21ele13 Module3

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23
MODULE 3A
D.C. GENERATORS AND D.C. MOTORS
Introduction
 An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical form or from
electrical to mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical energy conversion.
 An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy is called an electric
generator.
 An electrical machine which converts electrical energy into a mechanical energy is called an electric
motor.
 The D.C. Machines are thus classified as,
o D.C. Generator
o D.C. motor
Working Principle of a D.C. Machine as a Generator

 All generators work on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f.
 The principle is nothing but the faraday`s law of electromagnetic induction. It states that “Whenever
the number of magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with the conductor or a coil changes, an
electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.”
 The magnitude of the induced e.m.f in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change of flux
associated with the conductor. This is mathematically given by,
𝐝𝛗
eα
𝐝𝐭
 The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with
respect to a conductor.
 So a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between the
conductor and the flux.
 Such an induced e.m.f which is due to physical movement of the coil or conductor with respect to flux
or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
 To have a large voltage at the output, the number of conductors are connected together in a specified
manner, to form a winding. This winding is called armature winding of a D.C. machine.
 The part on which this winding is kept is called armature of a D.C. machine.
 To have the rotation of conductors, the conductors placed in the armature are rotated with the help of
external device. Such an external device is called as prime movers.
 The commonly used prime movers are diesel engine, steam engine, steam turbines etc.
 The necessary magnetic flux is produced by current carrying winding which is called field winding.
 The direction of induced e.m.f is obtained by using Fleming`s right hand rule.
DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

 If the angle between the plane of rotation and plane of flux is θ as measured from the axis of the plane
of flux then the induced e.m.f is given by
E = B l (v sinθ)
 Where v sinθ is the component of velocity which is perpendicular to the plane of flux and hence
responsible for the induced e.m.f.
Constructional details of a D.C. Machine
Fig 4.3.1
It consists of the following parts
Yoke
A. Functions
a) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating materials get
protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases, acidic fumes etc.
b) It provides mechanical support to the poles.
c) It forms the part of the magnetic circuit. It provides the path for low reluctance for magnetic flux. The
low reluctance path is important to avoid wastage of power to provide same flux. Large current and
hence the power is necessary if the path has high reluctance, to produce the same flux.

B. Choice of material: It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest and provides low reluctance
path. For large machines rolled steel, cast steel, silicon steel is used which provides high permeability i.e.
low reluctance and gives good mechanical strength.
Poles
 Each pole is divided into two parts namely
o Pole core
o Pole shoe
 The figure 4.3.2 shows the pole
Fig 4.3.2 Pole structure

a) Functions of pole core and pole shoes
(1) Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
(2) It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core, to the next pole.
(3) Pole shoes enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is necessary to
produce larger induced e.m.f. To achieve this, pole shoes has been given a particular shape.
b) Choice of material: it is made up of magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel. As it requires a
definite shape and size, laminated construction is used. The laminations of required size and shape
are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted to the yoke.
Field Winding
 The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction.
a) Functions
1) The field winding carries current and behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
2) As it helps in producing magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole as an electromagnet it is called field
winding or exciting winding.
b) Choice of material: It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting material. So
aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and bend about
pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.
Armature
 The armature is further divided into two parts

o Armature core

o Armature winding
1. Armature core: Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its
periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
a. Functions
i. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
ii. To provide path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
b. Choice of material
i. As it has to provide low reluctance path to the flux, it is made up of magnetic material like
cast iron or cast steel.
ii. It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as possible.
2. Armature winding: is nothing but the interconnection of armature conductors, placed in the slots
provided on the armature core periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator, magnetic flux
gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f gets induced in them.
a. Function
i. Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
ii. To carry the current supplied in case of D.C. motors.
iii. To do the useful work in the external circuit.
b. Choice of material: As armature winding carries entire current which depends on external load,
it has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper.
Commutator
 The basic nature of e.m.f induced in the armature conductor is alternating.
 This needs rectification in case of D.C. generator, which is possible by a device called commutator.
1) Functions
a) To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductor.
b) To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f to unidirectional e.m.f.
c) To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.
2) Choice of material:
a) As it collects current from the armature, it is also made up of copper segments.
b) It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped segments of hard drawn high conductivity
copper. These segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
c) Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of copper strip.

Brushes and Brush gear

 Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator.
1) Function: To collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external circuit.
2) Choice of material: To avoid wear and tear of commutator brushes are normally made up of soft material
like carbon.
Types of Armature Winding

 A number of armature conductors are connected in a specific manner to give armature winding.
 According to the way of connecting the conductors, the armature winding has two types,
o Lap winding
o Wave winding
 In lap type, the connections overlap each other as the winding proceeds.
 Due to this, the number of parallel path in which the conductors are divided is P, where P= number of
poles in the machines
o A=P = Number of parallel paths
 Large number of parallel path indicate high current capacity of machine hence lap winding is preferred
for high current rating generators.
 In wave winding, the winding travels ahead avoiding the overlap in a progressive fashion.
 Due to this, the armature conductors always get divided into two parallel paths, irrespective of number
of poles.
o A=2= number of parallel paths

Comparison between lap and wave type armature winding

S.no Lap Winding Wave Winding
1. Number of parallel paths (A)= Poles (P) Number of parallel paths (A) = 2
4. Number of brush set required is equal to Number of brush sets required is always equal to two
number of poles
3. Preferable for high current, low voltage Preferable for high voltage, low current capacity
capacity generators generators
4. Normally used for generators of capacity Normally used for generators of capacity less than
more than 500A 500A
Winding terminology
a) Conductor: It is the actual armature conductor which is under the influence of the magnetic field,
placed in the armature slot.
b) Turn: The two conductors placed in different slots when connected together form a turn.
Z = 2 x Number of turns
c) Coil: For simplicity of connections, the turns are grouped together to form a coil. If coil contains only
one turn it is called single turn coil while coil with more than one turn is called multi turn coil.
d) Pole pitch: The distance between the two adjacent poles is called a pole pitch. It is measured in
terms of number of slots. Thus total slots along the periphery of the armature divided by total number
of poles is called a pole pitch.
E.M.F Equation of D.C.Generator

Let P = Number of poles of the generator
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber
N = Speed of armature in r.p.m
Z = Total number of armature conductor
A = Number of parallel path in which the Z number of conductors are divided
So A=P for lap type of winding and A=2 for wave type of winding
E.M.F gets induced in the conductor according to Faraday`s law of electromagnetic induction. Hence the
average value of e.m.f induced in each armature conductor is
E = rate of cutting of flux = dφ
dt
Consider one revolution of conductor. In one revolution, conductor will cut total flux produced by all the
poles i.e. φ x P.
While time required to complete one revolution is 60/N sec as speed in N r.p.m
φP φPN
 E= 60 =
N
60
Now the conductors in one parallel path are always in series. There are total Z conductors with A parallel
path, hence Z/A number of conductors are always in series and e.m.f remains same across all the parallel
paths
φPN Z
 Total e.m.f can be expressed as, E = x
60 A
This is nothing but e.m.f equation of a D.C. generator
𝜑𝐏𝐍𝐙
E= with A= P for lap and A=2 for wave
𝟔𝟎𝐀
Types of D.C. Generators

