COURSE NAME: Industrial Safety and Hazards Mitigation (3-0-0)

COURSE CODE: (CH257) (3-0-0) (3 Credits)

For B.Tech II Yr II Semester

Prerequisites subjects: CRE, TD, PDPE

 UNIT-II

Fires and Explosions and concepts to

prevent fires and explosions
What is fire?
Fire is a chemical reaction in which substance combine with oxidant to released
energy.

Fire and explosion hazards: Most dangerous events likely to happened in chemical
plant are due to accident. This kind of accident (fire and explosion) lead to huge loss
of life and property. Fuel, oxidizer and ignition source are the three essential
components for fire generation.
Types of Fire

Class C Class D
Class A Class B
(Consume metal)
( burning (Burning (They burn
ordinary solid) Liquid and gas) class A and
Class B in presence
of live electric circuit)
Auto ignition temperature (AIT): The temperature above which ignition occurs with
out spark.

Lower flammable limit: The minimum concentration of fuel in air required for ignition
is lower flammable limit (LFL).

Upper flammable limit: The concentration above which ignition is not occurs is upper
flammable limit (UFL).

Flash-point: Temperature at which concentration of the fuel in air became large enough
to ignite.

Fire point: The fire point is the lowest temperature at which a vapor above a liquid will
continue to burn once ignited; the fire point temperature is higher than the flash point.
Fire triangle
Fire triangle:
 The fire triangle is a model for conveying the components of a fire. The
three sides of fire triangle’s illustrate the three elements of fire: heat,
fuel and oxidization.

 The three elements must be combined in the right proportions for a fire to
occur. If any of the three elements are removed, the fire is extinguished.

 One of the first things firefighters do to extinguish a fire is to apply a

cooling agent – usually water. Another cooling agent is a chemical fire
retardant, such as the ones used in fire extinguishers (Calcium silicate,
Sodium silicate, Potassium silicate)
 Fires involving metals such as titanium, lithium and magnesium have a
chemical reaction that requires a different approach for firefighters.

 This is called a Class D fire and the application of water will exacerbate
the combustion. Because of the chain reaction caused by the metals in
Class D fires, firefighters must use a different approach involving the
introduction of inert agents like sand to smother it.

 Learning about the fire triangle is a good way to understand the

elements of fire and is an essential component of firefighting education.

 The fire source, such as wood embers on a burning building need be

remove. Firefighters will also turn off the electricity.
 The second element in the fire triangle is fuel. A fire needs a fuel
source in order to burn. Once the fuel element of the fire triangle is
removed, the fire will go out.

 If a fire is allowed to burn without any attempt to extinguish it, it will

extinguish on its own when it is consumed all of the fuel.

 The final element of the fire triangle is oxygen, a fire needs oxygen to
start and continue. That is why one recommendation for extinguishing
with sand or dirt.

 A decrease in the concentration of oxygen retards the combustion

process, decreasing the amount of oxygen is not usually an option, not
possible in an extended.

 An alternative to the fire triangle model is the fire tetrahedron. The fire
tetrahedron adds another element to the fire, which is chemical
reaction.
 Fire tetrahedron

 The fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component in the chemical chain
reaction, to the three already present in the fire triangle.

 Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire and
allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the elements of the fire is blocked
 Foam can be used to deny the fire the oxygen it needs. Water can be used to
lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or to remove or
disperse the fuel.

 Halon can be used to remove free radicals and create a barrier of inert gas
in a direct attack on the chemical reaction responsible for the fire.

 Halon are the halogen derive components (use for fire suppression).

 Example: Halon 1301 is also used in the F-16 fighter to prevent the fuel
vapors in the fuel tanks from becoming explosive
What is explosion?

 An explosion is a rapid expansion of gases resulting in a rapidly moving pressure or

shock wave.

 The explosion can be mechanical (by means of a sudden rupture of a pressurized

vessel), or it can be the result of a rapid chemical reaction.
 Explosion damage is caused by the pressure or shock wave

 Mechanical explosion: An explosion resulting from the sudden failure of a vessel

containing high-pressure nonreactive gas.

 Deflagration: An explosion in which the reaction front moves at a speed less than
the speed of sound in the unreacted medium.

 Detonation: An explosion in which the reaction front moves at a speed greater

than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium.
 Explosion Types

Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion Unconfined vapor cloud explosion

(BLEVE) (UVCE)

(If heat leak to a container (When flammable vapor release to air

filled with a boiling liquid containing, suspended solid, mist,
result in an excessive vaporization aerosol, and then ignited, the velocity
accompanied with built-up steady of the flame increase suddenly that
pressure that rapture the vessels) causes significant damage )

Confined explosion: An explosion occurring within a vessel or a building. These are

most common and usually result in injury to the building inhabitants and extensive
damage.
Control: By eliminating all the ignition sources such as flames, sparks, or heated

materials.

 Matches, smoking, welding and cutting, static electricity, spontaneous combustion,

and non-explosion-proof electrical equipment are all potential ignition sources.

