Chapter 3

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication
Chapter 3
Pulse Modulation
Outline
• Sampling Process: Sampling Theory, Anti-Aliasing
• Pulse Modulation
— Analog Pulse Modulation: PAM, PDM, PWM, PPM
— Digital Pulse Modulation: PCM, DM, DPCM
• Quantization Process: Uniform; Nonuniform
• Pulse-code Modulation (PCM): sampling, Quantization, encoding
• Noise in PCM: Channel noise, Quantization noise
• Time-Division Multiplexing: T1, Digital Multiplexers:
• Delta-Modulation: Slope-overload, Granular noise, Delta-Sigma mod.
• Linear Predictor: Linear Adaptive prediction
• Differential Pulse-code Modulation (DPCM): Adaptive DPCM
Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 1 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin
Pulse Modulation
• Two families of pulse modulation
— Analog pulse modulation: Carrier wave, CW  Pulse Train
> Discrete in time; Analog in amplitude, duration, position
— Digital pulse modulation: Pulse Train  coded Pulse
> Discrete in both time and amplitude
Analog Pulse Modulation Digital Pulse Modulation
Sampling Process
• Sampling Process: An operation that is basic to all pulse modulation
system, signal processing and digital communication
 
g =  g nTs t
–nT s = t  t
g –nT s 
n = – n = –
T s : Sampling period
ideal sampling
Analog signal. Instantaneously sampled version

of the analog signal.

Sampling Spectrum
 
G 
f = G 
f  fs  f
–nf s  = fs  G f –mf s 
n = – n = –

G 
f =  g nTs exp –j2 nT s : discrete-time Fourier Transform
n = –
f s : Sampling rate
Spectrum of a strictly Spectrum of the sampled version for

band-limited signal a sampling period Ts = 1/2 W.
Reconstructing Signal
• g
t can be reconstructed
— gt : bandlimited; G 
f = 0 for f W.
— sampling interval T s = 1 
2W.
g
1
t = -------- g 
t h t f = 1, f W  h 
H  t = 2W sin c 
2Wt 
2W

n
=  g -------- sin c 2Wt –n 
n = –
 2W 
Interpolation Formula

Sampling Theory
• g
t can be described by specifying the value of the signal at instants of
time separated by 1/2W seconds:
— Interpolation Formula [ g 
t : bandlimited; G 
f = 0 for f W ]
• g
t can be completely recovered from a knowledge of its samples taken
at the rate of 2W samples per seconds.
— Aliasing: overlapped region

contains that part of the
spectrum which is aliased
duet o“undersampli
ng”.
Anti-Aliasing
• Two ways of eliminating

aliasing Anti-alias filtered spectrum
of an information-bearing signal.
- Anti-aliasing filter:
Signal is prefiltered 
new maximum
frequency W fs  2. assuming the use of a sampling rate
greater than the Nyquist rate.
- Sampling Frequency:
f s 2W ; sampled at a
rate slightly higher than
Nyquest rate.
Spectrum of instantaneously sampled version of the signal
Magnitude response of reconstruction filter

PAM (Natural Sampling)

ap 
t =  t
–nT s 
n = –
ap 
t = a 
t p 
t v
t = m 
t a p 
t
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

• Sample and Hold: Flat-tapped Pulse
 
m 
t =  m nTs t
–nT s  S 
f = H 
f M 
f = fs M 
f –kf s 
H 
f
n = – k = –
 
s
t =  m nT s h t –nT s = mt h t  = T sin c 
fT
exp 
–j2 T f s M f –kfs H f 
n = – k = –

PAM Characteristics
 --- T sin c 

t
fT 
T 
t –T 

------------------ T sin c 
2
fT 
e –jfT
 T 
 
(a) Rectangular pulse h(t).
 t
–mT s  f s  t
–nf s 
m = – n = –
fs = 1 
Ts
1 1 f
---------------- = -------------------------- = ------------------------
H  f T sin c  f T  sin  fT 
(b) Spectrum H(f), made up of the magnitude |H(f)|, and phase arg[H(f)]. Amplitude response of
the equalizer:
1 1
= ---------------- = --------------------------
H  f T sin c  f T
System for recovering message signal m(t) from PAM signal s(t).
Sample and Hold PAM

• Why sample and hold
— Circuit is more practical
— High-frequency spectral replicates is attenuated significantly
> Additional analog post filtering is usually required to finish the filtering process by
further attenuating the residual spectral components
> Amplitude distortion and a delay of T/2 is introduced
• Aperture effect: Distortion caused by the use of PAM

— can be corrected by connecting an equalizer in cascade with the low-pass
reconstruction filter
> Amplitude response of the equalizer is
• In comparison to baseband signal transmission

— more stringent requirements on amplitude and phase response of channel
— noise performance is worse
— only time-division multiplexing can be made for long-distance transmission
Other forms of pulse Modulation
• Pulse-duration Modulation (PDM):

- Pulse-width Mod. (PWM); Pulse-length
Mod.
- Samples of message signal are used to
vart duration of individual pulses
(a) Modulating wave.
- Long pulses expend 
considerable
power
• Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM):
(b) Pulse carrier.
- Position of a pulse is varied with
message signal
- unused power is subtracted from PDM; (c) PDM wave.
time transitions are preserved
- more efficient
(d) PPM wave.
Generation and Detection of PPM

• s
t : strictly nonoverlapping
s
t =  g t –nT s –kp m nT s  kp m 
nT s  T s 
2
n = – max
- k p : sensitivity
- g
t : standard pulse,
smaller T higher BW
• Detection of PPM
- PPM PDM (Integrate)
PAM 
m(t)
• Slicing: A practical PPM
receiver includes a slicer

Noise in PPM
• Slicer
- A noise cleaning device
- half peak pulse amp.
- Random variations in pulse amp. are removed
-random variation in pulse position due to noise will remain
• Noise in PPM modulation
- Noise has no effect on PPM with perfectly
rectangular pulse; Perfectly rectangular pulse 
BW   impractical on finite BW channel
- Standard Pulse: A raised pulse
 SNR 
- Figure of merit: ------------------o- = 
2 
192 B
T 
W2
SNR  c
 1 as B T 4.41W
B T : Pulse bandwidth, W : message bandwidt
- Bandwidth-Noise trade-off: Higher B T, Lower Noise
Digital Pulse Modulation

• Pulse code Modulation (PCM) • Delta Modulation (DM)
- Sampling
- Quantization
- Encoding

Quantization Process
• Why Quantization
— Original continuous signal is approximated by a
signal with discrete amplitudes
— Human sense can detect only finite intensity
differences
— A basic condition of pulse-code modulation (PCM)
— A process transforming sample amplitude m(nTs)of
a message signal m(t) at time t=nTs into a discrete
amplitude v(nTs)
Description of a memoryless quantizer.
Types of Quantization
• Uniform: representation • Midtread: original lies in the middle of a tread

levels are uniformly spaced
• Midrise: original lies in the middle of a rising part
• Nonuniform: A variable
separation between the
levels is preferable in certain
applications
- Fewer steps are needed
- Step-size increases as
the separation from the
origin
- Nonuniform quantizer =
compressor ( -law) +
uniform qualizer
- Optimality of scalar
quantizers
Two types of quantization: (a) midtread and (b) midrise.

Uniform Quantization
Quantization noise (error): quan. error dist. = f Q 

q = 1

• Difference between the input signal m and step size=  = 2m max L

output v. Quantization Error = q= m - v 1 2 2 –2R
Quant. error = v2 = 2 12 = 3--- m max
3P -  2R
------ = ------ = -------------
S P
2
v2 v2 m max 2 
R: # of bits
Illustration of the quantization process.
Examples
• A full-load sinusoidal modulating signal of amplitude Am:
— P=Am2; mmax=Am;SNR =  3P  2
m max 
2 2R = 1.8 + 6R(dB);
— If R=7 bits, SNR=42+1.8=43.8 (dB); 2W = 8,000 samples; Transmission rates
= 56k bits/sec.
• Signal is Gaussian distributed ~ N(0,1); Signal power P=2=1;

Quantization noise =
0.5 1 –x 2 2 1.5 2 1
Nq = 2  x 2 ----------
-e +  x –1 ----------- e –x 2 2
0 2 0.5 2
2.5 2 1 3.5 2 1
+  x –2 ----------- e –x 2 2 +  x –3 ----------- e –x 2 2
1.5 2 2.5 2
 2 1
+  x –4 ----------- e –x 2 2
3.5 2

Optimality of Scalar Quantizer

• Minimize average quantization power • Two components
- Fixed number of representation levels - Encoder in TX: k kL = 1
- Select the representation levels - Decoder in RX: k kL = 1
• Average distortion • Two Conditions
L - Condition I: Given k kL = 1 ,
D =   d m k f M m dm, where Find k kL = 1
k = 1 m k
- Condition II: Given k kL = 1 ,
d
m k = 
m –k 
2 : mean-square distortion Find k kL = 1
fM 
m : Probability density function of M • Find k and k to minimize D
1 2
k : m k m m k + 1 for k = 1
2 L
Input
output 1 2
Condition I
Optimality of Encoder for a given Decoder
• A decoder means that we have a certain codebook in mind
• Codebook is defined by : k k = 1 ; Given k kL = 1 , Find k kL = 1 that
minimizes average distortion D
L
A
D=  d
mg
m
fM 
mdM   min d
m k 
fM 
mdm
5
–A  k = 1 m k k
nearest neighbor
6
7
Find g
m = k , k = 1
2 L 1
m k = --- 
 + k + 1  6
2 k
d
m k d 
m j holds for all j k 5
m1 m2 m3 m4
4
- input m are closer to k than any other element m5 m6 m7 m8

3
- A specified codebook is recognized as nearest 2
neighbor condition 1

Condition II
Optimality of Decoder for a given Encoder
• Optimize codebook k kL = 1 , given k kL = 1 ; Encoder is fixed
L Optimality algorithm
D =  m –k f M m dm
2
• Optimze the encoder m k in
k = 1 m k accordance with condition I
• Optimze the encoder k in
D
= –2  m –k 
fM 
mdm = 0 accordance with condition II
k m  k • Continue in this manner until average
distortion D reaches a minimum
mf M m dm Conditional mean of
m k
kopt = -----------------------------------------
- random variable M
M f  m  dm
m k
= E
M m k M m k + 1 
pk = P 
m k M m k + 1  kopt
mk mk + 1
Example (4-level uniform &Optimum)
•opt for signal m with Gaussian R.V. • Optimum Quantizer for signal m with
Gaussian R.V. (  = 0 , 2 = 1 )
(  = 0 , 2 = 1 )
1 - Find m k and k .
• -
k = -- 2k –1  , kk  k + 1

2 - Dmin = 0.1175= 9.3dB
Uniform Quantizer Optimum Four-level Quantizer
L opt D 10 log D min L mk k
2 1.596 0.3634 -4.4 1 


1.510
4 0.9957 0.1188 -9.25 2 0.9816
0.4528
8 0.5860 0.3744 -14.27 3 0
4 0.9816 0.4528
16 0.3352 0.1154 -19.38
1.51
32 0.1881 0.00349 -24.57 5 

Example (8-level Optimum)
Optimum eight-level Quantizer

L mk k 8
1 

2.152 7
2 1.748
1.344 6
3 1.050
0.7560
5
4 0.5006 m1 m2 m3 m4 m6 m7 m8 m9
0.2451
m5
5 
0.2451 4
6 0.5006
3
0.7560
7 1.050
1.344 2
8 1.748
2.152
9  1
Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM)

• A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses
The basic elements of a PCM system

Elements of PCM (I)

• Sampling: message is sampled with a train of narrow rectangular pulses
— sampling rate > twice the highest frequency
— A low-pass anti-aliasing filter is used at the front end of the sampler
• Quantization: provide a new representation of the signal
— A nonuniform quantizer: step-size increases as separation from the origin of
input-output amplitude is increased
— A nonuniform quantizer = a compressor + uniform quantizer
• Encoding: exploit the advantage of sampling and quantizing
— more robust to noise, interference or other channel impairments
— Code element or symbol: one of discrete events in a code
— Code word or character: a particular arrange of symbols
— A binary code: two distinct values for each symbol => 0 and 1; maximum
advantage over effects of noise; bit=acronym for binary; code word=R bits
— A ternary code: three distinct values for each symbol
Elements of PCM (II)

• Regeneration: control the effects of distortion and noise
— Three basic functions are performed
> Equalization: compensate for effects of
amplitude and phse distortions due to
nonideal transmission of channel
> Timing: sample equalized pulses at the
instants of time (SNR is a maximum)
> Decision making: sample is compared to a threshold
— Accumulation of distortion and noise is completely removed if disturbance is
not too large; Two main reasons for regenerated signal departing from origin
> unavoidable presence of channel noise and interference 
bit errors
> spacing between received pulses deviates from assign value 
jitter
• Decoding: pulses regrouped into codewords  a quantized PAM signal

— pulse amplitue is linear sum of all pulses (weighted by 20, 21, ..) in code word
• Filtering: A low-pass reconstruction filter (cutoff frequency = W)
Quantization (PCM)
• A nonuniform quantizer = a compressor + uniform quantizer
• Compression Law
— law
— law
— A piece linear
approximation
to desired curve
• Expander
— resotore signal
— Inversion of
compression
• Compander =
Compressor +
Expander Compression laws. (a) -law. (b) A-law.
Compression Law
law law
log  1 + m  Am
-------------------------
- , 0  m 1 
 = ----------------------------------- 1 + log  A
A
log  1 +  = 
d m log  1 + m  -------------------------
Am
- , 1A  m 1
------------- = ------------------------------------ 
1 + m  1 + log  A
d  
1 + log  A
m « 1  linear d m -------------------------- , 0  m 1 A
------------- =  A
m » 1  log arithmic d  
1 + A m , 1  A  m 1
In US, Canada, Japan m = 255 practical values of A ~ 100
uniform quantization used in Europe A ~ 1
• Companding circuitry does not produce an exact replica of nonlinear compression curves
• A piecewise linear approximation to the desired curve using a large enough number of
linear segments
Line code (waveform)
Line codes for the electrical representations of

binary data.
(a) Unipolar NRZ signaling.
— waste of power due to DC; large near zero f
(b) Polar NRZ signaling.
— power spectrum is large near zero freq.
(c) Unpolar RZ signaling.
— 3dB more power than Polar NRZ
(d) Bipolar RZ signaling.
— No DC component, insignificant Low-freq.
(e) Split-phase or Manchester code
— No DC component, insignificant Low-freq. 0 1
Line code (power spectra)
Assumptions
• 0 and 1 are equiprobable
• average power ~1
• frequency f ~ 1/Tb
bit-timing recovery

Differential Encoding
• Encode information in terms of signal transitions
— 0 symbol 
a transition is used
— 1 symbol 
no transition is used
• Original binary information is recovered
— simply by comparing polarity of adjacent binary symbols
— A reference bit is required
Waveform of differentially encoded data using unipolar NRZ signaling.
Noise in PCM
• Two major sources of noise
— Channel noise: anywhere between transmitter output and receiver input
> introduce bit errors into received signal average probability of symbol error; bit
error rate (BER) for binary
— Quantization noise: introduced in transmitter and is carried to receiver output;
signal-dependent
• Bit error rate ~ Eb/No (Eb: bit energy, No:noise spectral density)
— PCM is robust to channel noise and interference (ruggedness to interference)
Influence of Eb/No on error probability
Eb/No Pe bit rate of 105 b/s

4.3 dB 10 -2
10-3 second
8.4dB 10-4 10-1 second
10.6dB 10-6 10 seconds
12.0dB 10 -8 20 seconds
13.0dB 10-10 1 day

Noise analysis of PCM system. (a) Probability density function of random variable Y at matched 14.0dB 10-12 3 months
filter output when 0 is transmitted. (b) Probability density function of Y when 1 is transmitted.

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• Some of interval between adjacent samples is cleared for use by other
independent message sources on a time-shared basis
— a common communication channel without mutual interference among them
• Commutator: Electronic switching circuit
— fs > 2W; interleave N samples
— Synchronization is essential
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• TDM system is highly sensitive to dispersion in the common channel
— variations of amplitude with frequency; nonlinearity of phase with frequency.
— Accurate equalization of amplitude and phase of channel is necessary
• TDM system is immune to amplitude nonlinearities
— S1, S2, ..., SN are not simultaneously impressed on the channel
— Total power is not too high
s1 s2 high total
Power
Interference

T1 System
• T1: 24 voice channels over separate pairs of
wires with regenerative repeaters spaced at ~
2-km intervals
— voice signal: 300 ~3100 Hz; a low-pass filter
with cutoff freq, = 3.1kHz; W=3.1kHz, Nyquest
band = 6.2KHz
— Quantization: Logarithmic -law with =255
> piecewise-linear approximation (Table 3.4): 15
segment:0, 1a1b,2a2b, ...., 7a7b; representation
levels: 31 + 
14 16 = 255  8 bits
representation inside
the swgment
= 2 = 4 = 8 1st segment
bit
1 3
31 35 95
31 steps 16 steps
1: voice sample +
1b 0 1a 2a 7a
0: voice sample -
15 segments
An Example of T1
• 2W = 8kHz = fs  Ts =125s • signal information: dial pulse;

• voice signal: 24 voice channels off-hood/on-hood signals
• bits in one frame = 1 +

24 8 = 193 • Average bits for each voice
6 –1- = 7 5--- bits

= 8--------------------
synchrinization
6 6
• Tb=125/193=0.647s  fb=1/Tb=1.544Mbits
synchrinization
24 ch
1 2 24
.... 1 frame 2 frame 3 frame 6 frame
8kHz ch 1 2 ....
CH1
least significnant bit = signaling bit

....
125s sampling rate (signaling) =8k/6=1.333kb/s

1 frame

Delta Modulation (DM)

• A simple quantizing strategy for constructing the encoder
— message is oversampled; fs >> 2W increase correlation between samples
e
nT s = m 
nT s –m q 
nT s –T s  mq 
nT s = m q 
nT s –T s + eq 
nT s 
e
nTs 0  e q 
nT s =  m 
nT s m q 
nT s –T s  
e
nT s 0  e q 
nT s = – m 
nT s m q 
nT s –T s 
Quantization error of DM
• Two types of quantization error
— Slope overload distortion: is too small; mq(t) falls behind m(t)
— granular noise: is too large; analogous to quantization error
  t
- max dm
• ---- --------------  m q 
nT s increases as fast as the input m q 
nT s 
.
Ts dt
— St
ep-
sizevar
ieswi
t
hinputsi
gnalusi
ng“
adapt
ive”DM
Adaptive DM
e 
nT s 
quantization
error
adaptive DM

Delta-Sigma Modulation
• Drawback of delta modulation:
Error
transmission disturbance (such as
noise) 
Accumulative error
Error propagation
• Accumulative error can be overcome by disturbance
add filter to smooth

integrating the message
- pre-emphasize low-frequency
content
- increase correlation to reduce
variance of quantization error due to
noise
- Design of receiver is simplified: only
low pass filter is needed
• Fig, 3.25b is simpler than Fig, 3.25a
- smoothness refers to the fact that
comparator output is integrated prior
to quantization
Linear Prediction
• Why Linear Prediction
- Delta modulation: sampling rate >> 2W for PCM 
increase channel BW
- Trade increased system complexity for a reduced channel bandwidth
• A finite-duration impulse response (FIR) discrete-time filter
- Wiener-Hopf equations
- Linear Adaptive prediction
Linear prediction filter
Linear adaptive
prediction process
DPCM system

Linear Prediction Filter

• A finite-duration impulse response (FIR) discrete-time filter
- Set of p-delay elements, each of which is represented by z-1
- Set of multipliers involving filter coefficients w1, w2,..., wp
- setof“
adder
s”usedt
osum scal
edver
sionsofdel
ayedi
nput
stopr
oduceout
put
n  RX  kT s = E  x 
n x n –k  
p
J = E e 2 
mean-square error
output xˆ

n =  wk x n –k  w o : p-by-1 optimum coefficient vector
k=1 optimum solution for w1, w2,..., wp
r X : p-by-1 autocorrelation vector
prediction error e 
n = x  ˆ
n –x 
n R X w o = r X  w o = R X–1 r X R X : p-by-p autocorrelation matrix
Block diagram of a linear prediction filter of order p
Linear Adaptive Prediction

• RX [k] for varying k is not available; we may resort to adaptive predictor
- Computation of tap weights w1, w2,..., wp; starting from arbitrary initial values of tap
wei
ght
s;pr oceedi na“ recur si
ve”manner .
- Al
gor
it
hm usedt
oadj
ustt
apwei
ght
sis“
sel
f-
desi
gned”onbasi
sofavai
l
abl
edat
a.
p
gk =  2 x 
n x
n –k 
+ 2 w j E x n –j x n –k 
gradient vector J k = 1
2 
p g k = –E
w k j=1
instantaneous values as estimates of E
x 
n x
n –k 

updated value of weight
1 Least-mean-square (LMS)
wk 
n + 1 = w k 
n –--- g k 1
2 step-size wk 
n + 1 = w k n –--- x
 n –k 
e 
n 
method of steep descent parameter p
2
predictor
e 
n = x n –w i x  n –j  error
j=1
J gradient vector
bowl-shaped error surface
initial point
Linear adaptive prediction process Jmin

Differential Pulse-Code Modulation (DPCM)

• A more efficient coded signal by removing redundancy
- In PCM, resulting sampled signal exhibits a high degree of correlation between
adjacent samples.
- Difference between adjacent samples has a smaller variance than variance of
signal itself
Input to quantizer e 
n = m  ˆ
n –m n fs = 1 
Ts
quantizer output e q 
n = e 
n + q 
n
prediction-filter input m q  ˆ
n = m n + e q 
n quantization
error
m q  ˆ
n = m n + e 
n + q 
n
prediction filter
m q 
n = m 
n + q 
n
• DPCM like DM is subject to slope-overload
distortion
- signal changes too fast for prediction filter
• DPCM like PCM suffer from quantization noise

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輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Analog Pulse Modulation Digital Pulse Modulation

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 2 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Analog signal. Instantaneously sampled version

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 3 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Spectrum of a strictly Spectrum of the sampled version for

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 4 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 5 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

— Aliasing: overlapped region

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 6 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

• Two ways of eliminating

Magnitude response of reconstruction filter

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 7 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

PAM (Natural Sampling)

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 8 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 9 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

 --- T sin c 

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 10 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Sample and Hold PAM

• Aperture effect: Distortion caused by the use of PAM

• In comparison to baseband signal transmission

Other forms of pulse Modulation

• Pulse-duration Modulation (PDM):

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 12 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Generation and Detection of PPM

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 13 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 14 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Digital Pulse Modulation

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 15 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Description of a memoryless quantizer.

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 16 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

• Uniform: representation • Midtread: original lies in the middle of a tread

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 17 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Quantization noise (error): quan. error dist. = f Q 

• Difference between the input signal m and step size=  = 2m max L

Illustration of the quantization process.

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 18 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

• Signal is Gaussian distributed ~ N(0,1); Signal power P=2=1;

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 19 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Optimality of Scalar Quantizer

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 20 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

- input m are closer to k than any other element m5 m6 m7 m8

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 21 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Chapter 3: Pulse Modulation 3 - 22 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

輔仁大學 電子工程系所 Digital Communication

Example (4-level uniform &Optimum)

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication

輔仁大學電子工程系所 Digital Communication