 The field winding is also called exciting winding and current carried by the field winding is called an
exciting current.
 Thus supplying current to the field winding is called excitation and the way of supplying the exciting
current is called method of excitation.
 Depending on the method of excitation used, the D.C. Generators are classified as,

Separately Excited Generator

 When field winding is supplied from external, separate d.c. supply i.e. excitation of field winding is
separate then the generator is called separately excited generator.
 The schematic representation is shown in fig below
 In the terminology of d.c. machines the various currents are denoted as
Ia = Armature Current IL = Load Current If = field Current
 The field winding is excited separately, so the field current depends on supply voltage and resistance
of the field winding.
 For armature side, it is supplying a load, demanding a load current of IL at a voltage of Vt which is
called terminal voltage.
Now Ia = IL
 The internally induced e.m.f E is supplying the voltage to the load hence terminal voltage Vt is a part
of E.
 But E is not equal to Vt while supplying a load. This is because when armature current Ia flows through
armature winding, due to armature winding resistance Ra , there is a voltage drop across the armature
winding equal to IaRa volts. The induced e.m.f has to supply this drop, along with the terminal
voltage Vt. To keep IaRa drop to minimum the resistance Ra is designed to be very small.
 In addition to this drop, there is some voltage drop at the contacts of the brush called brush contact
drop. But this drop is negligible and hence generally neglected.
 When armature carries current. It produces its own flux which distorts the main flux. Due to this, there
is small voltage drop called armature reaction drop. But as small, this drop is also partially neglected.
 So the voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as,
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 + armature reaction drop
φPNZ
Where E= = generated e.m.f
60A

Self Excited Generator

 When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself then it is said to be self
excited generator.
 Based on how field winding is connected to the armature to derive its excitation, this type is further
divided into the following three types
o Shunt generator
o Series generator
o Compound generator
Shunt generator
 When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the combination across the
load then the generator is called shunt generator.
 From the fig
𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐋 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
 Now the voltage across the load is 𝐕𝐭 , which is same across field winding as both are in parallel with
each other.
𝐕𝐭
𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑
𝐬𝐡
 While induced e.m.f E still requires to supply voltage drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 and brush contact drop
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
 Armature reaction drop is practically neglected.

 The power developed by armature is given by the product of induced e.m.f E and armature current 𝐈𝐚
Power developed in armature = E𝐈𝐚 W
 While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭𝐈𝐋

Series Generator
 When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding while supplying the load
then the generator is called series generator.
 As all armature, field and load are in series they carry the same current
 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋
 Now in addition to drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 , induced e.m.f has to supply voltage drop across series field winding
too. This is 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 . so voltage equation can be written as
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
Compound Generator
 In this type, the part of the field winding is connected in parallel with armature and part in series with
armature.
 Depending on the connection of shunt and series field winding, compound generators are further
classified as
o Long shunt compound generators
o Short shunt compound generators.
Long shunt compound generators

 In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the entire series combination of armature and
series field winding.

 From the fig 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞

 Voltage across the shunt field winding is 𝐕𝐭
𝐕𝐭
𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑
𝐬𝐡
 Voltage equation is
E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
Short Shunt Compound Generator

 In this type, shunt field winding is connected only across the armature, excluding series field
winding.
 From the fig

𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
And 𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋

 the drop across shunt field winding is drop across the armature only and not the total 𝐕𝐭
 so the drop across the shunt field winding is E- 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
E− 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑𝐬𝐡
 now the voltage equation is E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡

Now
𝐈𝐬𝐞 = 𝐈𝐋
Hence E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
 Neglecting 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 we can write E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 i.e. E −𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚= 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞

𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞
 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑𝐬𝐡

Cumulative and Differential Compound Generator

 The two windings shunt and series field are wound on the same pole.
 Depending on the direction of winding on the pole, two fluxes produced by shunt and series field
may help or oppose each other. This fact decides whether generator is cumulative or differential
compound. 
 If the two fluxes help each other the generator is called cumulative compound generator.
 If the two windings are wound in such a direction that the fluxes produced by them oppose each
other then the generator is called differential compound generator.
Application of various type of D.C.Generator

1. Separately Excited Generator
 As a separate supply is required to excite field, the use is restricted to some special
applications like electro-plating, electro-refining of materials.
2. Shunt Generators
 Commonly used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purpose.
3. Series Generator
 Commonly used as boosters on d.c. feeders, as a constant current generator for welding
generators and arc lamps.
4. Cumulatively compound generators
 These are used for domestic lighting purpose and to transmit energy over long distance.
5. Differential Compound generator
 These are used for special application like electric arc welding.
Principle of operation of a D.C. machine as a motor

 The principle of operation of a D.C. motor can be stated in a single statement as ‘when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force’.

 In a practical d.c.motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature
conductors play a role of a current carrying conductor and hence armature conductors experience
a force.
 Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in fig
 Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular direction.
Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as shown in fig. 
 Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it; hence this conductor also
produces its own flux. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. For
direction of current considered the direction of flux around a clockwise. 
 Now there are two fluxes present,
o The flux produced by permanent magnet called main flux
o The flux produced by the current carrying conductor
 From this it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both the fluxes are in the same direction. In this
case on the right hand side of the conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each
other.
 As against this on the left hand side of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and hence
try to cancel each other. Due to this density of flux in this area gets weekend. So on the right, there
exists high flux density area while on the left there exist low density area. 
 This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubberband under tension. This exerts
a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low flux density
area.

 In a practical d.c.motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding which produces the
required flux called main flux and all armature conductors, mounted on the periphery of the armature
drum, gets subjected to the mechanical force.
 Due to this, overall armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts
rotating. 
 The magnitude of force experienced by conductor in a motor is given by
F = B l I Newtons
B= flux density due to the flux produced by field winding
l= active length of the conductor
I= magnitude of current passing through the conductor
 The direction of such force i.e. direction of rotation of motor can be determined by Flemings left
hand rule.
Back E.M.F in a D.C.Motor

 It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f gets induced in
the conductor. In a d.c.motor, after a motoring action, armature starts rotating and the armature
conductors cut the main flux. So there is generating action existing in a motor after motoring action.
 There is an induced e.m.f in the rotating armature conductors according to Faraday`s law of
electromagnetic induction. This induced e.m.f in the armature always acts in the opposite direction to
the supply voltage. This is according to Lenz`s law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f
is always so as to oppose the cause producing it.
 In a D.C. motor, electrical input i.e. supply voltage is the main cause for the armature current and
motoring action and hence this induced e.m.f opposes the supply voltage. This e.m.f tries to set up a
current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply is forcing through
the conductor.
 As this e.m.f always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f and denoted as Eb. Though it
is denoted as Eb, basically it gets generated by the generating action. So its magnitude can be
determined by the e.m.f equation
𝜑𝐏𝐍𝐙
𝐄𝐛 = volts
𝟔𝟎𝐀
 This e.m.f is shown schematically in the fig (a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and 𝐑𝐚 is the value
of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in fig (b)

Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

 From the equivalent circuit, the voltage equation for a D.C.Motor can be obtained as
𝐕 = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩
 The brush drop is practically neglected

 Hence the armature current 𝐈𝐚 can be expressed as
𝐕 − 𝐄𝐛
𝐈𝐚 =
𝐑𝐚
Significance of
Back E.M.F
 Due to the presence of back e.m.f the d.c.motor becomes a regulating machine. i.e. motor adjusts
itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand.
 The basic principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, 𝐄𝐛 α N.
 When the load is suddenly put on the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the motor reduces
due to which back e.m.f also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature 𝐕 − 𝐄𝐛 increases and
motor draws more armature current.
 Due to the increased armature current, force experienced by the conductor and hence the torque on
the armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy increased load demand.
 When the load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back e.m.f
increases. This causes 𝐕 − 𝐄𝐛 to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by the armature.
The motor speeds stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to produce the less
torque required by the new load.
 So back e.m.f regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the armature current
to meet the load requirement.
Power equation of a D.C.Motor

 The voltage equation of a D.C.Motor is given by
𝐕 = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
 Multiplying both sides of the above equation by 𝐈𝐚 we get

𝐕𝐈𝐚 = 𝐄𝐛𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚

 This equation is called power equation of d.c.motor

Torque Equation of a d.c. Motor

 The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque.
 Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons
 The wheel is rotating at a speed of N rpm then its angular speed is
𝟐𝛑𝐍
𝜔 = 𝟔𝟎 rad/sec
 so work done in one revolution is
W= F x distance travelled in one revolution = F x 2 π R

work done F X 2π R
P = Power developed = = = (F x R) x 2πN
time 60/N 60
 P = T x ω watts
 Let 𝑇𝑎 be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature torque.
 The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is 𝐄𝐛𝐈𝐚 .
 So if the speed of the motor is N rpm, then
Power in armature = Armature torque x ω

2πN
E bI a = T a x
60
φPNZ
But Eb =
60A
φPNZ
 x I a = Ta x 2πN
60
60A
𝟏 𝐏𝐙 𝐏𝐙
 𝐓𝐚 = 𝜑 𝐈𝐚 𝐱 = 0.159 φ𝐈𝐚 . 𝐀
𝟐𝛑 𝐀
Type of Torque in the Motor

 The mechanical power developed in the armature is transmitted to the load through the shaft of the
motor.

 It is impossible to transmit the entire power developed by the armature to the load. This is because
while transmitting the power through the shaft, there is a power loss due to the friction, windage and
the iron loss. 
 The torque required to overcome these losses is called lost torque, denoted as Tf. These losses are
also called stray losses.
 The torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known as load torque or shaft
torque denoted as Tsh
o Tf = Ta + Tsh
 The shaft torque magnitude is always less than the armature torque.
 The speed of the motor remains same say N rpm. Then the product of shaft torque Tsh and angular
speed 𝜔 rad/sec is called power available at the shaft. i.e. net output of the motor. A maximum
power a motor can deliver to the load safely is called output rating of a motor. Generally it is
expressed as H.P.
Net output of motor = Pout = Tsh x ω
Types of D.C.Motors
D.C. Shunt Motor

 In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply.
 Let Rsh be the resistance of shunt field winding and Ra be the resistance of armature winding.
 The value of Ra is very small while Rsh is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more number
of turns.
Voltage and current relationship

 The voltage across the armature and field winding is same equal to supply voltage V.
 The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current IL.
𝐕
𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡 and 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑 𝐬𝐡
V = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
 Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it. i.e. Ish
Φ α 𝐈𝐬𝐡
 As long as supply voltage is constant, the flux produced is constant. Hence D.C. shunt motor is
called constant flux motor.
D.C.Series Motor
 In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the supply.
 Let Rse be the resistance of the series field winding and the value of Rse is very small.
Voltage and Current Relationship

 Let I𝐿 be the total current drawn from the supply.
So, 𝐈𝑳 = 𝐈𝒔𝒆 = 𝐈𝒂
And V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚(𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐬𝐞) + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
 Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to Eb and drop
across armature winding.
 In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So flux produced
is proportional to armature current.
Φ α 𝐈𝐬𝐞α 𝐈𝐚 for series motor
D.C. Compound Motor

 The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part of the field
winding connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified as short shunt compound and
long shunt compound.

1. Long Shunt Compound Motor
 In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature and the series
field winding.
Voltage current relationship

 Let 𝑅𝑠𝑒 be the resistance of series field winding and 𝑅𝑠ℎ be the resistance of shunt field winding.
 The total current drawn from the supply is 𝐼𝐿.
𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡 but 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞
i.e. 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
𝐕
and 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = 𝐑𝐬𝐡
and V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚(𝐑𝐚 + 𝐑𝐬𝐞) + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
4. Short shunt compound Motor
 In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with this combination.

 The entire line current is passing through the series field winding

𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞 and 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐡
 Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage equation
V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
But 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞
 V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
 Drop across shunt field winding = V - 𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡
𝐕 − 𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚+ 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡

 𝐈𝐬𝐡 = =
𝐑𝐬𝐡 𝐑𝐬𝐡
Torque and Speed Equation

From torque Equation
T α φ 𝐈𝐚
Now φ is the flux produced by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing through the field
winding
Φ α 𝐈𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
For a d.c.shunt motor, Ish is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence φ flux is also constant.
 T α 𝐈𝐚
For d.c. series motor, Ise is same as Ia. hence flux φ is proportional to armature current Ia
 T α 𝐈𝟐𝐚
𝜑𝐏𝐍𝐙
Similarly as 𝐄𝐛 = we can write the speed equation as
𝟔𝟎𝐀
𝐄𝐛
𝐄𝐛 α φN i.e Nα
𝝋
 𝐄𝐛 = V- 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 neglecting brush drop
For shunt motor as flux φ is constant
N α V- 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚
While for series motor, flux φ is proportional to 𝐈𝐚

𝐕− 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚−𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞
Nα
𝐈𝐚

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS:
There are three important characteristics.
1. Armature torque vs. Armature current ; 𝑇𝑎 vs 𝐼𝑎 (Electrical characteristics)

2. Speed vs. armature current characteristic
3. Speed vs. torque N vs. 𝑇𝑎 (Mechanical characteristics)
CHARACTERISTICS OF SHUNT MOTORS
1. Armature torque vs. Armature current
 For a constant values of Rsh and supply voltage V, Ish is also constant and hence flux is also
constant.
 𝐓𝐚 α 𝐈𝐚
 The equation represents a straight line passing through the origin.

 Torque increases linearly with armature current. So as load increases, armature current increases,
increasing the torque developed linearly.
2. Speed vs. Armature current

 From the speed equation we get
N α V- 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚

 So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 also increases.
 But as 𝐑𝐚 is very small, for change in 𝐈𝐚 from no load to full load, drop 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 is very small and hence
drop in speed is also not significant from no load to full load.
3. Speed vs. Armature torque

 These characteristic can be derived from the above two characteristic.
 This graph is similar to speed- armature current characteristic as torque is proportional to armature
current.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SERIES MOTOR

1. Armature torque vs. Armature current
 For the series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current, hence
 T α 𝐈𝟐𝐚
 Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current. This relation
is parabolic in nature.
 As load increases armature current increases and torque produced increases proportional to the
square of the armature current up to certain limit.
 As the entire armature current flows through series field, there is a property of electromagnet called
saturation, may occur.
 Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the flux produced remains
constant. Hence after saturation the characteristic takes the shape of straight line as flux becomes
constant.
2. Speed vs. Armature current

 From the speed equation we get
𝐕− 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚−𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞
Nα
𝐈𝐚

 The values of 𝐑𝐚 and 𝐑𝐬𝐞 are so small that the effect of change in 𝐈𝐚 on speed overrides the effect
of change in 𝐕 − 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 − 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 on the speed.
 Hence in speed equation 𝐄𝐛 ≈ V and can be assumed constant.
 So speed equation reduces to

𝟏
Nα
𝐈𝐚
 So speed armature current characteristic is rectangular hyperbola as shown in fig.
3. Speed vs. Armature torque

 In case of series motor
𝟏
T α 𝐈𝟐 and Nα
𝐚
𝐈𝐚
 Hence we can write

𝟏
Nα
√𝐓
 Thus as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases.

 On no load torque is very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high value.

Module 3 B: Single Phase Transformers
Syllabus
Single Phase Transformers: Necessity of transformer, Principle of operation, Types and construction of
transformers. emf equation. losses, variation of losses with respect to load, efficiency, Condition for maximum
efficiency.
Domestic Wiring: Service mains, meter board and distribution board. Brief discussion on concealed conduit
wiring. Two-way and three-way control Elementary discussion on circuit protective devices:Fuse and
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB's),electric shock, precautions against shock. Earthing:Pipe and Plate
earthing. (RBT Levels :Ll, L2 & L3)
INTRODUCTION
The main advantage of alternating currents over direct currents is that, the alternating currents
can be easily transferable from low voltage to high or high voltage to low. Alternating voltages
can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network as
generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device
called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It transfers an
electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection between the
two circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below.
The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power is

transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in
voltage and current, without any change in the frequency.
Fig 3.1:Use of transformers in transmission system
Principle of operation
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and mutual inductance

between the two coils. The general arrangement of the transformer is shown in fig 3.2.1
DEPT OF EEE SIT, VALACHIL Page 2

Fig 3.2.1 Basic Transformer
A steel core consists of laminated sheets about 0.4-0.7mm thick insulated from each
other. The core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The vertical parts of the core are
known as limbs, while the top and bottom parts are called yokes.
There are two separate electrical windings, which are linked through a common
magnetic part. These windings are isolated from each other electrically.
The coil into which electrical energy is fed is called primary winding (P), while the other
coil from which electrical energy is drawn is called the secondary winding (S). The primary
winding has 𝑁1 number of turns while the secondary winding has 𝑁2 number of turns.
When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage 𝑉1 , an alternating

current flows through the primary winding P and this current produces an alternating flux φ in
the steel core, the mean path of this flux being indicated by the dotted lines. If the entire flux
produced by P passes through S, the EMF induced in each turn is the same for P and S.
The above mentioned alternating flux φ produces self induced EMF 𝐸1 in the primary
winding P, while due to mutual induction i.e., due to flux produced by primary linking the
secondary, it produces mutually induced EMF 𝐸2 in the secondary winding S.
dφ dφ
Then EMFs are 𝐸1 = -N1 and 𝐸2 = -N2
dt dt
E1
Therefore = N1 =K
E2 N2
K is known as the voltage transformation ratio.
The frequency of the two EMFs is the same. The voltage transformation ratio may be
alternatively obtained as follows.
The EMF per turn is the same for P and S. hence,

total EMF induced in S N2∗EMF per turn N2
= = = K
total EMF induced in P N1∗EMF per turn N1
When the secondary is on open circuit, its terminal voltage is the same as the induced EMF.
The primary current is then small, so that the applied voltage 𝑉1 is practically equal and
opposite to the EMF induced in P. Hence
V2 N2
= =K (1)
V1 N1
As the full load efficiency of a transformer is almost 100%
𝑉1𝐼1* Primary power factor = 𝑉2𝐼2* secondary power factor
As both the primary and secondary power factor are almost equal on full load
I1 V2
= =K (2)
I2 V1
From eqns (1) and (2)
𝐕𝟐 𝐈𝟏
= =K
𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟐
Construction of transformers
 There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1) Magnetic core 2) winding
 The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
 The core is divided into i) Yoke ii)Limb
 Core is made up of silicon steel which has high permeability and low
hysteresis co-efficient.
 The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
 The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
 The core forms the magnetic circuit
 There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which forms
the Electric circuit. made up of conducting material like copper.
 The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding and
having 'N1' number of turns.

 The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having

'N2' number of turns.
 Lamination of the core minimises eddy current loss.
 These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin coating of suitable varnish.
 The thickness of the lamination ranges from 0.35mm for a frequency of 25Hz to 0.5mm
for a frequency of 50Hz.
 The lamination strips are assembled, where the joints are staggered to avoid narrow gaps
all through the cross section of the core
Types of Transformer
The two main types of transformers are
1. core type
2. shell type
Core type transformer
 It has a single magnetic circuit.

 The core is rectangular having two limbs.
 The winding encircles the core.
 The coils used are of cylindrical type.
 The coils are wound in helical layer with different layers insulated from each other by
paper or mica.

 Both the coils are placed on both the limbs.

 The low voltage coil is placed inside, near the core while the high voltage coil surrounds
the low voltage coil.
 Core is made up of large number of thin laminations.
 As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs the natural cooling is more
effective.
 The coils can be easily removed by removing the lamination of the top yoke , for
maintenance.
 Fig 3.4.1(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while
3.4.2(b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer.
Fig 3.4.1 :Core Type of Transformer
Shell type transformer
 It has a double magnetic circuit.

 The core has three limbs.
 Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
 The core encircles most part of the windings.
 The coils used a re generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils.
 Each high voltage coil is in between low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest
to top and bottom of the yokes.
 The core is laminated.
 While arranging the lamination of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at alternate
layers are staggered.
 This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joints, right through the cross section of the
core. Such joints are called overlapped or imbricated joints.
 Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred.
 As the winding is surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist.

 Fig 3.4.2(a) shows the schematic representation of the shell type transformer while
3.4.2(b) shows the view of actual construction of the shell type transformer
Fig 3.4.2 Shell Type Transformer
EMF Equation
Let us consider a transformer having:
𝑁1 = primary turns
𝑁2 = secondary turns
𝜑𝑚 = maximum value of the flux in the core linking both the windings
= 𝐵𝑚A
Where 𝐵𝑚= maximum flux density in the core (Wb/ 𝑚2)
A = area of cross section of the core (𝑚2)
𝑓 = frequency of AC input in hertz (Hz)
The flux in the core will wary sinusoidally as shown in fig 3.5, so that it increases from zero
to maximum value 𝜑𝑚 in one quarter of the cycle i.e in 1 seconds
4𝑓

Fig 3.5 Sinusoidal Flux
Therefore, average rate of change of flux = 𝜑𝑚 = 4 f 𝜑𝑚

1
4𝑓
We know that rate of change of flux per turn means induced EMF in volts
Therefore average EMF/ turn = 4 f 𝜑𝑚
Since the flux is varying sinusoidally, the RMS value of the induced EMF is obtained by
multiplying the average value by the form factor.
Therefore RMS value of the EMF induced/ turn = 1.11 * 4 f 𝜑𝑚
= 4.44 f 𝜑𝑚 volts
Therefore RMS value of induced EMF in the entire primary winding = (induced EMF/turn) *
no. of primary turns
𝐸1 = 4.44 f 𝜑𝑚𝑁1 = 4.44 f 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑁1 ------------------------ (1)
In the similar manner, the RMS value of induced EMF in the entire secondary winding is
𝐸2 = 4.44 f 𝜑𝑚𝑁2 = 4.44 f 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑁2 ----------------------- (2)
Ratios of a Transformer

Current Ratio
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage 𝑉1 and
primary current 𝐼1 is same as the product of secondary voltage 𝑉2 and the secondary
current 𝐼2 .
V1I1 = input KVA and V2I2 = output KVA
For an ideal transformer
V1I1 = V2I2
𝑉2
= 𝐼1 = K
𝑉1 𝐼2
Volt ampere rating

When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary, there are few power
losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increases the
temperature of the device. Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting
value as it is always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in
producing heat, the output maximum rating is generally specified as the product of output
voltage and output current i.e. V2I2. This always indicates that when transformer is operated
under this specified rating, its temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper losses depend
on current and iron losses depend on voltage. These losses are independent of the load power
factor cos𝜑2. Hence though the output power depends on cos 𝜑2 , the transformer losses are
functions of V and I and the rating of the transformer is specified as the product of voltage and
current called VA rating. This rating is generally expressed in kVA (kilovolt amperes rating).
𝑉2
Now , = 𝐼1 = K
𝑉1 𝐼2
V1I1 = V2I2
V2I2
KVA rating of transformer = V1I1 =
1000 1000
If V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified kVA rating
we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I1 and I2. This is the safe maximum
current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value.
Losses in Transformer

There are two types of power losses occur in a transformer

1) Iron loss 2) Copper loss
1) Iron Loss (Pi): This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the
alternating frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.
a) Eddy current loss b) Hysteresis loss
The Iron losses are called as the constant losses.

a) Eddy current loss (We) :
This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an
emf , due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the core.
As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts into
heat called the eddy current power loss.
Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply frequency.
steel material, and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the
path of the eddy currents.
b) Hysteresis loss (Wh): This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the
flux in the core, which results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional
to the supply frequency.
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high permeability.
Total Iron loss Pi = We + Wh
The flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage 𝑉1 at rated frequency f is always
constant. Hence the flux density 𝐵𝑚 in the core and hence both hysteresis and eddy current
losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called constant
losses. The iron losses are denoted as 𝑊𝑖.

The iron losses are minimised by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very
low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
2) Copper loss or I2R losses (Pcu) :

The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of 𝐼2R loss due to the
resistances of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the
magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings.
The copper losses are denoted by 𝑊𝑐𝑢. If the current through the winding is full load
current, we get copper losses at full load. If the load on the transformer is half then we
get copper losses at half loads which are less than full load copper losses. Thus copper
losses are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating is V1I1 or V2I2 . As V1 is
constant we can say that copper losses are proportional to the square of the KVA rating
and square of the current.
So, 𝑊𝑐𝑢 𝛼 𝐼2 𝛼 (𝐾𝑉𝐴)2
Thus for a transformer
Total loss = iron losses + copper losses = 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐𝑢
Thus if current is full load then copper losses are full load losses denoted by 𝑊𝑐𝑢 (𝐹. 𝐿).
If current is fraction of full load where n is the fraction then new copper losses
are 𝑛2𝑊𝑐𝑢 (𝐹. 𝐿).
Efficiency of Transformer
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input
power supplied
Therefore Power output = Power input – total losses
Therefore Power input = Power output + total losses
= Power output + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐𝑢
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of power output to power input. So for a
transformer the efficiency can be expressed as
Power output
η=
Power input
Power output
η=
Power output + Wi + W cu
Now power output = 𝑉2𝐼2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

Where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = load power factor

The transformer supplies full load of current 𝐼2 and with terminal voltage 𝑉2
Wcu = copper loss on full load = 𝐼22𝑅2𝑒
V2I2cosφ
Therefore, η =
V2I2cosφ + Wi + I22R2e
but V2I2 = VA rating of a transformer
(VA rating)cosφ
Therefore η=
(VA rating )cosφ + Wi + I22R2e
(𝐕𝐀 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠)𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜑
η= *100...................... Full load efficiency
(𝐕𝐀 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 )𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜑 + 𝐖𝐢 + 𝐈𝟐𝟐𝐑𝟐𝐞
η= *100 ...................... full load efficiency
(𝐕𝐀 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 )𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜑 + 𝐖𝐢 + 𝐖𝐜𝐮(𝐅.𝐋)
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of the
quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
When load changes, the load current changes by same proportion
Therefore new I2 = n I2 (F.L)
Similarly as copper losses are proportional to the square of the current then,
New (Wcu) = n2Wcu(F. L)
In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by
η= *100
(𝐕𝐀 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 )𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜑 + 𝐖𝐢 + 𝐧𝟐𝐖𝐜𝐮(𝐅.𝐋)
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

When a transformer works on a constant Input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies
with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves
a maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing.
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.