 The installation of sufficient fire alarms, temperature alarms, fire-fighting

equipment, and sprinkler systems must be specified in the design.

 Distinction between fires and explosions

Fire Explosion

 Fire is chemical reaction in which  An explosion is a rapid expansion

substance combine with oxidant to of gases resulting in a rapidly
released energy. moving pressure or shock wave

 It could be results of heating  It is the result of sudden failure of

of flammable gas to high temperature vessels containing high pressure
that cause the gas to auto ignition. or non reactive gases

 Auto ignition temperature is high  Mechanical phenomena cause by

Enough to cause the gas to auto ignite pressure or shock wave

 Rate of energy released: low  Rate of energy released: High

 Fire energy released: slowly  Explosion released energy: rapidly

 Fire can result from explosion  Explosion can result from fire
Recap of previous class:

Fuels
Liquids: gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane
Solids: plastics, wood dust, fibers, metal particles
Gases: acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen
Oxidizers
Gases: oxygen, fluorine, chlorine
Liquids: hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, perchloric acid
Solids: metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite
Ignition sources
Sparks, flames, static electricity, heat
Flammability characteristics of liquids and vapors:

Fig. Relation between various flammable properties

Fig. Flash and fire point measuring device
 In case of open vessels apparatus air is allow to flow through the top of the
vessels

 This reduces the density of the vapor above the liquid due to air flow.

 Hence, the vapor release from the vessels more than the actual amount

 Therefore, the temperature reading shown by the thermometer is more than the
actual value

 So, the flash point temperature is determined more than the actual one

 Therefore, open vessels type equipment are not used widely

 Now, closed vessels type equipment are used more in laboratory for flash point
temperature determination.
Determination of LFL and UFL value :
Flammability limit dependence on Temperature:
Flammability limit dependence on pressure:

UFLp = UFL + 20.6(log P + I)

where
P is the pressure (megapascals absolute) and
UFL is the upper flammable limit (volume % of fuel plus air at 1 atm)

Problem:
If the UFL for a substance is 11.0% by volume at 0.0 MPa gauge, what is the UFL at
6.2 MPa gauge?

Answer=48 vol. % in air

The absolute pressure is (1st express in absolute pressure)

P abs = Pgauge + P atm

=6.2 + 0.101 = 6.301 MPa.

1atm=101325 Pa=0.101325 MPa

The UFL is determined using Equation

UFLp = UFL + 20.6(log P + 1)

= 11.0+20.6 (log 6.301+1)

= 48 vol. % fuel in air.

Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC):
 It is the volume percentage of oxygen above which combustion can occurs.
 oxygen is the key ingredient and there is a minimum oxygen concentration required to
propagate a flame.
 This is an especially useful result, because explosions and fires can be prevented by
reducing the oxygen concentration regardless of the concentration of the fuel.
 This concept is the basis for a common procedure called inerting (we will study later)
 Below the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) the reaction cannot generate enough
energy to heat the entire mixture of gases (including the inert gases) to the extent
required for the self-propagation of the flame.
 The LOC has other names such as minimum oxygen concentration (MOC), the
maximum safe oxygen concentration (MSOC).
 The LOC has units of percentage of moles of oxygen in total moles. LOC is estimated
using the stoichiometry of the combustion reaction and the LFL.
Limiting oxygen concentration can be calculated using following formula
Estimate the LOC for butane (C4H10):

The stoichiometry for the reaction is C4H10+6.5O2---------4CO2+5H2O

The LFL for butane is 1.9% (see Appendix B) by volume. From the stioichiometry

LOC= LFL(moles fuels/total moles) (moles O2/moles of fuel)=LFL (moles O2/moles

fuel)

By substitution, we obtain

LOC=(1.9 moles fuel/total moles)X(6.5 moles O2/1.0 moles fuel)

=12.4 vol. % O2

The combustion of butane is preventable by adding nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or even

water vapor until the oxygen concentration is below 12.4%.
Flammability diagram

 A general way to represent the flammability of a gas or vapor is by the triangle

diagram shown in Figure below.
 Concentrations of fuel, oxygen, and inert material (in volume or mole %) are plotted
on the three axes.
 Each apex of the triangle represents either 100% fuel, oxygen, or nitrogen.
 The tick marks on the scales show the direction in which the scale moves across the
figure.
 Thus point A represents a mixture composed of 60% methane, 20% oxygen, and 20%
nitrogen.
 The zone enclosed by the dashed line represents all mixtures that are flammable.
Because point A lies outside the flammable zone, a mixture of this composition is not
flammable.
 The UFL and the LFL are shown as the intersection of the flammability zone
boundary with the air line.

 The stoichiometric line represents all stoichiometric combinations of fuel plus

oxygen. The combustion action can be written in the form

Fuel + z02 +combustion products

Ignition energy:

 The minimum ignition energy (MIE) is the minimum energy input required to

initiate combustion.

 All flammable materials (including dusts) have MIEs.

 The MIE depends on the specific chemical or mixture, the concentration, pressure,

and temperature.

