin
disease,
kettsialpox. The1house mouse,
is the preferred host, but the
Mus musculus,
mite can feed on rats and other rodents and
attack man and transmits the
can readily
pathogen, Rickettsia akari.
Life history: L. sanguineus has five
development stages, the adult male and
emaie, the eg85, the non-feeding larva, the
protonymph and the deutonymph. Both
nymphal instars take blood meal. Adult
females feed several times. Each feeding being
followed by oviposition. The total period of
timefrom deposition of the eggs to emergence
of the adult is 17 to 23 days. Unfed females are
known to have lived as long as 51 days, and
the female that had fed and oviposited twice is
recorded as
living 9 weeks. Engorged nymph
Table 6.11:Some diseases transmitted by mites
Disease
Scrub typhus
Rickettsial pox
Q fever
Meadow mice scrub typhus
human; Trombicula pelkini, T. goldii, T. wichmanni
etc. causing human dermatitis (Fig. 6.20).
Life history: The bright red adult mites
are found on the surface of moist ground or to
a depth of 2 or 3 inch in dried soil, root stocks
of clumps of grass or under log
With few exceptions, eggs are laid singly
in the soil. Females become ready to lay eggs
within a few days after the adult stage has
been reached and once egg laying has begun,
it continues as long as conditions are satis
factory. After 4 to 6 days of incubation period,
the eggs hatch to produce a quiescent
stage,
the deutovum which remains within the
egg
shell fragments. In about a week, after
completion of the deutoval stage, the fully
formed red hexapod larva emerges and crawls
about rapidly in search of a host. The larva can
live for a considerable period without
feeding.
Etiologic agent Mite vectors
Rickettsia tsutsugamushi Trombicula akamushi (larvae)
T. deliensis (larvae)
T. pallida, T. scutellaria
R. akari Allodermanyssus sanguineu
Ornithonyssus bacoti
Coxiella burnetti 0. bacoti
Trombicula microti
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
GENERAL
TO
680 INTRODUCTION

lymph adenitis.and an eschar. The

ginateseschar
at theis
I to lesion whic]
The larval chigger feeds once but requires the primary
3 or 4 days (up to a month) for engorgement. chigger bite.
of chi88er slowlya
bite. It slowlv ent e s
The chigger t h e n drops to ground
and
point of
Point
12 mm and becomes necrotic in nlarges to8to
become a quiscent prenymph or nympPno the fifth to eighth day, red rashes centre
After about a week the active, eight- the trunk that may spread
to the appear o
typhusextremities
crysalis.
feeds on insect of scru
legged nymph emerges and Other symptoms

eggs or soft-bodied invertebrates for

abouta enlarged spleen, delirium, ervousinclu
week. Then it goes into another inactive stage,
for about a
bances,
deafnes and even
extreme cases. The occurrence of this
distur-
pneumonitis
the imagocrysalis. This stage lasts i
week and then mouths into the adult. The known from Japan, south-East Asia, adia
ad
isease is
minimum time required to complete
the life islands or
151ands
inalan adjace
of Indian Ocean, Australia etc.
for T. splendens
cycle is variable, e.g., 50 days mite The
(vector of scrub typhus in India)
and 71 days 3. The rat
tropical
tropica)froTa
mite, Ornithonyssus bacoti, is reported
for T. batatas.
many parts of the world. It acts as Om
a

Transmission
of scrub typhus:
The larval
the vector of
the Q. fever by transmitting pathogen, Coxiella
mite s e r v e s as the vector in carrying

pathogen, Rickettsia akari causing from

scrub
urnetti. The blood sucking
infective stage of the disease.
protonymph is the
typhus. They transmit the pathogen
small mammals like voles, rats to human Control of ticks and mites
hosts. Larvae get the pathogen through A. General control: In
from the mother
general, ticks and
transovarian transmission mites can be controlled by three followi
mites. The larvae penetrate the epidermis
methods
through the mouth parts and inject salivary
secretion containing the microorganisms into
1. Insecticidal control : Great success has
the host. The disease has an incubation period been obtained in destroying ticks and mites by
of 6 to 21, usually 10 to 12 days. During the the use of modern insecticides like chlorodane,
first 5 to 7 days, it is characterised by dieldrin, lindane, malathion and toxaphane at
headache, apathy and general malaise, fever, rates of 1 to 2 Ibs (about 0.5-1 kg) per acre

Fig. 6.20: The common chigger or harvest mite, Trombicula sp. (left) Adult; (right) larv
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY
681

or spray rmulation can be be closed; all doors and windows

dusting
thorough knowledge of the
should be
Eithe
ployed. A4 tight filting; the chimney should be covered to
species of tick or mite musst keep out bats and rodents.
emp of a
oiven
given

plannin8 a control pro-

habits
obtained d bbefore
ef
Rodents'
reproduction should not be
STamme encouraged.
Environmental control Cracks and
Old tree snags in the
crevicesin ound, articularly near buildings
2.
harbour nesting squirrelsvicinity which may
and chipmunks
paths should be filled. Animal hosts
should be destroyed. Nests in such
and
should b e r e d u c e d . snags have
been found to harbour
many relapsing fever
3 Protection of workers : Exposed workers ticks in all stages of
development.
couraged to wear protective clothin
should beenco 2.
Chigger mite: The proven vectors of
nregnated with an insect-repellent. The best
scrub typhus are T. akamushi and T. deliensis
pellents against ticks and mites are indalone, which can be controlled by
Aiethyltoluamide and benzyl benzoate. Further, adopting some
in infested areas should be procedures like
procedures lik
persons working
frained to examine themselves for ticks and to Chigger-infested areas must be located
emove promptly any ticks found on their body. carefully. The mites may be detected by
This is achieved by painting the ticks with placing pieces of black cardboard edgewise on
petroparaffin or a camel-hair brush with which the the ground various intervals, in chiggers
at
dead ticks can be brushed off the skin. infected areas. If chiggers are present, they
will, within a few minutes, crawl up thne
B. Specific control
cardboard and congregate at its top edge. The
1.Ornithodorostick: O. moubata trans- mites then be
can
captured and destroyed.
mitting African relapsing fever may be
controlled by the following ways
Chigger infestations in lawns, gardens,
and the general premises can be wiped out by
Ornithodoros infested like infested
areas applying suitable chemicals either as a
spray
huts, caves, shacks and ground areas should or adust to the infested areas. Chlorodane,
be avoided if possible. toxaphen and lindane are generally recom-
I f it is necessary to go into such areas, a
mended for this purpose.
repellent, e.g., diethyl toluamide, should be Repellents like diethyl toluamide,
applied to socks and trousers. This repellent dimethyl phthalate, dimethyl carbamate,
should also be used in all infected areas for a
benzyl benzoate etc. may be
applied to
long period as the ticks continue to harbour clothings of persons present in chigger
the
spirochaetes for many months. infested areas and to arms or legs that usually
I n areas of recreational importance, do not remain covered by clothing.
areawise I f persons in chigger infested areas are
programmes of tick and rodent
control is necessary. The 1atter without the without the protection of repellents, they
mer is useless and even dangerous, since should bathe as soon as possible after
uCKS
deprived of their usual hosts will turn returning. If welts have formed, a dab of
avidly to human
blono human occupants of cottages for antiseptic applied to each will kill the chigger.
blood.
MITE ALLERGY
ome of the useful measures in the
control of ticks and other small host animals Mites, causing allergy: Allergy causing
infesting broadly be divided into two
knotholes, huts, cotteges
knoth all crevices,
are mites can

*S, and other points of ingress should categories: (1) House Dust Mites (HDM) and
 ZOOLOGY [Vol. II]
GENERAL
682 INTRODUCTION TO

iinarily attack grain, flour, dried

(2) Storage Grain Mites (SGM). The former fruits, insect collectio etc. Their meat and
an
group of mites belong to the
glyphidae and genus Dermatophagoides.
family Pyro ment is sorapid that

may appear
in
literally millior
product, in fewof them
a stored develop-
They have been established to trigger naso The metamorphosis
of this days.
bronchial allergy. They are the major intes
in a peculiar stage
group
the hy involves
known as
tants ot house
r o o m corners,
dust especially occurring
humid places, dustbin,
old appears
in a mber of species popus. I
between
mites two nymphal stages, very unlike the
curtain and carpets. The storage grain
Acaridae
ther of
theseand very differentifrom the adult.
belong to families Glycyphagidae,found fre- a "wander nymph" stage in which theThis is
and Chortoglyhidae. They a r e
grains, brans, attach themselves, nonparasitically to mites
quently in stored food products,
and a r e associated with
which disseminate them. hosts
hay and straw, handlers and The acarid mite Acarus siro is the
occupational asthma in grain
tarming communities.
mite or cheese mite found in grain grain
oduct and cheese. This mite causes stored
a
A. House dust mites
known as "Vanillism in vanilla
rash
Dermato-
pod handle
Many species of the genus Tyrophagus castellanii e "copra itch"
phagoides are the main causative agents of m.ong dock
workers handling copra and
house dust allergy. Most common species are cheese. The of such allergic
cause
D. pteronyssinus and D. farinae (Fig. 6.21). They
atitis
has been variously attributed to the du
mm to 0.39 m m in
are very small mites, 0.17 caused by the feeding mites and
circular in shape, the
length, short oval to nearly striated.
microorganisms present therein; to a
and flattened. Their skin is soft and hypersensitivity on the part of the patients and
cause severe
All tarsi end in caruncles. They to a substance present in the saliva of the
whole
and persistent dermatitis. Besides, mites.
mites o r their parts o r excrement
of s o m e
to 2. Family glycyphagidae : Glycyphagus
species when inhaled as happens
cause asthma domesticus often found in dried fruits and in
everybody everyday, they c a n such organic matter as skin and feathers, cause
sensitive
and other respiratory problems in
individuals. "grocers itch" when highly infested material
is handled. This mite may occur in enormous
B. Storage grain mites number in homes and stores.
1. Family acaridae This family includes a
:
Blomia tropicalis is a storage mite, found in
Small group t very tiny mites. They
climate conditions with high humidity in
like India,
tropical and subtropical countries
Hongkong, Japan, Brazil, Egypt, Nigeria,
Taiwan etc. The adults move in characteriste
hasty fashion and has several long s1a
egs
Covering the body. The female lay
Larvae ae
randomly under nutrient particles.
Seen one week after copulation and followg
adult
into
another week, the larvae transform was
In India (Mumbai), Blomia tropicals a c a r o

of the
found to be a dominant species
tonl
thrive nd
fauna in some houses, as it can
kitchenst
Fig. 6.21 : DermatopBhagoides sp., a house dust mite in
bedding etc. but in places like
 PARASITOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 683

house dust mite. pteronyssinus. Der p 1 causes disruption of

an important
making it intercellular tight junctions (Ts), which are the
explanation
for this could be that in
Apossible

omes, during summer, food- principal components of the epithelial

Indian
m a n y

sed as an
p u r c h a s e d
as annual stock, dried paracellular permeability barrier. Such
grainsare d stored. These food grains opening of Tjs by environmental proteinases
h e a t a n d store
solar
be the
vehicles
allowing the entry of may be the initial
stepinthe development of
coula

mites into
the houses. ailergic asthma. Besides this function, Der p 1
storage

Allergens, their mode of activity in mite- selectively cleaves human CD25, the alpha
subunit of the T cell IL-2 receptor. As a result
In recent years, scientists are
orne allergy-and characterise the of this cleavage T helper cells show dimi-
to isolate allergens
trying the development nished proliferation and IFN-y secretion,
factors responsible for
the
or

fallergic reactions. House adust mite allergens leading to an augmentation of the TH sub-
be set and presumably, the development of
have been shown to very important
stimulus in the
causation of asthma and allergen.
for exacerbation of symptoms. From Blomia tropicalis, a novel allergen,
triggers
Few group 1
cysteine proteases or
homologous to cysteine proteases was isolated
allergens recognised
have been immuno as and was designated as Blot 1. To date, only
dominant allergens involved in dust mite turee Bt allergens have been isolated and
specific IgE-mediated hypersensitivity. It has cloned which were presumed to play a major
been proposed that proteolytic activity is the role as an immunodominant allergen. It is
major contributor of the hypersensitivity, involved in dust mite-specific IgE-mediated
associated with group 1 dust mite allergens hypersensitivity, though their specific mode of
such as Der p1 derived from Dermatophagoides activity is yet to be investigated.