2. Load current at which 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs.

The efficiency is functions of loads i.e. load current I2 assuming cos 𝜑2 constant. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant So for maximum efficiency,
(V2I2cosφ2 + Wi + I22R2e)(V2cosφ2) − (V2I2cosφ2)( V2cosφ2 + 2I2R2e) = 0

Cancelling V2cosφ2 from both the terms we get
V2I2cosφ2 + Wi + I2R2e − V2I2cosφ2 − 2I2R2e = 0
2 2
Wi − I22R2e = 0
𝐖𝐢 = 𝐈𝟐𝟐𝐑𝟐𝐞 = 𝐖𝐜𝐮
So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that
Copper loss = Iron Loss i.e. 𝐖𝐢 = 𝐖𝐜𝐮
Load corresponding to maximum efficiency

If X is the load under maximum condition, Wi becomes cu loss for X kVA. We know that Cu
loss is directly proportional to (kVA)2, so
𝑊𝑐𝑢 α (full load kVA)2
Or 𝑊𝑖 α (X)2
𝑋 2 𝑊
Therefore , ( ) =𝑊
𝑖
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢
𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑊𝑖
X = Full load kVA * √
𝑊𝑐𝑢

𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
X = Full load kVA * √
𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
DOMESTIC WIRING(ASSIGNMENT)
Introduction
Wiring done in domestic premises for providing power for lighting, fans and domestic appliances is
called domestic wiring.
The primary objective of wiring system is to distribute electrical energy to the various points at which
it is required, duly considering the following
1. Electrical safety: This is the most important aspects – there must be no danger of leakage or of electric
shock to persons using the supply.
2. Mechanical immunity: A wiring system which is suitable for one type of building may not be suitable
for another. The wiring selected for a particular type of building should be able to withstand weather
changes for a long period and should be protected from physical damage during its usage.
3. Permanence: There should not be any undue deterioration in wiring due to action of dampness, fumes,
weather etc.
4. Appearance: In certain cases appearance or invisibility is important. However in case of factory
wiring, appearance apart from neatness is usually not important.
5. Cost: the cost of wiring installation is an important consideration. The system chosen should depend
upon the type of building and the purpose for which it is used, keeping economy in view.
Service Mains
 The supplier`s distribution system brings power to the consumers through overhead lines or by means
of underground cables to a spot outside the consumer`s premises.
 The line bringing electrical power from supplier`s low voltage distributor upto the energy meter
installed at the consumer`s premises is called service connection or service mains.
 Service connection may be achieved by means of underground cables or by means of overhead
conductors or cables.
 Bare conductors are run from the supplier`s pole to shackle insulators fitted to brackets fixed on a cross
arm embedded into the wall of a two storied building at an appropriate height.
 Thereafter service connections are taken from the bare conductors by means of PVC or weather proof
cables run on wooden battens or through GI pipe.

Meter board and Distribution board

 The supplier service line which is brought to the consumers premises, is now connected to the
consumer`s internal wiring.
 The supply authority has to charge the consumer for the electrical energy consumed.
 For this purpose the supplier’s service will be connected to the input terminal of the energy meter,
which has to be provided by the supply authority.
 After the energy meter the service line is connected to the cut-out.
 The cut-out contains the fuse wire so that if the consumer draws more current than the rated current of
the meter, the fuse will blow off, thus preventing damage to the meter.
 The cut-out also serves the purpose of enabling the supply authority to discontinue the supply should
the customer failed to pay his bill.
 The cut-out and the meter are the supply authorities’ property and are sealed.
 The consumer`s distribution starts after the energy meter and the supply authority`s cut out.

 The leads from the output terminals of the energy meter via the cut out are connected to the consumer’s
main switch.
 The energy meter is placed before the main switch because the main switch must be accessible to the
consumer in case he wishes to switch off the supply when required. Therefore the main switch should
not be sealed.
 The energy meter should be installed in such a place where it is readily accessible to both the consumer
and the supply authority.
Types of wiring and their specification

Cleat wiring:
In this type of wiring, insulated conductors (usually VIR, Vulcanized Indian Rubber) are supported on
porcelain or wooden cleats. The cleats have two halves one base and the other cap. The cables are placed in
the grooves provided in the base and then the cap is placed. Both are fixed securely on the walls by 40mm
long screws. The cleats are easy to erect and are fixed 4.5 – 15 cms apart. This wiring is suitable for temporary
installations where cost is the main criteria but not the appearance.
Advantages:
1. Easy installation
2. Materials can be retrieved for reuse
3. Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications and expansion.
4. Relatively economical
5. Skilled manpower not required.
Disadvantages:
1. Appearance is not good

2. Open system of wiring requiring regular cleaning.
3. Higher risk of mechanical injury

CTS ( Cable Tyre Sheathed) / TRS ( Tough Rubber Sheathed ) / Batten wiring:
In this wiring system, wires sheathed in tough rubber are used which are quite flexible. They are clipped on
wooden battens with brass clips (link or joint) and fixed on to the walls or ceilings by flat head screws. These
cables are moisture and chemical proof. They are suitable for damp climate but not suitable for outdoor use in
sunlight. TRS wiring is suitable for lighting in low voltage installations.
Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is durable

2. Lower risk of short circuit.
3. Cheaper than casing and capping system of wiring
4. Gives a good appearance if properly erected.
Disadvantages:
1. Danger of mechanical injury.

2. Danger of fire hazard.
3. Should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
4. Skilled workmen are required
Metal Sheathed or Lead Sheathed wiring :
The wiring is similar to that of CTS but the conductors (two or three) are individually insulated and covered
with a common outer lead-aluminum alloy sheath. The sheath protects the cable against dampness,
atmospheric extremities and mechanical damages. The sheath is earthed at every junction to provide a path to
ground for the leakage current. They are fixed by means of metal clips on wooden battens. The wiring system
is very expensive. It is suitable for low voltage installations.
Precautions to be taken during installation
1. The clips used to fix the cables on battens should not react with the sheath.
2. Lead sheath should be properly earthed to prevent shocks due to leakage currents.
3. Cables should not be run in damp places and in areas where chemicals (may react with the lead) are
used.

Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is aesthetic in appearance.

2. Highly durable
3. Suitable in adverse climatic conditions provided the joints are not exposed
Disadvantages:
1. Requires skilled labor

2. Very expensive
3. Unsuitable for chemical industries
Casing and Capping:
It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or PVC boxes having grooves inside it.
A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same width as that of casing is fixed over it. Both the casing
and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cms. Casing is attached to the wall. Two or more wires of
same polarity are drawn through different grooves. The system is suitable for indoor and domestic
installations.
Advantages:
1. Cheaper than lead sheathed and conduit wiring.

2. Provides good isolation as the conductors are placed apart reducing the risk of short circuit.
3. Easily accessible for inspection and repairs.
4. Since the wires are not exposed to atmosphere, insulation is less affected by dust, dirt and climatic
variations.
Disadvantages:
1. Highly inflammable.
2. Usage of unseasoned wood gets damaged by termites.
3. Skilled workmanship required.
Conduit wiring:
In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR cables are run through metallic or PVC pipes providing good
protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit. They are either embedded inside the walls
or supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or surface conduit wiring (open conduit)
respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on wooden gutties and the wires are drawn through them
with fish (steel) wires. The system is best suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.

Advantages:
1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.

2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. Earthing and continuity is assured.
4. Water-proof and trouble shooting is easy.
5. Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
6. Durable and maintenance free
7. Aesthetic in appearance
Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive system of wiring.

2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
4. Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).
Specification of Wires:
The conductor material, insulation, size and the number of cores, specifies the electrical wires. These are
important parameters as they determine the current and voltage handling capability of the wires. The
conductors are usually of either copper or aluminium. Various insulating materials like PVC, TRS, and VIR
are used. The wires may be of single strand or multi strand. Wires with combination of different diameters
and the number of cores or strands are available.
For example: The VIR conductors are specified as 1/20, 3/22,….7/20 ………
The numerator indicates the number of strands while the denominator corresponds to the diameter of the wire
in SWG (Standard Wire Gauge). SWG 20 corresponds to a wire of diameter 0.914mm, while SWG 22
corresponds to a wire of diameter 0.737 mm.
A 7/0 wire means, it is a 7-cored wire of diameter 12.7mm (0.5 inch). The selection of the wire is made
depending on the requirement considering factors like current and voltage ratings, cost and application.
Example: Application: domestic wiring
1. Lighting - 3/20 copper wire

2. Heating - 7/20 copper wire
The enamel coating (on the individual strands) mutually insulates the strands and the wire on the whole is

provided with PVC insulation. The current carrying capacity depends on the total area of the wire. If cost is

the criteria then aluminium conductors are preferred. In that case, for the same current rating a much larger
diameter of wire is to be used.
Two- way and Three- way Control of Lamps:
The domestic lighting circuits are quite simple and they are usually controlled from one point. But in certain
cases it might be necessary to control a single lamp from more than one point (Two or Three different points).
For example: Staircases, long corridors, large halls etc.
Two-way Control of lamp:
Two-way control is usually used for staircase lighting. The lamp can be controlled from two different points:
one at the top and the other at the bottom - using two- way switches which are interconnected by strap wires.
They are also used in bedrooms, big halls and large corridors. The circuit is shown in the following figure.
Switches S1 and S2 are two-way switches with a pair of terminals 1&2, and 3&4 respectively. When the switch
S1 is in position1 and switch S2 is in position 4, the circuit does not form a closed loop and there is no path for
the current to flow and hence the lamp will be OFF. When S1 is changed to position 2 the circuit gets
completed and hence the lamp glows or is ON. Now if S2 is changed to position 3 with S1 at position 2 the
circuit continuity is broken and the lamp is off. Thus the lamp can be controlled from two different points.
Position of S1 Position of S2 Condition of lamp
1 3 ON
1 4 OFF
2 3 OFF
2 4 ON

Three- way Control of lamp:
In case of very long corridors it may be necessary to control the lamp from 3 different points. In such cases,
the circuit connection requires two; two-way switches S1and S2 and an intermediate switch S3. An intermediate
switch is a combination of two, two way switches coupled together. It has 4 terminals ABCD. It can be
connected in two ways
a) Straight connection
b) Cross connection
In case of straight connection, the terminals or points AB and CD are connected as shown in figure 1(a) while
in case of cross connection, the terminals AB and
C D is connected as shown in figure 1(b). As explained in two –way control the lamp is ON if the circuit is
complete and is OFF if the circuit does not form a closed loop.
The condition of the lamp is given in the table depending on the positions of the switches S1, S2 and S3.

Position of S3 Position of S1 Position of S2 Condition of the lamp
1 3 ON
1 1 4 OFF
straight 2 3 OFF
connection
2 4 ON
1 3 OFF
2 1 4 ON
cross 2 3 ON
connection
2 4 OFF
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults such as short circuit, overload and
earth faults. The protective circuit or device must be fast acting and isolate the faulty part of the circuit
immediately. It also helps in isolating only required part of the circuit without affecting the remaining circuit
during maintenance. The following devices are usually used to provide the necessary protection:
 Fuses
 Miniature circuit breakers(MCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers(ELCB)
 Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)
Fuse
A fuse is a safety device, a weak link connected in series with the circuit, which melts whenever the current
in the circuit exceeds the value of the fuse provided, either due to overload or short circuit, thus opening the
circuit and protecting other material in the circuit.
⚫ A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section compared to the circuit
conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-
combustible housing.
⚫ The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected circuit.
⚫ The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow.

⚫ The size and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced for a
normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature.
⚫ If too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or else
melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit.
Definitions
1. Fuse element
The part of the fuse which melts when excessive current flows through it is called fuse element or fuse wire.
2. Fusing current
The minimum value of the current at which the fuse element melts to interrupt the circuit current is called
fusing current. Its value is always more than the current rating of the fuse.
3. Fusing Factor
The ratio of the minimum fusing current and the current rating of the fuse is called the fusing factor. As
minimum fusing current is more than the current rating, the fusing factor is always greater than one.
minimum fusing current
Fusing Factor =
current rating of the fuse
4. Rated current of fuse
It is that maximum current which fusing element can normally carry without any overheating or melting. It
depends on,
1. Temperature rise of fuse contact of fuse holder
2. Fusing element material

3. Deterioration of fuse to oxidation
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
 MCBs or Miniature Circuit Breakers are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical
circuit from an over current.
 The over current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or faulty design.
 An MCB is a better alternative to a Fuse since it does not require replacement once an overload is
detected.
 Unlike fuse, an MCB can be easily reset and thus offers improved operational safety and greater
convenience without incurring large operating cost.

⚫ An MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once a fault is
detected.
⚫ In simple terms MCB is a switch which automatically turns off when the current flowing through it
passes the maximum allowable limit.
⚫ Generally MCB are designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults (over heating).
⚫ There are two contacts one is fixed and the other moveable.
⚫ When the current exceeds the predefined limit a solenoid forces the moveable contact to open (i.e.,
disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the
circuit.
⚫ In order to restart the flow of current the MCB is manually turned on.
⚫ This mechanism is used to protect from the faults arising due to over current or over load.
⚫ To protect against fault arising due to over heating or increase in temperature a bi-metallic strip is
used.
⚫ MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises.
⚫ In case of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
⚫ There are certain situations where leakage current flows through the metal bodies of appliances. Thus
person touching such appliances may get a shock.
⚫ There is a risk of fire due to such leakage current flowing to the earth.
⚫ The MCB and fuse cannot provide protection against earth leakage current.
⚫ Hence there is a need of a device which can directly detect the earth leakage currents and cut the supply
if such currents exceed a preset value. Such a device is called Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).

⚫ Voltage Operate ELCB contains a relay coil or ELCB coil.

⚫ One end of the ELCB coil is given connection to the load and the other end to the earth wire.
⚫ When the voltage of the load rises, there will be a difference in voltage between the load and the earth
wire resulting in electric shock.
⚫ This potential or voltage difference causes a current to flow from the load to the ground through the
relay coil loop.
⚫ When the voltage difference becomes greater than 50 volt, current through the loop moves the relay
and hence disconnect the supply. In other words, the trip mechanism operates.
⚫ Voltage Operate ELCB detects only the electric faults from the phase to the earth wire within the load
it protects.
⚫ It cannot detect the fault currents that flow between the phase and any other earth (person, ground
water pipes etc.).
⚫ In such a case, the ELCB cannot protect against electric shock.
Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB)
⚫ Current operated ELCBs are generally known as Residual current devices (RCD).
⚫ These also protect against earth leakage.
⚫ Both circuit conductors (supply and return) are run through a sensing coil; any imbalance of the
currents means the magnetic field does not perfectly cancel.
⚫ The device detects the imbalance and trips the contact
⚫ The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a common transformer core.