 The MIE decreases with an increase in pressure

 The MIE of dusts is, in general, at energy levels somewhat higher than

combustible gases

 An increase in the nitrogen concentration increases the MIE

Auto ignition:
 The autoignition temperature (AIT) of a vapor, sometimes called the spontaneous
ignition temperature (SIT), is the temperature at which the vapor ignites
spontaneously from the energy of the environment.

 The autoignition temperature is a function of the concentration of vapor, volume of

vapor, pressure of the system, presence of catalytic material, and flow conditions.

 It is essential to experimentally determine AITs at conditions as close as possible to

process conditions.

 Composition affects the AIT

 An increase in pressure decreases AITs
 Increases in oxygen concentration decrease AITs.
Auto oxidation:
 Auto-oxidation is the process of slow oxidation with accompanying evolution of
heat, sometimes leading to autoignition if the energy is not removed from the
system.
 Liquids with relatively low volatility are particularly susceptible to this problem.
 Liquids with high volatility are less susceptible to autoignition because they self-
cool as a result of evaporation.
 Many fires are initiated as a result of auto-oxidation, referred to as spontaneous
combustion.
 Some examples of auto-oxidation with a potential for spontaneous combustion
include oils on a rag in a warm storage area, when the land-filled material was
bulldozed, allowing auto-oxidation and eventual autoignition).
Adiabatic compression:

• Adiabatic compression of air defined as the compression in which no heat is added or

subtracted from the air and internal energy of the air increase.

• For example, gasoline and air in an automobile cylinder will ignite if the vapors are
compressed to an adiabatic temperature that exceeds the autoignition temperature.

• This is the cause of preignition knock in engines It is also the reason some
overheated engines continue to run after the ignition is turned off.

• Several large accidents have been caused by flammable vapors being sucked into the
intake of air compressors; subsequent compression resulted in autoignition.

• A compressor is particularly susceptible to autoignition. Safeguards must be included

in the process design to prevent undesirable fires that can result from adiabatic
compression
Problem 1:

Problem 2:
Solution:
Methods to prevents fire and explosion:

The various methods by which fire and explosion can be controlled are given below.

 Static electricity,

 Controlling static electricity,

 Ventilation,

 Explosion-proof equipment and instruments,

 Sprinkler systems, and

 Miscellaneous design features for preventing fires and explosions

 Inerting
 Inerting:

• Inerting is the process of adding an inert gas to a combustible mixture to reduce the

concentration of oxygen below the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC).

• The inert gas is usually nitrogen or carbon dioxide, although steam is sometimes used.

• For many gases the LOC is approximately l0%, and for many dusts it is approximately

8%.

• Inerting begins with an initial purge of the vessel to bring the oxygen concentration down

to safe concentrations. Then the vessel is inerted with inert gas such as N₂, CO₂

• A commonly used control point is 4% below the LOC, that is, 6 % oxygen if the LOC is

10%.
Various purging methods are listed as vacuum purging, pressure purging, combined
pressure-vacuum purging.

vacuum purging:

This is the most common methods of inerting vessels of small size. This methods is not use
for large storage vessels as they withstand very less pressure. The steps in a vacuum
purging process include

• Drawing a vacuum on the vessel until the desired vacuum is reached,

• Relieving the vacuum with an inert gas, such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide to
atmospheric pressure, and

• Repeating steps 1 and 2 until the desired oxidant concentration is reached.

Yo= initial conc. of oxygen (mole fraction)
Y1=Conc. of oxygen after First cycle
Y2=Conc. Of oxygen after Second cycle
PL= Initial low Pressure
PH= Initial high pressure
Calculation for no. of cycle required to achieve required oxygen concentration:

A vessels of known size is purged from initial oxygen concentration Yo

Final oxygen concentration after purged Y1
PL= Initial low Pressure
PH= Initial high pressure

Assume that ideal gas behavior, total moles at each pressure

7.1

7.2
7.3
7.4
Problem 1 :
Pressure purging:

 Vessels can be pressure-purged by adding inert gas under pressure.

 After this, the added gas is diffused from the vessel, it is vented to the

atmosphere.

 More than one pressure cycle may be necessary to reduce the oxidant content to

the desired concentration.

 Initially pressure is PL and is pressurized using a source of pure nitrogen at PH

Fig: Pressure purge cycle
Problem:
Determine the number of purges required to reduce the oxygen concentration to
0.005 mole fraction using pure nitrogen at a pressure of 8 atm and at a
temperature of 75°C. Also, determine the total nitrogen required. The volume of
the vessels is 15 liters (solve by pressure purging method).
Static electricity:
 Buildup of static charge resulting spark in the chemical plant is the source of most
common ignition source.
 Despite continuous effort, serious explosion and fire are continue to plague in the
chemical industry.
 Hence, the source of static charge, accumulation of the static charge need to be identified
and neutralized.
Static charge buildup:
• Static charge buildup is a result of physically separating a poor conductor from a good
conductor or another poor conductor.
• When different materials touch each other, the electrons move across the interface from
one surface to the other.
• Upon separation, more of the electrons remain on one surface than on the other; one
material becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged.