QUESTION:

1a. What Is The Difference Between Observational And Experimental Epidemiology.

ANSWER:
In observational Epidemiology researchers do not assign choices they simply observe
them. Observational studies are valuable for discovering trends but not for determining causal
relationships experimental epidemiology or wild experimental epidemiology involves
manipulation of factor in a group and seeing how it affect the disease (outcome) compared to the
other group. Experiment allows us to prove cause and effect relationship.
QUESTION
1b. State Three Advantages And Two Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Studies.
ANSWER
Cross-Sectional Studies measures the prevalence of exposure and disease in a particular
population at a single point in time (snapshot).
THREE ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES ARE:
• It is useful In generating a hypothesis for further more rigorous studies.
• It is inexpensive (relatively).
• It is useful for public health planning and it can measure association among multiple
variables at the same time.
TWO DISADVANTAGES OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES ARE:
• It does not measure causality. The direction of the relationships is not certain.
• There are issues of biases in cross-sectional studies.
QUESTION
1c. Enumerate The Basic Steps Involved In The Conduct Of Cohort Studies.
ANSWER
Cohort study is an analytical study of the incidence between a factor and a disease
(outcome). The basic steps in cohort studies include:
• It start with subjects who are free from the disease (outcome). In prospecting cohort studies,
at the beginning the subject to be studied should be free of the disease (outcome).
• Identify the exposed and the non-exposed to the factor (raised from hypothesis) causing the
disease (outcome) taking measures to eliminate biases.
• Follow the individuals over a given period of time. This is done to see the development of the
outcome in both groups.
• Calculate the incidence of the outcome in both groups (i.e the exposed group and the non-
exposed group).
• Calculate the relative risk (RR) also known as risk ratio: This is calculated using the
incidence in exposed groups as the numerator and the incidence in the non-exposed group as
the denominator.
QUESTION
2a. Give A Concise Definition Of An Infectious Disease.
ANSWER
An infectious disease is a disease caused by an infectious agent like viruses, bacteria,
fungi, parasite or prion in susceptible host.
QUESTION
2b. Copy The Table Below And Fill In The Spaces Provided To Describe The Chain Of
Infections of Tuberculosis, Typhoid Fever, Yellow Fever And Rabies.

Tuberculosis Typhoid Fever Yellow Fever Rabies

Mycobacterium
Agent Salmonella Typhi Abovirus Lyssavirus
Tuberculosis
Dogs (Domestic),
Reservoir Humans Humans Monkeys/Humans
Bat and Foxes
Feaces (through Saliva from the
Portal of Exit Respiratory Tract Skin
the anus) mouth
Direct contact
through broken
Arthropod bite skin or mucous
Droplet nuclei
Mode of Contaminated (e.g. Aedes and membrane with
(airborne
Transmission water or food Haemagogue saliva or
particles)
Mosquitos) brain/nervous
tissue from an
infected animal
Broken
Portal of Entry Respiratory Tract Mouth Skin skin/Mucous
membrane
Immunos
Suppression.
- Age (infants and
very young
Factors in Host children and the Age (Older
Age and Gender Age
Susceptibility elderly) People)
- Very low body
weight
- Substance
Abuse

QUESTION
 3. List Six Measures To Prevent/Control Each Of The Group Of Communicable Diseases
Listed Below:
a. Infectious Diseases Spread By Oral Feacal Contact.
ANSWER
i. Protect water source from contamination with feaces.
ii. Use clean drinking cups and clean covered containers for storing water.
iii. Boil water before drinking or use in preparation of food.
iv. Effective sewage disposal.
v. Wash hands often with soap and water.
vi. Effective health education of the community.
vii. Wash fruits and vegetable thoroughly before eating.
QUESTION
3b. Infectious Diseases Spread By Vector:
ANSWER
i. Alteration of the vectors habitat.
ii. Application of pesticide.
iii. Removal of vectors food source.
iv. Prevention of contact with the vectors for instance using net.
v. Altering the biological or genetic component of the vector.
vi. Maintaining clean environment.
QUESTION
3c. Infectious Diseases Spread Through Sexual Contact.
ANSWER
i. Abstinence from sex.
ii. Maintain one Partner (mutual monogamy).
iii. Reduce number of sexual partners.
iv. Use of condoms during sex.
v. Vaccination e.g. against HPV (Human Pappiloma Virus and hepatitis B virus)
vi. Contact tracing and treatment.
QUESTION
3d. Infectious Diseases Spread By Contaminated Food.
ANSWER
i. Cover food properly especially after cooking or serving.
QUESTION
3f. Infectious Diseases That Are Zoonotic
 ANSWER
i. Keeping hands clean after handling pet/animals.
ii. Prevent animal bite.
iii. Stay safe from pet.
iv. Safety in food handling.
v. Immunization of pet (e.g. dogs against rabies)
vi. Keeping pet in clean environment.
QUESTION
4. Write Briefly On The Epidemiology (Occurrence, Reservoir, Mode of Transmission,
and Incubation Period of Communicability, Susceptibility and Resistance of the Following
Diseases).
a. Malaria Fever
ANSWER
Malaria Fever is caused by plasmodium parasite (Plasmodium Falciparium, Plasmodium
Vivas, Plasmodium Ovale, Plasmodium Malriae)
Occurrence: According to the latest world malaria report they were 247,000,000 cases of
malaria in 2021 compared to 245,000,000 cases in 2020. The estimated number of malaria death
stood at 619,000 in 2001 compared 625,00 in 2020. (WHO malaria report 2020)
Reservoir: Humans are the only important reservoir of human malaria
Mode of Transmission: Malaria is transmitted through the bite of an infective female anopheles
mosquito.
Incubation: The incubation period in most cases varies from 7 – 30 days. The shorter period are
observed most frequently with plasmodium flaciparium and longer ones with plasmodium
malariae.
Susceptibility: The predisposition of the population to be infected by malaria parasite is
influenced by biologic and generic factor, such as: age-sex composition, Socio-economic status
and Migration history of the population.
Resistance: Over the years drug resistance has developed leading to use of different malaria
drugs and combination of drugs in the treatment of malaria.
QUESTION
4b. Gonorrhoa is a Sexually Transmitted Disease Caused By Neisseria Gonorrhoae
ANSWER
Most often gonorrhea is found in younger people (15 – 30 years) who have multiple sex
partner.
Reservoir: Humans are the reservoir of gonorrhea
Incubation Period: Neisseria gonorrhea has a short incubation period of 1 – 10 days (average 2
– 5) after exposure to an infected person.
Period of Communicability: Gonorrhoa is communicable from the time the infection is
acquired until adequate treatment is received. Effective treatment ends communicability within
hours.
Susceptibility: Any sexually active person can be infected with gonorrhea.
Resistance: Gonorrhoa has developed resistance to nearly all the antibiotics used for its
treatment. Currently Cephalosporins are used in its treatment.
QUESTION
4c. Cholera is caused by Vibro Cholerae.
ANSWER
Each year an estimated 1.3 – 4.0 million people get cholera and 21,000 – 143,000 die
from it worldwide. Most cases continue to occur in resource-limited settings that have unsafe
drinking water, poor sanitation and inadequate hygiene.
Reservoir: Cholera has two main reservoirs and they are humans and water.
Mode of Transmission: The cholera bacteria is passed through feaces. It is spread by eating
food or drinking water contaminated by feaces of an infected person.
Incubation Period: The incubation period of cholera is between two hours and five days.
Period of Communicability: Patient are infectious from the onset of symptoms until seven days
after resolution of diarrhoea. The carrier state may develop and persist for few months.
Susceptibility: Everyone is susceptible to cholera with the exception of infants who get
immunity from nursing mothers who have previously have cholera.
Resistance: Several gram-negative bacteria including V. cholera showed resistance to many
drugs e.g. Tetracycline, aminoglycocides etc. Due to functional changes or loss of porins.
QUSTION
5a. State Five Differences Between Screening and Diagnostic Test.
ANSWER

SCREENING TEST DIAGNOSTIC TEST

1. Done on apparently healthy 1. Done on those with indication or sick.
2. Applied to groups 2. Applied to single patient
3. Less accurate 3. More accurate
4. Less expensive 4. More expensive
5. Not basis for treatment 5. Used as a basis for treatment
QUESTION
5b. What Do You Understand By The Following.
i. Sensitivity of a test
ANSWER
This refers to a test ability to designate an individual with disease as positive. A highly
sensitive test means that there are few false negative results and thus fewer cases of the disease
amidst
QUESTION
ii. Specificity of a test
ANSWER
This is the ability to designate an individual who does not have a disease as negative. A
highly specific test means that there are few false positive results.
QUESTION
iii. Predictive value of a disease.
ANSWER
This is a measure (%) of the times that the value (positive or negative) is the true value
for example the percent of all positive test that are true positive is the positive predictive value.
QUESTION
6a. What Are Neglected Tropical Diseases.
ANSWER
These are diseases that affect the poorest and the most marginalize people. They are a
group of bacteria, parasitic, viral, fungal and helmintic infections/infestation that are prevalent in
many of the tropical and sub-tropical developing countries where poverty is rampant, some of
the diseases include: Chagas, Buruli Ulcer, Dengue Fever, Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm
diseases) etc.