⚫ On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the load and return back through
the neutral coil.
⚫ Both the phase and the neutral coils are wound in such a way that they will produce an opposing
magnetic flux.
⚫ With the same current passing through both coils, their magnetic effect will cancel out under a healthy
circuit condition.
⚫ In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit, or anywhere between the load
circuit and the output connection of the RCB circuit, the current returning through the neutral coil has
been reduced. Then the magnetic flux inside the transformer core is not balanced anymore.
⚫ The total sum of the opposing magnetic flux is no longer zero. This net remaining flux is what we call
a residual flux.
⚫ The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core crosses path with the winding of
the search coil.
⚫ This action produces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) across the search coil.
⚫ An electromotive force is actually an alternating voltage.
⚫ The induced voltage across the search coil produces a current inside the wiring of the trip circuit.
⚫ It is this current that operates the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
⚫ Since the trip current is driven by the residual magnetic flux (the resulting flux, the net effect between
both fluxes) between the phase and the neutral coils, it is called the residual current device
⚫ With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled system is called residual current
circuit breaker (RCCB) or residual current devise (RCD).
⚫ The incoming current has to pass through the circuit breaker first before going to the phase coil.
⚫ The return neutral path passes through the second circuit breaker pole.
⚫ During tripping when a fault is detected, both the phase and neutral connection is isolated.
Electric Shock
 A sudden agitation of the nervous system of a body, due to the passage of an electric current is called
an electric shock.
 The factors affecting the severity of the shock are
o Magnitude of current through the body
o Path of the current through the body
o Time for which the current is passed through the body
o Frequency of the current
o Physical and psychological condition of the person
Elementary first aid against shock
The first aid can save the life and reduce severity of the accidents. Hence elementary first aid is important.
The first aid against the electric shock involves following steps,

1. Do not panic
2. Carry the affected person and lay him in a comfortable position and call the doctor immediately.
3. Look for stoppage of breathing
4. Start giving him artificial respiration if breathing is stopped.
5. Never give anything to the person to drink when the person is unconscious.
6. The artificial respiration should be continued for longer time.
7. The burns caused due to electric flashes should be covered with sterile dressing and then bandaged.
8. Do not crowd and let the person get fresh air.
Safety precaution against electric shock
1. Insulation of the conductor used must be proper and in good condition. If it is not so the current carried
by the conductor may leak out. The person coming in contact with such faulty insulated conductors
may receive a shock.
2. Megger test should be conducted and insulation must be checked. With the help of megger all the test
must be performed, on the new wiring before starting use of it.
3. Earth connection should be always maintained in proper condition.
4. Switch off the main supply and remove the fuses before starting to work with any installation.
5. Fuses must have correct rating.
6. Use rubber soled shoes while working. Use some wooden supper under the feet, this removes the
contact with earth.
7. Use rubber gloves while touching any terminal or removing insulation layer from the conductor.
8. Use a line tester to check whether a live terminal carries any current.
9. Always use insulated screw driver, pliers etc
10. Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
11. Never remove the plug by pulling the wires connected to it.
12. The sockets should be fixed at a height beyond the reach of the children.
Earthing
The potential of the earth is considered to be at zero for all practical purposes as the generator (supply) neutral
is always earthed. The body of any electrical equipment is connected to the earth by means of a wire of
negligible resistance to safely discharge electric energy, which may be due to failure of the insulation, line
coming in contact with the casing etc. Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to ZERO i.e.
to the earth’s potential, thus protecting the operating personnel against electrical shock. The body of the
electrical equipment is not connected to the supply neutral because due to long transmission lines and
intermediate substations, the same neutral wire of the generator will not be available at the load end. Even if
the same neutral wire is running it will have a self resistance which is higher than the human body resistance.
Hence, the body of the electrical equipment is connected to earth only.
Thus earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire, making it to
attain earth’s potential. The wire is usually connected to a copper plate placed at a depth of 2.5 to 3meters
from the ground level.
Necessity of Earthing:
1. To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they come in contact with the charged
frame due to defective insulation.
2. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
3. Protection of the equipments
4. Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines against lightning.
Methods of Earthing:
The important methods of earthing are the plate earthing and the pipe earthing. The earth resistance for copper
wire is 1 ohm and that of G I wire less than 3 ohms. The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so
that the neutral of any electrical system which is earthed is maintained almost at the earth potential. The typical
value of the earth resistance at power house is 0. 5 ohm and that at substation is 1 ohm
Plate Earthing
In this method a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.15cm or a GI plate of the size 60cm x 60cm x 6.35cm is
used for earthing. The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3m and is embedded in
alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm. In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth
electrode resistance value well below a maximum of 5 ohms. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth
plate. A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance.
Pipe Earthing
Earth electrode made of a GI pipe of 38mm diameter and 2m length (depending on the current) with 12mm
holes on the surface is placed upright at a depth of 4.75m in a permanently wet ground. To keep the value of

the earth resistance at the desired level, the area(15 cms) surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of
salt and coal.. The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically. The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe
(at 60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top as shown in the following
figure.
When compared to the plate earth system the pipe earth system can carry larger leakage currents as a much
larger surface area is in contact with the soil for a given electrode size. The system also enables easy
maintenance as the earth wire connection is housed at the ground level.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 21ELE13/23

Working Principle of a D.C. Machine as a Generator

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Constructional details of a D.C. Machine

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Fig 4.3.2 Pole structure

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Brushes and Brush gear

Types of Armature Winding

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Comparison between lap and wave type armature winding

E.M.F Equation of D.C.Generator

This is nothing but e.m.f equation of a D.C. generator

Types of D.C. Generators

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Separately Excited Generator

Ia = Armature Current IL = Load Current If = field Current

E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 + armature reaction drop

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Self Excited Generator

 From the fig

 Armature reaction drop is practically neglected.

Power developed in armature = E𝐈𝐚 W

 While the power available to the load is 𝐕𝐭𝐈𝐋

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡

Long shunt compound generators

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

 From the fig 𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬𝐞

Short Shunt Compound Generator

 From the fig

 now the voltage equation is E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡

 Neglecting 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 we can write E = 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞 i.e. E −𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚= 𝐕𝐭 +𝐈𝐋𝐑𝐬𝐞

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Cumulative and Differential Compound Generator

Application of various type of D.C.Generator

Principle of operation of a D.C. machine as a motor

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

l= active length of the conductor

I= magnitude of current passing through the conductor

Back E.M.F in a D.C.Motor

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

𝐕 = 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡 𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩

 The brush drop is practically neglected

Power equation of a D.C.Motor

 Multiplying both sides of the above equation by 𝐈𝐚 we get

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

Torque Equation of a d.c. Motor

 so work done in one revolution is

W= F x distance travelled in one revolution = F x 2 π R

Power in armature = Armature torque x ω

Type of Torque in the Motor

DEPT OF EEE SIT VALACHIL

D.C. Shunt Motor

Voltage and current relationship

Voltage and Current Relationship

And V= 𝐄𝐛 + 𝐈𝐚𝐑𝐚 + 𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐑𝐬𝐞 + 𝐕𝐛𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐡