Aa 12

ude$a$discussion$of$the$technologies$that$facilitate$the$distribution$of$
songs,$as$well$as$the$political$forces$that$constrain$these$technologies5$
Each$chapter$also$examines$one$or$more$of$the$music$production$roles,$
the$peo-$ple$involved$in$production$at$vsdvpter$then$connects$the$themes$
addressed$in$that$chapter$to$the$themes$of$the$following$chapter5$
Finally,$for$the$sake$of$clarity,$a$distinction$needs$to$be$made$between$
local$conceptions$of$ film$music $>filmi$saṅgīt@$and$ film$song $>filmi$gīt$
or$gācx$tfwfwhough$filsdm$scholars$tend$to$conAlate$film$song$and$film$
music,$the$people$involved$in$music$produsdsdction$put$them$in$discrete$
categories5$From$a$music$production$perspective,$ film$music $is$the$
incidental$back-$ground$music also$called$the$ film$score $in$India
that$helps$to$generate$the$underlying$context$and$mood$of$particular$
scenes$of$a$film$and$gener-$ally$does$not$have$a$lyric$component5$ Film$
song, $on$the$other$hand,$is$a$moment$in$the$film$in$which$the$music$is$
foregrounded,$follows$a$clear$song$form,$and$has$lyrics$that$are$
performed$by$vocalists5$Although$there$are$a$few$notable$exceptions,$film$
songs$appear$on$the$soundtracks$that$circulate$in$local$markets,$are$used$
to$promote$the$film,$and$are$retained$
Preface$!xiii$%
in$popular$memory,$unlike$film$music5$Accordingly,$the$latter$is$
frequently$composed$by$music$assistants$who$receive$comparatively$little$
credit$and$remuneration$for$their$compositions,$whereas$music$directors$
who$com-$pose$film$songs but$might$or$might$not$compose$film$music
receive$maximal$status$and$remuneration$for$their$role$in$music$
production5$
THE%PROBLEM%OF% BOLLYWOOD %
Although$the$term$ Bollywood $has$existed$for$decades,$its$use$as$a$

generic$term$to$describe$the$Hindi$language$film$industry$has$expanded$
since$the$late-1990s,$the$period$in$which$Indian$films$were$being$
promoted$to$international$audiences5$There$are$frequently$200$or$more$
Hindi$language$films$released$in$any$given$year,$yet$Bollywood$is$not$
IndiaMs$only$film$industryN$Films$are$written$and$produced$for$many$of$
IndiaMs$22$national$languages,$including$films$in$Bengali,$Bhojpuri,$
Kannada,$Malayalam,$Marathi,$Tamil,$and$Telugu54$Film$producers$
working$in$the$South$Indian$languages$of$Tamil$and$Telugu$sometimes$
release$as$many$or$more$films$each$year$than$the$Hindi$film$industry5$
Most$of$these$regional$language$industries$regularly$incorporate$songs$
into$the$narrative,$and,$like$Hindi$language$songs,$their$songs$also$
dominate$the$airwaves$of$their$respective$regions5$In$other$words,$many$
thousands$of$film$songs$are$released$every$year$in$a$wide$variety$of$
Indian$languages5$Thus,$Hindi$film$songs$make$up$only$one$portion$of$
the$complicated$sonic$tapestry$of$Indian$popular$musics5$
Despite$this$incredible$diversity$of$popular$songs$in$Indian$languages,$
Bollywood$film$songs$are$the$most$readily$available$for$audiences$
residing$outside$of$India$and$sometimes$even$within$India5$For$people$
living$out-$side$of$India,$the$term$ Bollywood $has$become$a$metonym$for$
all$of$the$Indian$film$industries5$That$is$to$say,$in$ways$that$are$not$
entirely$accu-$rate,$Bollywood$is$a$term$that$has$come$to$nominally$
represent$the$entirety$of$Indian$filmmaking5$If$one$were$to$ask$about$
Kollywood,$Tollywood,$or$Mollywood,$for$example,$most$people$outside$of$
India$would$not$recognize$these$labels$as$>respectively@$the$Tamil,$Telugu,$
and$Malayalam$film$indus-$tries5$Unfortunately,$it$is$much$easier$to$
acquire$subtitled$films$and$trans-$lated$song$lyrics$of$the$Hindi$language$
than$of$other$Indian$languages5$The$reasons$for$this$are$not$entirely$
clear,$but$one$suspects$that$the$Hindi$lan-$guage$film$industry$has$more$
effectively$branded$itself$inside$and$outside$of$India$than$these$other$
regional$language$industries$in$the$same$way$that$the$iPod$came$to$
represent$the$entire$market$for$portable$digital$music$players5$
!%xiv%$%Preface$
Although$the$term$ Bollywood $typically$denotes$the$Hindi$language$film$

industry,$it$is$a$somewhat$controversial$term$in$India5$A$portman-$teau$
of$ Bombay $and$ Hollywood, $it$is$frequently$used$in$a$pejorative$sense$
to$imply$that$the$films$produced$in$Bombay$are$simply$low-quality$
derivatives$of$American$commercial$cinema5$Academics$have$noted$that$
the$term$entered$common$usage$in$the$last$two$decades$as$Indian$film$
pro-$ducers$began$to$market$films$to$audiences$outside$of$India$
>Rajadhyaksha$and$Willemen$2003,$Ganti$2012@5$As$such,$Bollywood$
became$a$convenient$brand$label$for$films$that$are$produced$in$India,$
contain$songs,$and$follow$melodramatic$conventions$that$many$
Westerners$find$confusing$because$they$differ$from$Western$genres$and$
narrative$conventions5$Yet,$despite$these$pejorative$connotations,$the$
term$has$a$denotative$utilityN$When$someone$says$Bollywood,$people$
generally$know$what$this$means5$For$this$reason,$Bollywood$is$used$in$
the$title$of$this$book$because$it$is$ori-$ented$toward$newcomers$to$Indian$
films$and$songs5$Nevertheless,$I$gener-$ally$restrict$my$usage$of$the$term$
Bollywood $to$refer$specifically$to$the$post-1990s$Hindi$language$film$
industry5$
The$most$important$thing$to$emphasize$here$is$that$Hindi$film$songs$are$
a$consummately$commercial$form$of$musical$expression;$among$other$
things,$songs$operate$as$a$medium$for$selling$theater$tickets,$recordings$
of$soundtracks,$etc5$Like$other$commercially$oriented$expressive$culture,$
film$song$producers$must$be$cognizant$of$their$potential$audiences$for$
their$songs;$otherwise,$they$will$not$achieve$commercial$success,$which$in$
turn$means$that$they$are$unlikely$to$be$hired$for$another$film$project5$As$
in$the$film$industry$more$generally,$one$is$only$as$good$as$oneMs$last$film,$
and$the$half-life$of$commercial$success$is$shorter$than$it$might$seem5$
Success$may$be$measured$in$a$number$of$different$ways,$of$course,$but$
for$film$produc-$ers$and$investors,$the$bottom$line$is$the$bottom$line5$
A%NOTE%ON%SONG%TITLES,%TRANSLITERATION,%AND%TRANSLATION%
The$naming$conventions$of$film$songs$can$be$confusing$for$non-Hindi$
speak-$ers5$At$times,$people$will$refer$to$songs$on$the$basis$of$the$entire$
first$line$of$the$mukhṛā,$or$the$opening$refrain$>e5g5,$ Tujhe$dekha$to$yeh$
jaana$sanam $_ I$saw$you$and$realized$that$this$is$love `$or$ Kabhi$kabhi$
mere$dil$mein$khayal$aata$hai $_ Sometimes$a$thought$enters$my$
heart `@5$Frequently,$this$title$is$abbreviated$on$cassette$and$CD$jackets$to$
just$the$first$few$words$>i5e5,$ Tujhe$dekha $_ I$saw$you `$or$ Kabhi$kabhi $
_ Sometimes `@5$One$con-$sequence$of$this$abbreviated$reference$is$that$the$
literal$English$translation$
Preface$!xv$%df
is$sometimes$different$from$the$intent$of$the$lyrics5$In$this$book,$the$song$
title$translations$will$usually$reAlect$the$sense$of$the$entire$opening$line$
of$the$mukhṛā$in$the$first$usage,$and$then$the$shorthand$title$in$
subsequent$usages5$
Second,$the$Romanization$of$film$songs and$different$spellings$of$the$
same$song can$make$them$difficult$to$track$down$through$an$Internet$
search5$Very$rarely$do$film$producers$list$songs$with$diacritics5$Most$fre-$
quently,$this$spelling$issue$is$with$long$vowels$in$Hindi$>e5g5,$ā,$ī,$ū@,$such$
that$a$word$like$āwārā$>vagabond$or$street$urchin@$or$āwāz$>voice@$might$
be$Romanized$ aawaara, $ awaara, $ awara, $or$ aawaaz, $ awaaz, $
awaz5 $Similarly,$because$there$are$letters$that$occur$in$the$Devanagari$
script$that$do$not$exist$in$the$Roman$script,$other$words$might$be$
difficult$to$find5$For$example,$laḍkā$>boy@ which$is$pronounced$
somewhere$between$ luh-arka $and$ luh-adka is$sometimes$represented$
as$ larka $in$older$songs,$but$most$frequently$as$ ladka $in$song$titles5$
The$term$mukhṛā $often$Romanized$as$mukhda is$similarly$
pronounced$somewhere$between$ mookh-da $and$ mookh-ra5 $Certain$
patterns$have$emerged$over$time$that$are$used$on$packaging,$but$these$
may$not$be$reAlected$in$phonetic$spellings$of$certain$songs5$In$general,$I$
have$retained$the$spelling$of$the$song$from$the$jacket$of$the$filmMs$
soundtrack$recording,$which$tends$to$be$the$easiest$way$to$find$
particular$songs5$
As$in$poetry,$most$song$lyrics$have$many$layers$of$meaning;$any$trans-$
lation$of$a$song$is$only$one$of$many$possible$interpretations$of$that$text5$
Moreover,$the$poetic$images$that$are$used$in$song$traditions$vary$from$
one$cultural$context$to$another5$In$a$Western$context,$for$example,$
church$bells$have$a$number$of$different$connotationsN$They$can$indicate$
the$time,$be$a$call$to$prayer,$announce$celebratory$events$like$weddings,$
and$reference$funerals5$The$poetic$image$of$church$bells$can$point$to$any$
or$all$of$these$meanings,$even$in$the$same$song,$depending$upon$the$
perspective$of$the$interpreter$at$any$given$moment$of$time5$More$subtly,$
the$sound$of$church$bells$in$a$song$can$reinforce$or$transform$the$
meaning$of$the$lyrics$in$ways$that$defy$simple$explanations5$There$are$a$
number$of$poetdvsdvsdic$and$musical$images$in$Indian$songs$that$can$be$
equally$difficult$to$translate5$Many$love$songs,$for$example,$include$
textual$and/or$aural$references$to$the$shehnai$>a$double$reed$instrument$
that$soundssdftion,$the$poetic$and$visual$imageries$associated$with$love,$
including$the$season$of$sāvan$>tvdshe$monsoon$season@,$barsāt$>rain@,$
dīwanī$>love$sick-$ness@,$and$mastī$>intoxication@$have$significances$that$
their$literal$English$translations$do$not$quite$capture,$especially$since$
each$of$these$images$has$a$long$history$in$Indian$poetic$and$cultural$
practice5$Thus,$each$term$has$
!%xvi%$%Preface$
several$simultaneously$operating$cultural$resonances$that$add$
dimensions$of$meaning$that$are$typically$lost$in$translation5$
Accordingly,$the$transla-$tions$of$song$or$film$titles$in$this$book$are$not$
always$literal;$rather,$I$have$tried$to$capture$some$of$the$variegated$
nuances$and$connotations$within$the$translation5$
Preface$!xvii$%
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS$
Like$every$film$song,$this$book$was$composed$through$interactions$and$
col-$laborations$with$many$people5$My$research$for$this$book$began$as$a$
gradu-$ate$student$at$the$University$of$Chicago$in$1999,$as$I$was$
introduced$to$many$significant$Hindi$films$by$Ronald$Inden$in$a$class$
entitled$ Film$in$India5 $This$preliminary$exposure$to$Hindi$films$
continued$at$the$American$Institute$for$Indian$StudiesM$>AIIS@$year-long$
language$program$in$2000 $01$and$its$pedagogical$use$of$Hindi$language$
cinema5$I$am$particularly$indebted$to$Vidhu$Chatravedi$for$his$help$in$
understanding$the$depth$of$Hindi$film$song$lyrics,$as$well$as$Joel$Lee,$
Carla$Bellamy,$and$James$Hare$who$explored$the$production$of$
mainstream$commercial$cinema$with$me$as$we$created$the$>thankfully@$
limited$release$of$Jaanwar$Maalik$>Lee$2001@5$
I$learned$an$incredible$amount$about$classic$Hindi$film$songs$from$the$
staff$and$customers$of$music$stores$when$I$conducted$research$between$
2003$and$20055$In$particular,$I$would$like$to$thank$Liqquat$Ali,$Manish$
Billore,$Anil$Jain,$Sameera$Kulkarni,$Sumit$Parwal,$and$Ravi$Raghavan$
for$their$perspectives$about$the$art$and$commerce$of$film$songs5$Poonam$
Bakshi,$Alka$Kumar,$and$Sujata$Singh$assisted$me$by$providing$hundreds$
of$song$lyric$translations5$
For$help$in$unpacking$the$contemporary$period$of$film$song$in$Mumbai,$
I$am$indebted$to$Louiz$Banks,$Shruti$Bhave-Padhye,$Clinton$Cerejo,$
Anaar$Desai-Stephens,$Adrian$DMSouza,$Merlin$DMSouza,$Rhys$Sebastian$
DMSouza,$Sanjay$Divecha,$Naresh$Fernandes,$Samantha$Fernandes,$
Shantanu$Haldikar,$Shekhar$Krishnan,$Narendra$Kusnur,$Shirish$
Malhotra,$Mikey$McCleary,$Neeti$Mohan,$Loy$Mendonsa,$Nakul$Mehta,$
Ehsaan$Noorani,$Ashwin$Panemangalore,$Rajeev$Raja,$and$Rohan$
Ramanna,$each$of$whom$provided$invaluable$insights$into$the$workings$
of$the$Hindi$film$industry$and$the$songs$that$it$produces5$For$feedback$on$
writing$and$presentations$at$various$stages$of$this$project,$I$would$like$to$
thank$Philip$Bohlman,$Gregory$Booth,$Richard$Delacy,$Rachel$Dwyer,$
Kathryn$Hansen,$John$Kelly,$Travis$
Jackson,$William$Mazzarella,$Meredith$McGuire,$Anna$Morcom,$Natalie$
Sarrazin,$Anna$Schultz,$Zoe$Sherinian,$Bradley$Shope,$and$Martin$Stokes5$
At$Texas$A&M$University,$the$students$of$my$ Popular$Music$of$India $
class$asked$many$astute$questions,$shared$their$enthusiasm$for$contempo-$
rary$films,$and$propelled$me$further$in$this$research$project5$I$would$also$
like$to$thank$my$colleagues$in$the$Department$of$Performance$Studies,$
with$special$thanks$to$Harris$Berger,$Kim$Kattari,$and$Emily$McManus$
who$were$a$great$sounding$board$for$my$analyses$of$song$conventions5$
This$research$would$have$been$much$more$difficult$had$I$not$had$finan-$
cial$support$from$the$College$of$Liberal$Arts$at$Texas$A&M$University,$
the$Melborn$G5$Glasscock$Center$for$Humanities$Research$at$Texas$A&M$
University,$and$the$Crawley$Family$Foundation5$I$would$also$like$to$
thank$Lise$Cramer$for$reading$early$drafts$of$this$book$and$Bridget$
Liddell$for$her$support$with$page$proofs5$Special$thanks$are$due$to$Radha$
Rajadhyaksha$for$helping$me$prepare$the$final$manuscript$and$assisting$
with$transla-$tions5$Finally,$I$would$like$to$thank$the$Society$of$
Ethnomusicology$for$per-$mission$to$reprint$portions$of$my$essay$in$
Ethnomusicology$>53@3$that$are$used$in$chapters$1$and$75$
Above$all,$Laura$and$Gwendolyn$deserve$the$most$thanks$for$tolerating$
my$absence$>while$both$traveling$and$at$home@$as$I$wrote$this$book5$
!%xx%$%Acknowledgments$
ABOUT$THE$COMPANION$WEBSITE$
www=oup=com/us/bollywoodsounds%
Oxford$has$created$a$website$to$accompany$Bollywood$SoundsN$The$
Cosmopolitan$Mediations$of$Hindi$Film$Song5$The$reader$is$encouraged$to$
consuldsvt$this$resource$in$which$the$author$provides$short$video$
examples$of$each$of$the$25$Hindi$film$songs$discussed$in$the$book5$These$
subtitled$videos$illustrate$the$musical,$lyrical,$and$cinematographic$
features$of$these$songs$idAbdn$ways$that$will$supplement$the$readerMs$
understanding$of$the$song$analyses5$They$also$exemplify$many$of$the$
sites$of$musical$continuity$and$change$over$the$course$of$70$years$of$film$
song$production5$Examples$avail-$able$online$are$signaled$by$OxfordMs$
symbolN$$ddv
CHAPTER$1$Bollywood$Sounds$
One$summer$afternoon$in$June$2005,$a$friend$and$I$decided$to$take$in$the$
movie$Bunty$Aur$Babli$at$the$famous$Regal$Cinema$in$South$Mumbai5$
We$had$been$seeing$ads$for$this$story$about$con$artists$Bunty$>Abhishek$
Bachchan@$and$Babli$>Rani$Mukherji@$on$television,$and$sus-$pected$that$it$
would$be$one$of$the$yearMs$blockbusters5$Since$the$film$was$still$in$its$first$
week$of$release,$we$expected$the$theatre$to$be$sold$out$and$arrived$early$
to$wait$with$the$eager$crowd5$sdIn$India,$the$movie-going$experience$
begins$with$the$process$of$getting$a$ticket5$The$Regal,$a$single-screen$
theatre,$is$subdivided$into$several$dif-$ferently$priced$classes$of$seating,$
which$in$2005$was$₹50$>US$0591@$for$the$lower$stall,$₹80$>US$15$$60@$for$the$
upper$stall,$and$₹100$>US$1580@$for$the$balcony5$The$ticket$line$was$
relatively$long,$but$I$was$soon$able$to$thrust$my$cash-filled$hand$into$the$
ticket$window$and$request$two$upper-level$tickets5$The$manager$took$my$
money,$crossed$off$two$seats$on$the$chart,$ripped$the$tickets$from$his$
booklet,$and$handed$them$to$me5$The$film$would$not$start$for$another$30$
minutes,$so$we$took$a$moment$to$grab$some$refreshments$and$preview$
the$posters$of$the$upcoming$films5$Meanwhile,$the$audience$began$to$line%
up%at%the%entrances%to%the%cinema%hall,%waiting%impatiently%for%the%
theatre%staff%to%open%the%door=%About%15%minutes%before%the%film%was%
to%begin,%the%doors%opened%and%the%crowd%rushed%into%the%theatre%to%
find%their%seats=%Unfamiliar%with%the%layout%of%the%hall,%my%friend%
and%I%approached%an%usher%to%help%us=%His%Rlashlight%brieRly%
illuminated%our%tickets$and$then$indicated$the$backs$of$our$seats5$
Before$the$film$began,$the$audience$was$asked$to$rise$for$the$Indian$
national$anthem5$The$strains$of$ Jana$Gana$Mana, $written$by$the$Nobel$
Laureate$Rabindranath$Tagore,$Alowed$through$the$hall,$accompanied$by$
an$image$of$IndiaMs$national$Alag5$Once$the$anthem$was$complete,$the$
music$swelled$into$the$opening$credits,$and$the$audience$began$to$cheer$
in$antici-$pation$of$yet$another$blockbuster$from$the$Yash$Raj$Films$
banner5$We$had$already$recognized$a$couple$of$the$songs$that$
punctuated$the$narrative$in$key$places$because$these$songs$had$been$
played$on$the$radio$for$weeks$before$the$filmMs$release5$Indeed,$the$entire$
soundtrack$had$been$available$in$music$stores$for$well$over$a$month5$Our$
appetite$for$the$film$had$been$whetted$by$the$media$blitz$preceding$the$
film,$including$the$ teasers $that$MTV$and$other$music$television$
channels$had$been$broadcasting$on$regu-$lar$rotation5$We$had$seen$
glimpses$of$the$film$narrative$interspersed$with$song$picturizations,$and$
my$friend$and$I$had$made$some$guesses$about$the$meanings$of$the$songs$
and$their$role$in$the$narrative$based$on$the$style$of$each$song$on$the$
soundtrack$and$our$experiences$with$other$Hindi$films5$It$was$only$when$
we$watched$the$film,$however,$that$we$came$to$know$the$context$in$
which$each$of$the$songs$appeared5$The$impact$of$the$songs$was$enhanced$
by$the$surround$sound$of$the$cinema$hall,$especially$when$com-$pared$to$
the$small$boom$box$and$television$speakers$I$had$been$listening$to$before$
coming$to$the$theatre5$The$full$frequency$range,$the$crisp$highs,$the$
deeply$powerful$bass,$and$the$overall$presence$of$the$songs$drew$us$into$
the$film$reality$in$ways$that$we$might$have$been$able$to$resist$had$we$
been$watching$on$television$at$home5$Thus,$even$though$I$had$been$
hearing$the$songs$on$the$soundtrack$for$weeks$before$going$to$the$
theatre,$their$melo-$dies$were$reinforced$in$this$particular$cinematic$
viewing$experience$and$stayed$with$me$long$after$I$left$thvdsve$theatre5$
In$fact,$it$would$be$another$seven$years$before$I$saw$the$film$again,$and,$
during$that$intervening$time,$I$listened$to$that$soundtrack$over$and$over$
again$and$came$to$know$each$song$well5$Nevertheless,$the$key$moments$
from$the$filmMs$songs$and$the$memories$of$hearing$and$seeing$them$at$
that$particular$cinema,$on$that$particular$afternoon,$remain$with$me$to$
this$day5$
The$soundtrack$for$Bunty$Aur$Babli$was$composed$by$the$music$direc-$
tor$trio$Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy$>i5e5,$Shankar$Mahadevan,$Ehsaan$Noorani,$
Loy$Mendonsa,$also$known$as$SEL@,$which$has$produced$some$of$the$most$
inAluential$Indian$film$songs$of$the$2000s5$Like$the$other$legendary$music$
directors$that$preceded$them,$SEL$has$a$distinct$and$instantly$rec-$
ognizable$sound$that$draws$from$a$wide$range$of$Indian$and$
international$sources5$This$cosmopolitanism$is$nowhere$more$apparent$
than$in$the$song$ Kajra$re $> Your$mascaraed$eyes @$>figure$151$and$video$
151@,$a$song$that$has$become$one$of$the$landmarks$of$the$decade$as$a$
famous$ item$num-$ber Bollywood$parlance$for$a$film$song$that$
typically$features$an$actress$in$an$erotically$charged$dance$sequence5$
Item$numbers,$earlier$performed$
!%2%$%Bollywood$Sounds$
Aishwarya$Rai$beckons$to$Amitabh$Bachchan$in$ Kajra$re $>Bunty$Aur$Babli$

_2005`@5$Video$151N$ Kajra$re $
by$sultry$lesser-known$actresses$or$ vamps, $and$now$the$domain$of$lead-$
ing$actresses,$have$little$relevance$to$the$film$narrative,$though$they$
often$take$film$directors$and$choreographers$weeks$to$plan$and$film5$The$
throb-$bing,$dance-oriented$music$and$spectacular$visuals$promote$the$
film$on$television$as$a$way$to$lure$viewers$to$the$cinema$hall5$The$
picturization $or$visual$narrative$accompanying$the$music$of$ Kajra$re $
certainly$fits$most$of$these$characteristics,$although$the$ item $in$this$
case$was$the$super-$star$actress$Aishwarya$Rai$>colloquially$known$as$
Ash@$rather$than$some$unknown$starlet5$In$the$song$sequence,$Ash$rejects$
the$character$that$her$future$fiancé$>Abhishek$Bachchan@$plays$in$order$
to$Alirt$with$the$character$played$by$the$superstar$Amitabh$Bachchan,$
AbhishekMs$real-life$father5$All$of$these$intertextual$significances$are$in$
play$as$the$song$unfolds$on$the$big$screen,$and$such$real/reel-life$ironies$
>not$lost$on$the$typical$audience@$are$one$of$the$great$sources$of$pleasure$
in$Indian$films5$
Kajra$re $is$an$atypical$item$number$from$a$musical$perspective$as$well5$
Rather$than$featuring$the$disco-infused$electronica$that$is$the$familiar$
staple$of$item$numbers,$the$music$alludes$to$the$kajalī$>also$called$a$
kajrī@,$a$style$of$folk$song$and$dance$that$is$associated$with$the$state$of$
Utt
Bollywood$SoundS$!3$%
Pradesh5$Sung$in$the$rainy$season$by$women,$kajalī$lyrics$frequently$dis-$
cuss$the$viraha$>separation@$of$lovers,$as$well$as$the$desire$that$
accompanies$an$empty$bed$>Henry$1988@5$The$lyrics$of$ Kajra$re $certainly$
get$this$idea$across,$as$the$ song$situation $>the$narrative$context$of$the$
song@$sets$it$in$a$modern$adaptation$of$a$koṭha,$an$urban$salon$managed$
by$a$courtesan5$In$a$sense,$the$song$is$intended$to$express$the$desires$of$a$
courtesan$who$is$trying$to$attract yet$is$ultimately$rejected$by her$
client5$The$folk$song$origins$of$ Kajra$re $are$present$just$as$much$in$the$
musical$accompani-$ment$as$in$the$lyrics5$The$stage$is$set$by$a$solo$
female$voice$>Alisha$Chinai@$accompanied$by$thdvsdsde$harmonium$in$
the$unmetered$opening$moments$of$the$song5$Alisha$was$a$rather$
unusual$choice$of$singer$since$her$voice$is$pri-$marily$associated$with$the$
Indipop$genre$of$the$1990s$that$eschewed$the$vocal$inAlections$and$
musical$orientation$of$Indian$film$songs5$The$splash$of$sound$created$by$
the$santur$leads$into$a$simple$tabla$beat$that$is$under-$scored$by$a$bass$
groove,$over$which$a$male$singer$recites$tabla$vdsbols$>the$syllables$
assigned$to$drum$strokes@5$After$a$break,$AlishaMs$voice$returns$to$this$
groove,$accompanied$in$a$four-beat$meter$by$tabla,$electric$bass,$and$the$
sound$of$ghūnghrūs$>ankle$bells$worn$by$Indian$classical$dancers@5$In$
terms$of$song$form,$this$lyrical$introduction$leads$then$to$the$men$
singing$ kajra$re $accompanied$by$sharp,$rhythmic$whistles$from$the$
crowd$that$might$accompany$a$live$folk$performancevsdvdss5$This$part$of$
the$song$is$the$pri-$mary$melodic/lyric$combination$that$returns$
throughout$the$performance5$Like$the$ hook $in$a$Western$pop$song,$the$
refrain$is$the$most$memorable$moment$in$the$song$by$design;$not$only$is$
it$usually$the$song$title,$but$the$melody$is$used$in$the$marketing$of$the$
film$and$its$soundtrack5$Like$any$advertisement,$it$is$meant$to$create$an$
instant$recall$of$the$product$being$sold$once$the$audvsdsddience$hears$it5$
Because$it$was$the$tune$picked$by$Yash$Raj$Films$to$promote$Bunty$Aur$
Babli,$I$had$been$hearing$the$refrain$of$this$song$for$weeks$in$music$
stores,$on$the$radio,$and$on$television$without$knowing$its$cinematic$
context5$Even$if$I$had$not$seen$the$film,$the$ubiq-$uity$of$the$song in$
broadcast$media,$in$dance$programs,$at$weddings,$etc5 would$have$
reinforced$its$presence$as$an$important$film$song$of$thvsdsde$mid-2000s5$
This$is$precisely$the$case$for$most$of$the$landmark$songs$of$every$era$of$
Indian$cinema5$
THE%MEANING,%VALUE,%AND%%ROLES%OF%SONGS%IvsdsN%INDIAN%FILMS%
As$my$description$of$Bunty$Aur$Babli$suggests,$the$narrative$conventions,$
production$aesthetics,$and$modes$of$presentation$of$Hindi$films$produced$
dvddv
!%4%$%Bollywood$Sounds$$$$
in$Mumbai$studios,$known$as$Bollywood$in$the$contemporary$era,$are$
substantially$different$from$the$genres$of$American$or$European$films5$
Many$Indian$films$are$not$quite$comedies,$not$quite$dramas,$not$quite$
romances,$not$quite$musicals,$but$rather$mixtures$of$all$these$genres$in$a$
single$three-hour$package5$Although,$a$ lack $of$a$single$dominant$nar-$
rative$is$often$used$in$unAlattering$scholarly$comparisons$of$Indian$films$
to$American$or$European$films$>Prasad$1998@,$other$film$scholars$such$as$
Thomas$>1985@,$Dwyer$>2000@,$and$Ganti$>2013@$have$rightly$argued$that$
Hindi$films$are$better$understood$as$embodying$a$different$set$of$generic$
>and$genre@$conventions$than$their$Hollywood$counterparts5$In$spite$of$
recent$scholarship$that$has$celebrated$Hindi$cinema$as$an$Indian$alterna-$
tive$to$Hollywood$hegemony,$it$has$inspired$much$cultural$criticism,$
both$inside$and$outside$of$India5$The$films$have$been$accused$of$being$
formu-$laic$and$grossly$violent,$objectifying$women,$offering$a$
homogenized$com-$mercial$paradigm,$glorifying$consumerism,$and$
appealing$to$the$lowest$common$denominator$of$Indian$society5$Other$
critics$have$accused$com-$mercial$Hindi$films$of$being$the$embodiment$of$
everything$wrong$with$the$Western$inAluence$upon$Indian$society5$This$
is,$of$course,$a$deeply$problem-$atic$argument$insofar$as$films$have$been$
created$by$Indian$producers$for$Indian$consumers,$and$the$metrics$of$
their$success$or$failure$emerge$from$Indian$box$offices,$even$if$some$of$the$
sources$for$inspiration$have$come$from$outside$of$India5$
One$of$the$primary$distinctive$features$of$the$Hindi$film$noted$by$those$
unfamiliar$with$its$conventions$is$the$inclusion$of$six$or$more$songs$that$
seemingly$interrupt$the$Alow$of$the$film$narrative$in$ways$that$are$
super-$ficially$similar$to$the$ musical $genre$of$Hollywood5$Drawing$from$
a$vari-$ety$of$visual$and$aural$sources,$these$song$picturizations$have$
been$an$element$of$Hindi$films$since$the$advent$of$sound$in$cinema$and$
fulfill$a$variety$of$narrative$functions$within$an$individual$film5$
Following$stylistic$conventions$that$have$largely$been$in$place$since$the$
1940s,$film$songs$are$written$to$fit$the$locational$and$narrative$
requirements$of$the$film5$Song$sequences$are$often$shot$in$exotic$
locations$like$Kashmir,$Switzerland,$and$Mumbai$cabarets;$can$depict$the$
celebration$of$familiar$local$religious$festivals;$signal$the$transition$of$the$
hero$from$childhood$to$adulthood$>Creekmur$2005@;$portray$the$
development$or$reinforcement$of$social$bonds$and$the$act$of$falling$in$
love;$and/or$represent$a$Utopia$or$Arcadia$on$earth$>Inden$1998@5$Most$
often,$these$songs$are$an$amalgam$of$local$and$global$musical$styles$that$
are$recognizable$aurally$and$generically$as$Hindi$film$songs,$but$
sometimes$stylize$local$categories$of$music$recogniz-$able$to$an$Indian$
audience5$Moments$of$Hindu$worship$>pujā@,$for$exam-$ple,$are$frequently$
depicted$in$Hindi$films,$and$stylized$hymns$>bhajan@$
are$sung$by$the$participants5$Or,$when$the$characters$have$recognized$
that$they$have$fallen$in$>or$out@$of$love,$an$adaptation$of$an$Urdu$ghazal$
is$sometimes$sung$by$the$hero$or$heroine5$At$other$times,$when$the$nar-$
rative$requires$certain$locations$to$be$represented$in$the$film,$songs$and$
music$are$composed$that$are$indexically$iconic$of$>i5e5,$create$and$repre-$
sent@$these$spaces5$For$example,$some$film$songs$use$a$set$of$semi-classical$
musical$conventions$for$the$performance$of$a$mujrā,$a$style$of$classical$
dance$that$is$performed$by$courtesans$in$a$koṭhā$>urban$salon@5$Another$
common$convention$of$Hindi$films$until$the$1980s$was$the$depiction$of$a$
>Hindu@$hero$being$tempted$by$an$Anglicized$vamp$in$a$nightclub$or$
disco-$thèque5$Often$representing$the$negative$inAluence$of$Western$
materialism$on$the$urban$Indian,$the$music$composed$for$these$venues$
consisted$of$songs$that$were$mediations$of$the$contemporary$
international$popular$musics$of$the$time5$Hence,$many$of$the$most$
popular$love$songs$of$the$1970s$and$1980s,$for$example,$were$composed$in$
a$recognizable$rock$or$disco$style5$Films$in$the$2000s$often$feature$
MumbaiMs$nightclubs$in$more$ambivalent$ways as$the$site$of$modern$
youth$in$ family $films,$as$well$as$a$naturalized$gangster$underworld$
>Ganti$201sdes$>and$sometimes$young$boys@$in$several$periods$of$film$song5$
If$one$considers$the$sheer$number$of$Hindi$film$songs$produced$
historically,$there$have$been$surprisingly$few$successful$playback$singers5$
However,$as$I$show$in$the$fol-$lowing$chapters,$as$the$dominant$singers$
who$held$sway$until$the$1970s$aged,$new$singers$arrived,$some$of$them$
from$the$genre$of$Indipop$like$Alisha$Chinai5$
The$visual$mediation$of$film$songs$and$incorporation$of$these$songs$into$
filmic$narratives$has$been$one$driving$force$for$the$continued$dominance$
of$Hindi$film$songs$in$the$field$of$Indian$popular$music5$Songs$are$very$
often$associated$with,$and$openly$promoted$as,$performances$of$the$
actors$as$much$as$the$singers$or$music$directors5$At$times,$the$
transference$of$the$voice$from$the$singer$to$the$actor$has$been$more$or$
less$completeN$a$condi-$tion$that$music$labels$exploit$for$the$sake$of$
selling$their$products5$In$most$music$stores,$for$example,$one$can$find$
compilation$albums$of$the$ songs$of$Shah$Rukh$Khan $or$ Madhuri$
Dixit, $popular$Hindi$film$actors$who$do$not$sing,$alongside$CDs$
containing$the$ songs$of$R5$D5$Burman $>a$music$direc-$tor@$or$ songs$of$
Kishor5$e$Kumar $>a$singer@5$Although$listeners$are$aware$that$the$actor$is$
lip-syncing$and$can$usually$identify$the$singer,$the$cine-$matic$context$
of$the$songMs$appearance$in$a$film$is$a$residue$that$adheres$to$the$music5$
The$names$of$the$actors$do$not$appear$on$the$compilation$album$>unless$
they$are$in$the$title@,$but$important$cinematic$moments$in$which$some$of$
the$songs$appear$will$be$incorporated$into$the$cassettsdce$or$CD$cover$
photo,$and,$thus,$the$actor$retains$his$or$her$phantasmagoric$attachment$
to$the$song5$This$connectedness$of$film$and$music$in$the$Indian$context$
may$help$to$explain,$in$part,$why$there$has$been$comparatively$little$
writ-$ten$on$film$song,$partially$because$of$its$unapologetically$
commercial$aes-$thetic,$but$also$because$it$is$difficult$to$separate$the$
music$of$film$song$from$the$intertextual$discourses$that$circulate$along$
with$it5$Also,$because$of$its$cosmopolitan$orientations,$film$song$has$
rarely$been$conceived$of$as$an$ authentically$Indian $genre$of$music$by$
cultural$critics5$
Beyond$their$narrative$roles$within$films,$film$songs$have$social$lives$that$
are$in$some$ways$independent$from and$in$other$ways$deeply$tied$to
the$fortunes$and$meanings$of$the$film$from$which$they$come5$Songs$are$a$
critical$element$in$the$marketing$and$promotion$of$films$by$the$Indian$
media$industries,$particularly$on$radio$broadcasts5$Not$surprisingly,$the$
relative$importance$of$songs$in$Indian$films$is$largely$a$matter$of$oneMs$
subjective$stance5$Film$producers$and$distributors$view$songs$as$an$
impor-$tant$vehicle$for$promoting$commercial$films$in$various$media5$
Historically,$very$few$Indian$films$have$achieved$box$office$success$
without$the$aid$of$six$or$more$songs,$although$this$has$begun$to$change$
in$the$contemporary$period5$Film$directors$use$songs$as$a$way$to$depict$
the$emotional$state$of$characters$and$reveal$other$important$information$
within$the$filmic$nar-$rative$that$characters$might$not$be$able$to$express$
through$dialogue5$For$television$channels,$film$song$broadcasts$were$a$
popular$but$inexpensive$way$to$fill$airtime$once$satellite$television$
emerged$in$the$early$1990s5$For$studio$musicians,$the$hegemony$of$film$
songs$has$been$both$an$important$source$of$income,$as$well$as$an$
oppositional$ Other $for$non-film$genres$
like$Indipop$that$emerged$after$economic$liberalization$>roughly$1991$to$
the$present$day@5$DJs$use$film$songs$as$a$source$for$remixing$and$creative$
reuse$in$the$dance$club$and$in$the$studio,$making$older$film$songs$
relevant$to$new$generations$of$listeners5$
Some$cultural$critics$see$film$songs$as$an$index$of$crass$commercializa-$
tion$and$the$declining$tastes$of$the$masses,$while$other$critics$celebrate$
the$memories$and$affect$that$particular$songs$can$evoke5$Some$scholars$
have$argued$that$film$songs,$their$stylistic$conventions,$and$their$indus-$
trial$mode$of$production$have$had$a$negative$inAluence$on$other$Indian$
folk$and$popular$musics5$Many$of$these$critics$have$taken$this$critique$
further$by$suggesting$that$film$songs$are$inauthentic,$if$not$destructive,$
represen-$tations$of$Indian$national$ideals5$Yet,$they$are$the$pool$of$
melodies$that$people$draw$from$when$playing$the$party$game$
antakshari1$and$deeply$tied$to$cultural$memories$of$different$epochs$of$
Indian$history5$For$others,$the$ostensibly$heightened$use$of$international$
music$styles$in$film$songs$has$become$metonymic$of$the$Indian$nation$in$
an$era$of$globalization5$As$each$of$these$perspectives$suggests,$film$songs$
exemplify$the$manifold and$sometimes$conAlicting sets$of$values$of$
music$in$social$life5$These$values$are$always$relative$and$always$
generated$within$and$by$social,$individual,$and$historical$contexts5$
FILM%SONG%COSMOPOLITA=%%NISM%
This$book$focuses$on$the$history,$contexts,$and$people$that$make$Indian$
film$song$a$cosmopolitan$genre$of$popular$music5$One$aspect$that$even$
lay$listeners$notice$in$film$songs$is$the$incredible$diversity$of$musical$
styles$that$are$present$in$them5$The$approach$of$Indian$music$directors$
>i5e5,$composers@$is$unabashedly$syncretic$in$terms$of$the$aural$elements$
>e5g5,$melodies,$styles,$forms,$instruments,$timbres,$rhythms,$textures@$that$
are$incorporated$into$songs5$Music$directors$write$songs$that$
simultaneously$suit$the$narrative$contexts$of$particular$films,$even$as$
they$have$endur-$ing$popularity$beyond$their$filmic$context5$In$other$
words,$they$synthesize$the$styles,$instruments,$and$performance$practices$
from$a$diverse$array$of$Indian$and$non-Indian$classical,$folk,$and$
devotional$musics$to$create$a$cos-$mopolitan$genre$of$popular$music$that$
is$nevertheless$rooted$within$a$filmi$aesthetic5$Even$though$film$songs$
incorporate$the$approaches$of$diverse$musical$systems,$the$sounds$and$
practices$of$Bollywood$songs$have$some$centripetal$tendencies$that$have$
remained$consistent$over$its$history5$
Before$discussing$how$these$film$songs$operate$in$cosmopolitan$and$
mediated$ways,$it$is$useful$to$take$a$moment$to$clarify$what$I$mean$by$
the$
terms$popular,$classical,$folk,$and$devotional$musics$as$they$relate$to$an$
Indian$context5$I$want$to$emphasize$at$the$outset,$however,$that$many$
songs$that$I$describe$in$this$book$overlap$with$two$or$more$of$these$
subdivisiondsvs$>e5g5,$there$are$many$folk$and$classical$songs$that$are$also$
devotional$songs@5$Nevertheless,$the$terms$have$some$utility$and$are$
frequently$mobilized$by$music$and$cultural$critics$to$describe$certain$
kinds$of$musical$practices5$Although$there$are$a$number$of$good$
definitions$of$popular$music$>e5g5,$Middleton$1990@,$in$this$context,$I$am$
defining$popular$music$as$genres$of$music$that$have$been$produced$for$
mass$distribution$to$heterogeneous$audiences$on$some$sort$of$recording$
medium$>e5g5,$film,$cassette,$CD,$DVD,$Internet$streaming@5$Popular$musics$
zbzare$created$with$the$intent$to$appeal$to$broad$audiences,$but$their$
memorability$is$sometimes$more$important$than$the$unit$sales$that$they$
generate5$Like$popular$music$traditions$every-$where,$Indian$songs$reAlect$
the$values$of$the$era$in$which$they$are$produced$and$recorded5$Not$only$
do$they$recreate$memories$for$those$who$lived$in$that$era,$but$they$also$
represent$the$values$of$that$era$for$later$generations5$Indeed,$I$have$little$
doubt$that$ Kajra$re $will$be$an$index$of$the$musical$and$social$values$of$
the$mid-2000s$for$future$viewers5$
In$the$context$of$drawing$from$Indian$sources,$film$songs$primarily$
incorporate$classical,$folk,$and$devotional$musics5$By$classical$music,$I$
mean$the$codified,$pan-Indian$systems$of$art$music$that$follow$rigorous$
rules$of$melodic$and$rhythmic$production5$Classical$systems$of$North$and$
South$India$share$a$number$of$features most$important,$the$rāga$
>melodic@$and$tāla$>metrical@$systems5$However,$there$are$a$number$of$
significant$differ-$ences$between$the$North$and$South$Indian$systems,$not$
the$least$of$which$are$distinct$song$forms,$repertoires,$and$instruments5$
Folk$musics,$in$con-$trast,$are$musical$practices$that$are$associated$with$
particular$and$iden-$tifiable$communities,$places,$festivals,$seasons,$and/
or$peoples$of$India5$While$also$conforming$to$certain$musical$
conventions,$the$rules$govern-$ing$folk$musics$are$more$Alexible$than$
those$governing$classical$musics$and,$taken$as$a$whole,$have$a$much$
greater$degree$of$heterogeneity$than$classical$musics5$Although$they$are$
associated$with$particular$peoples$of$India,$some$folk$musics$are$quite$
popular$all$over$India$and$abroad5$These$include$the$bhangra,$which$is$
associated$with$the$Punjab$region$of$India$and$Pakistan,$and$the$garbā$
rās$and$dāndiyā$rās$of$Gujarat5$Hindi$film$music$directors$have$often$
incorporated$folk$song$forms$from$the$Indian$states$of$Assam,$Uttar$
Pradesh,$Bihar,$and$Kashmir,$and$these$folk$styles$are$an$important$staple$
for$regional$language$films$>e5g5,$Punjabi,$Bhojpuri,$etc5@5$By$devotional$
musics,$I$mean$the$musical$practices$associated$with$the$praise,$worship,$
or$invocation$of$some$aspect$or$characteristic$of$a$divine$or$metaphysical$
nature$within$a$religious$tradition5$Many$of$these$songs$
Bollywood$SoundS$!9$%%%
are$participatory,$meaning$that$they$are$designed$to$be$sung$by$everyone$
who$has$even$a$basic$grasp$of$their$lyrics$and$melody,$at$any$level$of$
musi-$cal$training5$Indeed,$the$participatory$performance$of$communal$
singing$is$effective$in$generating$social$solidarity$>Turino$2008@5$Some$folk$
and$devo-$tional$songs$are$also$responsorial,$meaning$that$they$alternate$
between$a$solo$voice$and$a$participatory$chorus5$Some$examples$of$Indian$
devotional$song$styles$used$in$film$contexts$include$the$bhajan,$the$
kirtan,$and$the$Sufi$qawwālī5$Like$folk$musics,$some$devotional$musics$
are$strongly$associ-$ated$with$a$particular$region$and$language,$such$as$
the$Marathi$language$abhang$and$the$keerthanai$sung$by$Tamil$
Christians5$Ethnomusicologists$frequently$include$nationalist$songs$>i5e5,$
songs$that$celebrate$the$values$and$principles$of$the$Indian$nation@$in$
this$category5$Fittingly,$the$ethos$of$these$songs$is$referred$to$as$desh$
bhakti,$or$ nation$worship, $in$several$Indian$languages5$
Music$directors$also$unselfconsciously$incorporate$any$number$of$inter-$
national$musics$into$film$songs5$The$sonic$elements$of$Spanish$Alamenco,$
for$example,$have$long$been$mediated$or$adapted$for$particular$film$
songs,$as$have$Afro-Cuban$rumba$and$mambo,$tvsdhe$Brazilian$samba$
and$bossa$nova,$and$Argentinian$tango5$Likewise,$various$kinds$of$jazz,$
rock,$and$disco$have$made$their$way$into$film$songs5$In$the$same$way$
that$music$directors$and$arrangers$have$transformed$Indian$genres$into$
their$filmi$incarnations,$so$too$have$these$diverse$internatiosdcnal$
inAluences$been$transformed$into$filmi$versions5$The$various$
combinations$of$instruments,$styles,$and$timbres$has$led$to$a$
recognizably$Indian$genre$of$film$music,$one$that$has$had$its$share$of$
controversy$in$the$politics$of$Indian$society5$
In$discussions$of$film$songs$and$the$ideological$construction$of$Indian$
and$non-Indian$elements,$two$sets$of$issues$arise5$First,$how$does$one$
address$the$ostensibly$Indian$elements$versus$the$ostensibly$Western$
elements$of$a$song?$This$issue$of$cultural$inAluence$has$been$tricky$to$
negotiate$for$most$music$scholars$as$they$work$through$the$
peregrinations$of$music$and$musical$change$in$an$era$of$globalization$
>e5g5,$Marshall$and$Beaster-Jones$2012@5$This$is,$incidentally,$just$as$much$
of$a$problem$in$Indian$films$them-$selves,$insofar$as$some$of$the$film$
narratives$and/or$scenes$within$particular$films$are$euphemistically$
described$as$ inspired$by $another$film$or$films5$There$are$any$number$of$
ways$to$describe$>and$critique@$the$movement$of$ideas$and$
representations,$including,$but$not$limited$to,$inAluences,$inspi-$rations,$
borrowings,$quotations,$plagiarism,$Westernization$>Kartomi$and$Blum$
1994@,$hybridity$>Dutta$2013@,$Alows$>Slobin$1993,$Appadurai$1996@,$and$
cultural$imperialism$>Tomlinson$1991@5$
My$inclination$is$to$refer$to$fil5$m$songs$as$cosmopolitan,$that$is,$as$the$
mediated$musical$material$within$and$beyond$the$local,$in$whatever$way$
the$local$is$constituted$by$producers$and$audiences5$Rather$than$refer-$
ring$to$social$classes$with$the$means,$tastes,$and$mobility$of$privilege,$or$
the$moral-ethical$perspective$of$world$citizenship$>e5g5,$Nussbaum$1996,$
Harvey$2000,$Beck$2002@,$the$sense$of$cosmopolitanism$I$utilize$here$
denotes$the$translocal$orientations$of$the$producers,$distributors,$and$
con-$sumers$of$cultural$products$who$navigate$overlapping and$
sometimes$conAlicting social$identities$>Robbins$1992,$Turino$2000@5$In$
short,$cos-$mopolitanism$is$a$set$of$ideologically$driven$orientations$that$
transcends$borders$>of$any$kind@$in$the$performance$of$particularly$
rooted$kinds$of$locality5$This$notion$of$locality$is$scalable$such$that$it$
can$mean$the$region$of$South$Asia,$the$Indian$nation-state,$the$Indian$
region$of$Maharashtra,$the$city$of$Mumbai,$the$suburb$of$Bandra,$the$
neighborhood$of$Pali$Hill,$and$so$forth5$As$such,$the$cosmopolitanism$of$
Colaba$in$Mumbai$is$inAlected$differently$than$the$cosmopolitanism$of$a$
village$in$Maharashtra,$or$the$cosmopolitanism$of$Hyde$Park$in$Chicago52$
This$scalability$in$the$definition$of$cosmopolitan$is$an$important$
reminder$that$music$does$not$create$itself;$it$is$created$by$people$who$
sometimes$perform$contradictory$sets$of$social$identities5$Viewing$
cosmopolitasdndian$cin-$ema$and$its$songs$have$always$been$translocally$
oriented,$and$thdvey$write$music$and$films$that$draw$from$different$
regions$of$South$Asia$as$much$or$more$than$they$draw$from$
international$sources5$As$such,$I$would$argue$that$it$makes$little$sense$to$
discuss$film$songs$as$being$on$a$trajectory$of$Westernization,$insofar$as$
the$songs$and$their$producers$have$always$already$been$cosmopolitan$in$
the$broadest$sense5$Indeed,$music$directors$have$just$as$consciously$
incorporated$the$Bengali$batiyali$or$Punjabi$bhangra$styles$into$film$
songs$as$they$have$incorporated$disco$or$heavy$metal5$Playback$singe5$rs$
like$Lata$Mangeshkar$and$Mohammed$Rafi$integrated$classical$and$folk$
styles$into$their$song$renditions$in$an$equally$mindful$way5$Composing$
or$performing$in$diverse$styles$most$often$fits$the$particu-$lar$narrative,$
spatial,$and$representational$needs$of$the$film$>e5g5,$music$underlying$a$
regional$folk$festival,$devotional$music$in$a$temple,$music$at$
a$cabaret$or$nightclub@$and$where$the$characters$situate$themselves$with$
regard$to$these$places$or$representations5$The$point$to$keep$in$mind$here$
is$that$many$songs$do$not$simply$fill$the$narrative$needs$of$a$film,$but$
beyond$their$narrative$context,$they$are$the$landmarks$of$popular$music$
in$the$Indian$nation,$regardless$of$their$style5$Accordingly,$it$is$
important$to$hear$the$songs$as$much$as$to$see$them$in$films,$as$most$
audiences$will$hear$songs$>especially$songs$that$they$like@$many$more$
times$than$they$will$ever$see$their$picturizations5$Consequently,$one$
might$say$that$the$aural$dimen-$sion$of$the$music$becomes$as$much$a$
component$of$individual$memories$as$it$is$of$social$memories$of$
particular$periods5$
THE%HERMENEUTIC%PROBLEM%OF%MULTIMEDIA%
Beyond$their$cosmopolitanism,$Indian$film$songs$present$another$inter-$
esting$hermeneutic$problemN$How$does$one$interpret$the$meanings$of$the$
music$of$film$songs$when$they$are$at$once$a$part$of$a$film$narrative,$
con-$tain$lyrics$that$might$reference$dialogue$or$character$development,$
have$strong$visual$dimensions$like$dance$and$cinematography,$have$
melodies$that$reference$cultural$and$religious$practices,$and/or$shift$the$
lyrics$and$vocal$timbre$in$ways$that$index$>or$point$to@$a$characterMs$
origins$or$social$class?$In$the$context$of$music$genres$like$Indian$film$
songs,$it$makes$little$sense$to$discuss$the$music and$the$meanings$it$
generates in$isolation$from$its$affiliated$media,$much$less$the$social$and$
historical$contexts$of$its$emergence5$Yet,$social-historical$multimedia$
analysis$presents$several$kinds$of$analytic$problems,$particularly$when$
disciplinary$constraints$are$in$play5$For$example,$when$it$comes$to$the$
kinds$of$significances$that$music$evokes,$musicologists$tend$to$focus$on$
musical$form,$harmony,$rhythm,$and$melody$to$a$much$greater$extent$
than$they$do$on$the$ extra-musical $components$of$a$song,$such$as$the$
movement$of$the$actors$or$the$cin-$ematography$of$the$scene5$Cinema$
scholars,$in$contrast,$tend$to$address$the$narrative$and$visual$content$to$
a$much$greater$extent$than$they$do$the$aural$or$musical$content5$There$
are$certainly$exceptions,$of$course,$but$nevertheless$there$is$a$somewhat$
surprising$dearth$of$holistic$analysis$of$multimedia5$This$lacuna$is$one$
key$issue$that$I$intend$to$address$in$this$book5$
From$a$cinema$studies$perspective,$the$hermeneutic$possibilities$of$a$
single$image$are$potentially$infinite5$What$are$the$analytic$implications$
of$adding$moving$images,$narrative,$and$a$soundtrack$to$the$mix?$In$
other$words,$how$might$we$theorize$the$roles$of$music$in$multimedia$
and$the$sorts$of$meanings$that$music$elicits?$The$theoretical$canon$for$
this$type$of$
analysis$resides$in$theatre$and$cinema$studies,$but$unfortunately,$film$
schol-$ars$have$a$strong$tendency$to$privilege$analysis$of$the$visual$
component$of$media,$often$barely$mentioning$the$sound$or$the$music,$
thus$reinforcing$GorbmanMs$>1987@$argument$that$the$soundtrack$is$
largely$ unheard $by$scholars,$if$not$audiences5$Yet,$there$is$a$small-but-
growing$body$of$litera-$ture$on$music$in$media,$drawing$from$film$music$
and$sound$studies$>e5g5,$Gorbman$1987,$Goodwin$1992,$Flinn$1992,$Chion$
1994@,$that$provides$many$great$insights$into$the$ways$in$which$
soundtracks$covertly$aid$the$production$of$meaning$in$multimedia$
contexts5$Nicholas$Cook$>1994@$has$pointed$out$some$of$the$manifold$
meanings$that$might$emerge$in$the$nexus$of$music$and$image$in$
advertising$films,$for$example5$Moreover,$the$role$of$music$in$multimedia$
is$frequently$naturalized$by$both$producers$and$audiences$to$the$extent$
that$the$visual$dimension$is$privileged$over$the$otherwise$unheard$aural$
dimension5$
Further$complicating$this$hermeneutic$problem$of$multimedia$are$the$
patterns$of$meaning$that$audiences$both$bring$to$anddsvsd$take$from$the$
audio-visual$integration$>Tagg$and$Clarida$2003@;$thus,$we$should$also$
acknowledge$the$potential$contingency$of$meaning$that$stems$from$indi-$
vidual$experience5$Individuals$who$are$physically$present$when$a$film$or$
song$is$being$broadcast$may$be$more$or$less$engaged$with$different$sen-$
sory$modalities$each$time$they$see$it$>e5g5,$they$might$be$eating$popcorn,$
distracted$by$the$person$sitting$next$to$them,$or$changing$the$channel@5$
Similarly,$listeners$who$encounter$a$song$decades$after$it$was$releassded$
might$laminate$additional$meanings$onto$it,$such$that$it$might$evoke$
memories$of$their$childhood,$or$remind$them$of$the$first$time$they$fell$in$
love,$or$act$as$an$index$of$a$particular$music$directorMs$era$>i5e5,$the$sound$
of$R5$D5$Burman$and/or$the$1970s$writ$large@54$Or$one$person$might$point$
out$a$particular$feature$of$a$song$>i5e5,$a$particular$rhythmic$figure$or$
vocal$inAlection@$that$another$person$had$never$noticed$despite$having$
heard$the$song$many$times5$From$a$phenomenological$perspective,$the$
interconnec-$tions$between$the$person$and$music,$including$the$affective$
quality$with$which$the$person$actively$brings$that$music$into$experience
what$Harris$Berger$>2010@$calls$ stance are$another$ground$out$of$
which$musical$meanings$arise5$From$the$perspective$of$music$production,$
any$song$is$both$a$product$of$and$a$response$to$the$experisdvence$of$
music$as$a$whole,$with$meanings$constantly$shifting$in$the$mediascape$
in$ways$that$produc-$ers$and$audiences$may$not$be$completely$aware$
>Huron$1989@5$Hence,$as$with$any$form$of$expressive$culture,$the$
interpretations$of$a$song$can$be$as$diverse$as$the$histories$and$
experiences$of$the$persons$who$encounter$it5$This$plenitude$of$
interpretive$possibilities$must$in$some$way$be$accounted$for$by$any$
multimedia$analysis5$
One$productive$way$to$address$this$hermeneutic$problem$of$music,$
meaning,$and$media$is$with$recourse$to$the$theory$of$sign$relations$
devel-$oped$by$Charles$Sanders$Peirce$>1916@5$Peircean$sign$theory$is$
undeniably$difficult$to$gloss$without$distorting$or$oversimplifying,$
especially$for$those$who$are$unfamiliar$with$his$analytic$language5$Thus,$
in$order$to$facilitate$an$understanding$of$my$argument$for$non-
specialists,$most$of$the$discus-$sion$oeircean$sign$theory$and$its$
theoretical$implications$can$be$found$in$the$endnotes$of$this$chapter5$In$
brief,$semiotic$analysis$is$a$framework$for$understanding$the$ways$that$
individuals$perceive$and$generate$mean-$ing$from$various$
>non-@denotational$sources$>i5e5,$the$pragmatic$dimension$of$language$
rather$than$the$semasdfency$of$meaning,$it$also$acknowledges$that$this$
association$may$not$occur$for$all$listeners$at$all$times,$or$may$occur$
with$more$or$less$speci-$ficity5$In$order$to$retain$maximal$clarity$with$
theoretical$rigor,$my$analysis$utilizes$only$a$portion$of$PeirceMs$
specialized$language$of$sign$theory,$par-$ticularly$the$nested$hierarchies$
of$signs$he$calls$icons,$indexes,$and$sym-$bols,$and$his$conception$of$
semiosis$discussed$below57$
FILMI%MEDIATION%OF%STYLE%
As$I$have$already$noted,$the$music$of$Indian$films$is$remarkably$
heteroge-$neous5$Despite$the$diversity$of$source$materials,$however,$many$
songs$are$readily$identifiable$as$film$songs,$even$to$casual$listeners,$on$
the$basis$of$particular$sounds,$styles,$and$forms$that$appear$with$some$
regularity5$Film$songs$have$been$one$of$the$dominant$recorded$musics$in$
India$since$the$inception$of$the$sound$film$in$the$1930s,$but$they$became$
the$hegemonic$genre$in$India$after$the$1940s5$Over$the$intervening$
decades,$Indian$music$directors$developed$ways$of$incorporating$diverse$
musical$materials$into$a$uniquely$Indian$musical$style$that$musicians,$
audiences,$and$cultural$critics$
have$labeled$filmi$>i5e5,$indexes$their$role$or$presence$in$a$film@5$It$is$
impor-$tant$to$emphasize$at$the$outset,$however,$that$the$sounds$and$
styles$of$film$songs$have$changed$over$time$as$various$musical$fashions$
from$India$and$abroad$have$been$incorporated$into$film$songs5$Thus,$
while$the$musi-$cal$content$and$style$of$film$songs$have$been$
dramatically$transformed$a$number$of$times,$the$compositional$practice$
of$music$directors mediat-$ing$musical$content$into$songs$that$they$
believe$their$audiences$will$want$to$hear has$remained$more$or$less$
contiguous5$
The$term$ film$song $is$a$categ5$$ory$label$that$is$applied$to$any$song$

that$appears$in$an$Indian$film,$irrespective$of$any$of$its$musical$features$
or$even$the$language$of$the$lyrics$>e5g5,$some$Hindi$film$songs$are$sung$in$
English,$inAlected$by$an$Urdu$or$Punjabi$lexicon,$etc5@5$Due$to$a$number$
of$con-$straints,$not$the$least$of$which$is$the$necessity$to$appeal$to$large,$
diverse$audiences,$music$directors$tend$to$make$certain$kinds$of$musical$
decisions$when$incorporating$various$genres$into$film$song,$such$that$
connoisseurs$would$not$deem$film$renditions$of$these$styles$or$genres$to$
be$ authentic5 $Thus,$when$these$genres$are$incorporated$into$a$film$
song,$listeners$are$likely$to$describe$them$as$filmi$>i5e5,$the$song$has$
musical$characteristics$that$would$enable$someone$to$identify$what$style$
or$genre$it$is$drawing$from,$yet$it$has$been$adapted$for$use$in$a$film@5$For$
example,$it$is$common$for$music$directors$to$borrow$Indian$folk$melodies,$
but$adapt$them$to$the$aesthetic$conventions$of$film$songs$by$adding$
orchestra$or$nonstandard$instruments,$changing$the$timbres$of$the$
vocalists,$applying$new$rhythmic$structures,$or$otherwise$transforming$
the$melody5$This$practice$of$adapta-$tion$of$a$non-film$song$into$a$film$
very$often,$but$not$always,$makes$the$song$identifiable$as$a$filmi$
rendition5$
While$the$label$filmi$is$often$used$in$a$strictly$descriptive$sense,$espe-$
cially$for$Hindi$speakers,$other$meanings$of$the$term$have$the$valence$of$
being$a$kind$of$inauthentic$mode$of$performance,$both$in$musical$and$
non-$musical$contexts5$Fne$might$call$a$romantic$relationship$filmi$if$it$
tends$toward$overblown$expressions$of$emotion$and$melodrama5$In$
addition$to$its$use$in$describing$the$adaptation$of$a$musical$style$into$a$
film$song,$the$term$filmi$can$also$describe$stylistic$approaches$of$other$
genres$of$music$that$do$not$appear$in$an$Indian$film5$That$is,$
composisdctions$that$uti-$lize$some$of$the$more$stereotypical$elements$of$
film$songs$might$be$referred$to$as$filmi$because$of$their$vocal$style,$
orchestration,$or$accompaniment5$These$filmi$inAluences$on$non-film$
genres$at$times$provoke$expressions$of$derision$or$anxiety5$For$example,$
cultural$critics$find$the$incorporation$of$film$song$elements$into$local$
folk$musics$a$troubling$source$of$commercial$inAluence$on$folk$expression,$
if$not$also$an$inauthentic$folk$performance5$Indeed,$music$directors$often$
borrow$ideas$from$Indian$folk$musicians,$and$
folk$musicians$borrow$ideas$from$film$songs,$which$are,$in$turn,$
borrowed$once$again$by$other$musical$traditions58$While$cultural$critics$
in$India$and$elsewhere$have$decried$these$borrowings$as$an$ostensible$
feedback$loop$of$musical$inauthenticity,$this$process$accentuates$the$
ways$in$which$musi-$cal$traditions$resist$stasis$and$utilize$new$resources$
that$become$available,$even$as$they$retain$core$sets$of$values$that$provide$
a$site$for$ongoing$conti-$nuity$>Spiller$2008,$Bakan$2011@5$
One$way$to$address$this$issue$of$a$filmi$sound$and$style$in$Indian$film$
and$non-film$songs$is$in$terms$of$a$practice$I$will$call$stylistic$mediation5$
By$stylistic$mediation,$I$mean$the$production$of$a$musical$representation$
in$which$material$from$one$set$of$conventions$is$framed$according$to$the$
values$of$a$different$set$of$conventions,$even$as$this$material$retains$some$
aspects$of$its$original$content$that$point$back$to$>index@$its$previous$
usages5$In$the$context$of$film$adaptations$of$the$Sufi$qawwali,$for$
example,$music$directors$retain$certain$aspects$of$this$musical$style$that$
point$to$this$devo-$tional$song$genre$through$musical$features$like$poetic$
forsdsdm,$a$particular$instrumentation,$clapping$by$the$ensemble,$and$
vocal$style5$Audiences$also$recognize$that$these$qawwalis$have$been$
mediated$for$a$filmic$context$by$music$directors$who$might$incorporate$
other$elements$such$as$non-Indian$instruments$and$styles,$chord$
progressions,$and$pre-composed$instrumen-$tal$interludes$>see$Morcom$
2007,$Manuel$2008@5$
Although$I$use$the$term$ mediation $in$this$book$primarily$in$a$semi-$

otic$sense,$it$is$worth$noting$that$there$are$other$important$theoretical$
conceptions$of$mediation$that$are$also$pertinent$to$a$discussion$of$film$
songs5$In$particular,$mediation$can$refer$to$the$encounters$of$cultural$
prac-$tices$like$music,$dance,$or$theatre$with$systems$of$mass$
communication,$and$the$ways$in$which$these$cultural$practices$are$
shaped$by$these$encoun-$ters$>e5g5,$Adorno$and$Horkheimer$1973,$Manuel$
1993,$Auslander$1999@5$Often,$this$critical$theory/mass$communications$
perspective$on$mediation$leads$to$theoretical$assessments$inAlected$by$the$
anxieties$surrounding$the$production$of$culture$as$commodity$in$
capitalist$economic$systems5$These$perspectives$also$address$the$social$
consequences$that$stem$from$this$capi-$talist$production5$This$sense$of$
mediation$is$certainly$relevant$to$a$discus-$sion$of$film$song,$and$I$
address$this$outlook$from$time$to$time$in$this$book,$as$the$commercial$
nature$of$film$song$production$yields$certain$kinds$of$constraints$on$
music$directors$and$the$music$itself5$
I$wish$sdfster-Jones$2011@5$Something$that$is$a$sign$for$one$person$may$
not$operate$in$the$same$ways$for$another$personN$One$person$might$
identify$a$musical$feature$>e5g5,$a$rhythm,$a$timbre,$an$inAlection@$in$a$
song$and$make$msdvusical$or$cultural$associations$with$it,$while$another$
person$might$not$recognize$that$element$and/or$make$different$sets$of$
associations5$Everything$in$human$experience$is$necessarily$mediated$by,$
among$other$things,$sensory$perceptions,$social$conventions$and$
practices,$individual$human$experiences,$and$memories5$By$extension,$
any$adapta-$tion$of$the$characteristics$of$one$set$of$styles,$genres,$or$
practices$in$terms$of$the$values$of$another$set$of$styles,$genres,$or$
practices$can$therefore$be$described$as$a$kind$of$mediation5$Hence$
mediation$operates$at$the$creative$nexus$between$iconicity$and$
indexicality,$insofar$as$mediations$necessarily$bear$the$traces$of$their$
earlier$incarnatiosdvns5$
There$are$countless$examples$of$musical$mediations$of$one$musical$style$
by$another$in$music$genres$around$the$world5$For$example,$the$sounds$
and$musical$practices$of$Alamenco$have$been$frequently$mediated$in$
Hindi$film$songs5$As$a$Spanish$folk$genre$locally$associated$with$Gypsies$
>among$other$ethnic$groups@,$Alamenco$is$itself$a$cosmopolitan$genre$of$
music$and$dance$that$mediates$a$variety$of$disparate$musical$traditions,$
including$Western$and$Arab$folk$traditions5$Practitioners$of$this$music$
genre$interpreted$vari-$ous$music$systems$in$such$a$way$that,$over$time,$
they$became$a$distinct$set$of$recognizable$practices$in$themselves5$Iconic$
indexes$of$Alamenco$have$long$been$present$in$film$songs,$dating$back$at$
least$to$the$1940s,$and$it$was$incorporated$into$the$pool$of$resources$used$
by$Indian$music$directors5$I$would$speculate$that$there$are$a$couple$of$
reasons$for$this5$For$instance,$the$Phrygian$mode$that$indexes$Alamenco$
happens$to$also$be$the$scalar$pat-$tern$of$one$of$the$most$prominent$
rāgas$in$both$Indian$classical$music$and$film$song,$Rāg$Bhairavi5$It$is$
worth$speculating$that$the$popularity$of$this$rāga$in$an$Indian$context$
would$make$the$transference$of$Alamenco$palat-$able$to$Indian$ears5$This$
suitability$of$Alamenco$also$extends$to$the$use$of$harmony$in$film$songs5$
Indian$composers$as$a$general$rule$did$not$base$their$compositions$on$a$
conception$of$functional$or$chordal$harmony5$Melodies$were$far$more$
likely$to$be$based$on$the$compositional$norms$of$the$clas-$sical$rāga$
system$or$borrow$from$any$one$of$the$myriad$folk$conventions5$Until$the$
1970s,$harmonies$provided$by$a$keyboard,$guitar,$or$bass$line$were$
muted$in$the$recording$mix$since$music$directors$and$arrangers$believed$
that$their$audiences$had$no$interest$in$them5$As$Alison$Arnold$>1991@$has$
suggested,$this$approach$to$mixing$seems$to$be$borne$out$by$audience$
desires$for$uncomplicated$ music $accompanying$the$ song $>i5e5,$the$
vocal$melody@5$Until$very$recently,$harmonies$that$would$be$utilized$in$a$
film$song$were$likely$laminated$onto$the$song$only$after$the$melody$was$
composed,$as$opposed$to$composing$the$song$with$harmony$in$mind5$As$
a$result,$the$system$of$cadences$>i5e5,$musical$tension$and$release@$that$
emerged$was$sig-$nificantly$different$from$the$functional$harmony$that$
operates$within$many$Western$contexts5$To$a$Western$ear,$one$might$say$
that$the$harmonies$used$in$film$songs$have$a$kind$of$ unexpected $
quality$about$them5$Chord$pro-$gressions$based$on$the$Phrygian$mode,$
especially$chords$that$utilize$the$built-in$dissonance$of$the$minor$second$
scale$degree,$are$fairly$common$in$film$songs5$Insofar$as$Phrygian/
Bhairavi$is$one$of$the$most$important$modes$used$for$composing$song$
melodies,$building$chords$in$Bhairavi$fits$the$harmonic$conventions$of$
Alamenco,$and$Indian$audiences$would$only$rarely$have$any$
expectacsdsdcsddstions$of$harmonic$tension$and$release5$
Flamenco$sounds$in$film$songs$might$be$present$in$fairly$subtle$ways$
beyond$melody$and$harmony5$These$might$include$styles$of$guitar$strum-$
ming,$vocal$timbre,$melodic$ornamentation,$hand-clapping,$the$use$of$
particular$rhythms,$and$the$use$of$castanets5$Many$of$these$elements$are$
fairly$common$in$film$songs5$Yet,$when$the$signs$of$Alamenco$are$present$
within$a$given$song,$it$is$not$always$with$the$intention$of$indexing$Ala-$
menco$writ$large;$the$Alamenco$sounds$might$nonetheless$be$subtly$pres-$
ent$in$the$song$and$recognizable$to$some$listeners5$This$Alamenco$
inAlection$would$include$songs$like$ Jab$tak$hai$jaan $> While$thereMs$still$
life$in$me @$in$Sholay$>1975@$and$ Satarangi$re > Seven-colored$one @$in$
Dil$Se$>1998@;$whereas$other$contemporary$songs$draw$more$explicitly$
from$Alamenco,$such$as$ Senorita $from$Zindagi$Na$Milegi$Dobara$>2011@,$
a$song$that$medi-$ates$a$Gypsy$KingsM$mediation$of$Alamenco5$
As$I$noted$above,$it$is$important$to$keep$in$mind$that$there$is$always$a$
certain$degree$of$indeterminacy$built$into$these$potential$meanings,$
primarily$because$music$generally$lacks$denotational$content5$Something$
like$hand-clapping$migdsggagystedsvm$of$denotational$content,$among$
other$things@$is$pre-$cisely$the$strength$of$a$conception$of$mediation$built$
upon$a$foundation$
!%18%$%Bollywood$Sounds$scsdc
of$Peircean$semiosis5$The$scalability$of$the$sign$relations$can$account$for$
virtually$any$kind$of$meaning$that$might$emerge$in$human$encounters$
with$music$or$any$other$phenomenon$in$their$social,$historical,$and$
mate-$rial$environments5$
RESEARCH%METHODS%
My$first$exposure$to$film$songs$came$in$1996$in$Varanasi$as$I$began$my$
study$of$the$tabla,$an$Indian$percussion$instrument$used$in$Hindustani$
classical$music5$Like$other$students$of$art$musics,$I$made$the$mistake$of$
ignoring,$if$not$disparaging,$the$omnipresence$of$film$songs$in$public$
spaces,$which$was$my$unfortunate$loss$since$this$was$an$important$
period$of$musical$transi-$tion$in$Hindi$language$music$and$cinema5$I$was$
more$formally$introduced$to$Hindi$films$as$a$graduate$student$in$one$of$
the$first$university$courses$in$the$United$States$that$focused$on$Indian$
cinema5$As$I$began$more$care-$ful$research$into$film$songs$at$the$end$of$
the$1990s,$it$became$apparent$that$with$the$exception$of$Alison$ArnoldMs$
>1991@$Ph5D5$dissertation,$there$was$little$writing$on$the$music$of$film$
songs$and$the$people$and$practices$involved$in$its$production5$While$it$
was$not$explicitly$the$topic$of$my$later$dissertation$research,$I$
nevertheless$had$to$grapple$with$the$hegemony$of$film$songs$in$order$to$
understand$the$operation$of$musical$value$in$the$marketplace5$A$great$
deal$of$my$education$in$film$song,$its$history,$and$its$meanings$came$
through$conversations$with$music$store$owners$and$cus-$tomers$in$
Bhopal$and$Mumbai5$From$these$connoisseurs,$I$learned$many$anecdotes$
about$particular$films,$singers,$and$music$directors,$and$perhaps$most$
important,$their$arguments$about$what$makes$a$song,$its$music,$and$its$
lyrics$ great5 $I$have$discussed$film$songs$and$their$meanings$with$many$
other$fans$who$may$not$have$had$a$specialized$language$to$talk$about$
par-$ticular$musical$features,$but$who$certainly$had$distinct$
interpretations$and$evaluations$of$particular$songs,$features$of$songs$
>e5g5,$the$lyrics,$the$beat,$the$picturization@,$and$the$memories$and$
experiences$they$had$attached$to$songs5$These$fans$also$had$an$aesthetic$
sense$of$the$importance$of$par-$ticular$films$and$songs,$primarily$when$it$
came$to$songs$of$the$ evergreen$era $>i5e5,$songs$of$the$1950s$and$M60s@$and$
the$kinds$of$values$this$era$was$purported$to$represent$in$contrast$to$
contemporary$songs whatever$and$whenever$that$ contemporary $
might$be$in$their$minds5$Most$of$these$fans$can$recall$hundreds,$if$not$
thousands,$of$film$songs$and$can$easily$reproduce$many$of$their$melodies$
and$lyrics5$I$supplemented$these$fan$per-$spectives$by$reading$newspaper$
and$magazine$reviews$of$songs,$by$reading$historical$retrospectives$on$
particular$artists,$by$watching$music$channels$
Bollywood$SoundS$!19$%dev
like$MTV$and$Channel$V,$and$by$watching$many$Hindi$films$both$at$
home$and$in$the$theatre5$
By$the$end$of$the$first$decade$of$the$2000s,$film$song$had$become$the$
focus$of$more$scholarship$>e5g5,$Ranade$2006,$Morcom$2007,$Booth$2008@,$
but$there$was$still$no$comprehensive$discussion$of$film$songs$from$a$
broadly$historical$perspective5$As$I$noted$in$the$preface,$there$has$been$a$
recent$upsurge$in$the$number$of$biographies$about$early$music$directors$
and$songs,$but$these$are$largely$unstructured$anecdotal$accounts$that$
are$oriented$to$the$fans$of$particular$singers$and$music$directors,$with$
little,$if$any,$social-historical$context$or$musical$analysis5$Nevertheless,$
these$biog-$raphies$were$useful$in$unpacking$the$manifold$meanings$of$
film$songs$from$the$perspectives$of$their$fans$and$the$lives$of$their$
producers5$In$order$to$augment$my$understanding$of$contemporary$
production$practices,$I$inter-$viewed$a$number$of$musicians,$arrangers,$
singers,$music$directors,$studio$engineers,$and$journalists5$In$contrast$to$
fan$accounts$of$film$songs,$many$of$the$people$directly$involved$in$the$
production$of$film$songs$are$openly$dismissive$of$the$genre$and$see$it$as$
little$more$than$a$way$to$make$a$living$in$the$studio,$and$as$a$
springboard$to$making$ better $music5$Many$of$their$perspectives$were$
inAlected$by$cynical$discourses$about$what$they$imagined$audiences$
wanted$to$hear$in$Hindi$films5$Not$surprisingly,$these$producer$
perspectives$were$frequently$at$odds$with$fansM$points$of$view,$but$they$
nevertheless$provided$many$useful$insights$into$the$production$process$
that$have$been$incorporated$into$this$book5$
Of$course,$no$single$investigation$of$film$songs$can$cope$with$all$their$
possible$meanings$and$interpretations,$but$I$have$attempted$to$represent$
some$of$these$in$the$selection$of$the$films$and$songs$that$I$discuss$in$each$
chapter5$Though$I$still$would$not$consider$myself$a$connoisseur$of$Hindi$
film$song,$I$have$nevertheless$developed$a$holistic$understanding$of$the$
meanings$and$values$of$film$songs$in$their$production,$historical,$social,$
and$musical$contexts$from$multiple$perspectives5$
CHAPTER%OUTLINES%
In$order$to$make$my$argument$about$mediation$and$musical$cosmopol-$
itanism,$I$survey$a$large$span$of$time$>roughly$1943 2013@,$over$which$
thousands$of$songs$have$been$composed,$recorded,$and$distributed5$The$
chapters$in$this$book$are$roughly$chronological$and$separated$into$six$
sec-$tions$of$approximately$10$to$15$years$each$on$the$basis$of$a$cultural$
land-$mark$>e5g5,$Indian$independence,$economic$liberalization@$or$a$
landmark$recording$>e5g5,$Aradhana$in$1969,$Dil$Chahta$Hai$in$2001@5$
Each$chapter$
begins$with$an$analysis$of$a$song$that$exemplifies$that$period$and$then$
provides$a$brief$historical$context$coupled$with$a$discussion$of$films$and$
broadcast$media$of$that$era5$After$addressing$some$aspect$of$film$song$in$
more$detail,$such$as$the$role$of$the$music$director,$the$recording$pro-$
cess,$technology,$playback$singers,$or$language,$each$chapter$provides$a$
biographical$sketch$and$musical$details$on$one$or$two$music$directors$
and$then$concludes$with$a$discussion$of$one$or$more$landmark$songs$of$
that$music$director$that$connect$in$some$way$with$the$historical$and/or$
cultural$issues$addressed$in$that$chapter5$
Chapter$2$examines$the$origins$of$Indian$film$song$in$the$late$colonial$
era$and$the$musical$characteristics$of$early$film$songs$>roughly$1931 $
1947@5$I$begin$the$chapter$with$an$analysis$of$the$Anil$Biswas$song$
Dheere$dheere$aa$re$badal $> Come$gently$oh$clouds @$from$the$film$
Kismet$>1943@;$then$I$contextualize$this$song$through$a$brief$description$of$
the$historical$and$social$movements$that$led$to$Indian$independence$in$
1947$and$the$films$and$musical$practices$of$the$silent$era5$After$
discussing$the$inAlu-$ential$actor-singers$Noorjehan$and$K5$L5$Saigal,$the$
chapter$presents$the$formal$dimension$of$film$songs,$more$specifically,$
the$conventions$of$the$mukhṛā-antarā$song$form$that$has$been$a$
relatively$stable$melodic$struc-$ture$for$Indian$film$songs5$In$order$to$
highlight$the$mediated$nature$of$film$songs$>in$multiple$senses@,$I$describe$
the$production$processes$of$songs$and$how$their$discourses$fit$into$Indian$
filmmaking$as$a$whole5$I$then$call$attention$to$the$roles$of$the$music$
directors$and$arrangers$who$are$respon-$sible$for$composing$these$songs5$
The$chapter$ends$with$a$discussion$of$the$biography$and$characteristics$
of$the$music$director$Naushad$Ali,$his$inno-$vations$in$form,$
orchestration,$and$recording,$and$an$analysis$of$two$of$his$songs,$ Awaz$
de$kahan$hai $> Call$out$to$me,$where$are$you? @$from$the$film$Anmol$
Ghadi$>1946@$and$ Jab$dil$hi$toot$gaya $> When$my$heart$is$broken @$from$
the$film$Shahjehan$>1946@5$
Chapter$3$begins$with$an$analysis$of$the$C5$Ramchandra$song$ Aana$
meri$jaan$555$Sunday$ke$Sunday $> Come$to$me$every$Sunday,$my$love @$
frosdvm$the$film$Shehnai$>1947@,$and$then$addresses$the$issues$that$IndiaMs$
found-$ers$faced$in$the$first$decade$of$Indian$independence$>roughly$
1947 1957@5$I$focus$in$particular$on$the$Indian$leadersM$deep$ambivalence$
about$the$cos-$mopolitanism$implicated$in$mass$media$>e5g5,$film$and$film$
songs@$in$the$nation-building$project$that$continued$after$independence5$
After$address-$ing$the$general$musical$characteristics$of$this$period,$I$
discuss$early$music$technology$and$the$emergence$of$playback$singing$as$
exempldsified$by$the$superstar$singers$Mohammed$Rafi$and$Lata$
Mangeshkar5$I$suggest$that$in$their$mediations$of$various$vocal$styles$of$
South$Asia,$Lata$and$Rafi$largely$established$the$vocal$conventions$for$
the$next$50$years$of$film$song5$After$
analyzing$LataMs$classic$song$ Duniya$mein$hum$aaye$hain $> We$have$

come$into$this$world @$from$the$film$Mother$India$>1957@,$the$chapter$
continues$with$a$discussion$of$the$music$director$duo$Shankar-Jaikishan$
and$a$narra-$tive$and$musical$analysis$of$their$songs$ Awara$hoon $> I$
am$a$vagabond @$from$the$film$Awara$>1951@$and$ Mera$joota$hai$Japani $
> My$shoes$are$Japanese @$from$the$film$Shree$420$>1955@5$I$suggest$that$
these$songs$are$emblematic$of$a$particular$conception$of$the$Indian$
nation-building$project$in$the$first$decade$following$independence5$
Chapter$4$is$centered$on$the$issue$of$language$in$Hindi$films5$I$begin$
with$a$musical$analysis$of$the$S5$D5$Burman$song$ Hum$aap$ki$aankhon$
mein $> What$if$I$were$to$give$my$heart$to$your$eyes @$from$the$film$
Pyaasa$>1957@,$and$then$discuss$the$historical$cxcvontext$of$India$from$
roughly$1957$to$19695$I$describe$the$Indian$ liberation $of$Goa$from$
Portugal$and$the$critical$importance$of$Goan$musicians$in$developing$the$
sound$of$Hindi$film$song$through$their$familiarity$with$Western$
instruments$and$har-$mony,$as$well$as$their$knowledge$of$international$
music$styles$like$jazz$and$rock5$I$go$on$to$illustrate$the$issues$
surrounding$language$in$Hindi$films$and$songs$in$light$of$the$
cosmopolitan$orientations$of$lyricists$and$their$audiences5$This$leads$to$a$
discussion$of$the$ghazal,$an$important$lyrical$form$of$Hindi$film$songs$
until$the$1970s,$followed$by$an$analysis$of$a$clas-$sic$ghazal$of$the$1960s,$
Shakeel$BadayuniMs$ Koi$sagar$dil$ko$behlata$nahin $> No$amount$of$
liquor$can$distract$my$heart @$from$the$film$Dil$Diya$Dard$Liya$>1966@5$
The$chapter$ends$with$a$discussion$of$the$music$director$S5$D5$Burman,$
his$orientation$toward$melody$>over$lyrics@,$and$two$of$his$songs,$ Piya$
tose$naina$lage$re $> Beloved,$my$eyes$have$met$yours @$from$the$film$
Guide$>1965@$and$ Roop$tera$mastana $> Your$intoxicating$beauty @$from$
the$film$Aradhana$>1969@5$This$latter$song,$I$argue,$sets$the$stage$for$the$
sound$of$1970s$and$M80s$film$songs,$most$specifged$to$the$birth$of$
Bangladesh$in$1971,$and$an$18-month$imposition$of$PresidentMs$Rule$by$
IndiaMs$then-Prime$Minister$Indira$Gandhi$in$1975$in$a$histori-$cal$
moment$referred$to$as$ The$Emergency5 $In$this$era$of$film$song,$the$
singers$Kishore$Kumar$and$Asha$Bhosle$rose$to$dominance$and$lent$their$
voices$to$the$innovative$music$director$R5$D5$Burman,$who$experimented$
with$any$number$of$sounds$in$mediating$rock$and$jazz$into$film$songs5$
Following$a$discussion$of$the$song$ Yeh$dosti$hum$nahin$todenge $> We$
will$never$end$this$friendship @$from$the$film$Sholay$>1975@,$the$chapter$
goes$on$to$discuss$the$music$director$duo$Laxmikant-Pyarelal$who$also$
dominated$this$period5$I$then$describe$the$qawwali$film$genre$by$way$of$
the$song$ Pardah$hai$pardah $> The$veil$between$us @$rendered$by$
Mohammed$Rafi5$The$Sufism$embodied$in$the$devotional$genre$of$
qawwali,$I$suggest,$becomes$one$of$the$important$streams$of$film$songs$in$
the$contemporary$era5$The$chapter$concludes$with$an$analysis$of$the$
song$ Ek$do$teen $> One$two$three @$that$illustrates$many$of$the$musical$
and$visual$conventions$of$this$transitional$moment$of$film$songs5$
Chapter$6$begins$with$an$analysis$of$the$song$ Kehna$hi$kya $> What$is$

there$to$say? @$from$the$film$Bombay$>1995@$as$a$way$to$introduce$some$
of$the$new$sound$aesthetic$practices$that$began$to$emerge$through$the$
work$of$the$musicsdv$director$A5$R5$Rahman5$I$suggest$that$in$this$period$
>roughly$1988$to$2000@,$new$technological$and$recording$practices$altered$
the$com-$positional$approach$to$cosmopolitanism$in$Indian$film$song,$
especially$as$audiences$became$more$familiar$with$international$styles$by$
way$of$the$satellite$television$broadcasts$that$became$available$in$the$
early$1990s5$In$addition,$the$new$technological$affordances$of$this$era$led$
to$the$birth$of$ Bollywood $as$a$marketing$category$for$international$
audiences,$as$well$as$the$musical$characteristics$of$what$Gregory$Booth$
>2008@$calls$ New$Bollywood5 $Hindi$films$underwent$a$significant$change$
as$well,$as$the$new$genre$of$ family $films$emerged$in$time$to$be$
marketed$to$global$audiences5$These$films$brought$new$kinds$of$globally$
oriented$cosmopolitanism,$which$I$address$through$analyses$of$the$songs$
Didi$tera$devar$deewana $> Sister,$your$brother-in-law$is$crazy$in$love @$
from$Hum$Aapke$Hain$Koun$5$5$5$p$>1994@$and$ Tujhe$dekha$to$yeh$jaana$
sanam $> I$saw$you$and$I$knew$it$was$love @$from$Dilwale$Dulhania$Le$
Jayenge$>1995@5$But$this$cosmopolitan$shift$did$not$simply$come$from$
abroadN$Different$musical$resources$began$to$perme-$ate$Hindi$film$songs$
from$South$India$by$way$of$the$music$director$A5$R5$Rahman,$whose$
musical$style$led$to$new$production$practices$and$sounds5$The$chapter$
ends$with$a$discussion$of$the$song$ Chal$chaiyya$chaiyya $> Walk$in$the$
shadows @$from$the$film$Dil$Se$>1998@$and$the$dimensions$of$
contemporary$film$songs$that$it$foreshadows5$
Chapter$7$covers$the$latest$period$of$film$song,$roughly$2001$to$20135$It$
begins$with$an$analysis$of$the$Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy$song$ Woh$ladki$hai$
kahan $> Where$is$that$girl? @$from$the$film$Dil$Chahta$Hai$>2001@,$which$
was$a$precursor$to$the$ multiplex$film $that$debuted$in$the$mid-2000s5$
After$brieAly$describing$music$distribution$in$the$2000s 2010s$>i5e5,$
through$YouTube$and$mobile$phones@,$I$go$on$to$point$to$the$new$
practices$of$film$song$production$in$the$post-orchestra$era$that$include$
the$rise$of$new$production$roles,$recording$practices,$and$singers5$The$
chapter$then$
discusses$the$cosmopolitanism$of$local$musdvdsvic$genres$that$are$an$
important$presence$in$contemporary$film$song,$including$the$Punjabi$
bhangra$and$its$mediation$for$the$2006$film$Rang$De$Basanti,$the$Hindi$
film$song$remix,$and$Indipop5$The$chapter$concludes$with$a$discussion$of$
the$biography$and$musical$characteristics$of$the$music$director$trio$
Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy,$who$have$changed$the$trajectory$of$the$sound$of$
Bollywood$songs,$and$their$soundtrack$for$the$film$Bhaag$Milkha$Bhaag$
>2013@5$
Finally,$in$chapter$8,$I$return$to$a$discussion$of$cosmopolitanism$and$
mediation,$and$make$some$predictions$on$how$future$Bollywood$films$
might$sound5$
!%24%$%Bollywood$Sounds$sec
CHAPTER$2
Film$Songs$at$the$End$of$thesdvsds$
Colonial$
Era$and$the$Emergence$of$Fdvdsilmi$
Style$
T he$film$Kismet$>Gyan$Mukherjee$1943@$features$the$actor$Ashok$
Kumar$in$a$double$role$as$the$petty$thief$Shekhar$and$his$long-lost$
brother$Mohan5$In$the$film,$Shekhar$encounters$a$former$theatre$owner$
who$worked$his$talented$daughter$Rani$>Mumtaz$Shanti@$so$hard$that$she$
is$crippled5$She$requires$surgery which$she$cannot$afford in$order$to$
regain$the$ability$to$walk5$Indrajeet,$the$villainous$new$owner$of$the$the-$
ater,$has$forced$Rani$and$her$father$into$a$state$of$penury$from$which$
they$cannot$escape5$As$Shekhar$and$Rani$fall$in$love,$Shekhar$desires$to$
help$her$escape$both$debt$and$her$disability,$but$he$further$complicates$
her$life$by$giving$her$a$necklace$that$he$has$stolen$from$IndrajeetMs$wife5$
Rani$wears$this$necklace$to$a$function$without$knowing$its$origin$and$is$
accused$of$stealing$it5$Shekhar$admits$to$the$police$that$he$took$the$
necklace,$is$arrested,$escapes$custody,$raids$IndrajeetMs$house$again$to$
steal$the$money$to$pay$for$RaniMs$surgery,$and$is$arrested$yet$again5$
Shekhar$is$acquitted$when$it$comes$to$light$that$he$is$IndrajeetMs$long-lost$
son,$which$resolves$many$of$the$outstanding$conAlicts$in$the$film5$Kismet$
is,$at$once,$one$of$the$biggest$hits$in$Hindi$cinema$of$the$1940s,$the$
moment$of$the$actor-singer$Ashok$KumarMs$superstardom,$one$of$the$
earliest$films$to$incorporate$the$ lost-and-found $theme,$and$one$of$the$
first$films$to$present$a$thief$as$a$central$character,$the$source$of$a$moral$
panic$about$the$cinematic$glorifica-$tion$of$crime$>Rajadhyaksha$and$
Willemen$1999,$298@5$
The$song$ Dheere$dheere$aa$re$badal555mera$bulbul$so$raha$hai $> Oh,$

clouds$come$quietly,$my$nightingale$is$sleeping @$>figure$251$and$video$251@$
Shekhar$>Ashok$Kumar@$sings$in$the$window$after$placing$the$stolen$necklace$on$
the$sleep-$ing$Rani$>Mumtaz@$in$the$song$ Dheere$dheere $>Kismet$_1943`@5$
Video%2=1^% Dheere$dheere$aa$re$badal $
plays$a$central$role$in$the$film5$The$music$director$Anil$Biswas$wrote$two$
versions$of$the$song5$The$first$appears$when$Rani$sings$a$lullaby$to$her$
sister$Leela$>Chandraprabha@,$which$is$overheard$by$Shekhar$through$his$
window$in$an$upstairs$room5$Later$in$the$film,$Shekhar$sings$the$same$
song$to$Rani$who$has$fallen$asleep$on$her$balcony$as$she$awaits$his$
return5$As$Shekhar$sings,$he$gently$places$the$stolen$necklace$around$her$
throat,$addressing$his$song$to$the$dark$clouds$in$the$sky$and$entreating$
them$to$move$gently$past$without$waking$his$sleeping$love5$Shortly$after$
he$departs,$Rani$awak-$ens$to$find$the$necklace$and,$in$song,$entreats$the$
same$clouds$to$reveal$who$has$left$this$necklace$for$her5$Her$song$is$again$
overheard$by$Shekhar,$confirming$her$romantic$interest$in$him5$As$the$
lovers$sing,$the$picturiza-$tion$brieAly$Alashes$to$images$of$quickly$moving$
clouds,$which$are$indexed$musically$in$the$fast$tempo$>~164$bpm@$of$the$
song5$
Characteristic$of$songs$from$this$period,$Anil$BiswasMs$composition$has$
fairly$sparse$orchestration$of$strings,$Alutes,$and$tabla$that$at$no$point$
conAlicts$with$the$centrality$of$the$voice5$The$vocal$melody$is$not$based$
on$any$particular$rāga,$but$it$is$suggestive$of$rāga-like$modes5$
Interestingly,$the$mode$on$which$the$first$part$of$the$song$melody$is$
based$gradually$modulates$to$another$mode$in$the$second$half$of$the$
song5$The$shift$from$minor$sixth$scale$degree$to$an$alternation$between$
major$and$minor$sixth,$coupled$with$a$shift$from$minor$seventh$to$major$
seventh$in$the$latter$half$of$the$song,$accentuates$this$change5$ Dheere$
dheere $uses$the$character-$istic$mukhṛā-antarā$form$of$film$songs$>see$
below@,$but$this$shift$in$mode$in$the$middle$of$the$same$song$is$unusual5$
The$vocal$line$has$few$melodic$ornaments$and$stays$almost$entirely$
within$an$octave$of$the$singersM$mid-$dle$register5$As$was$common$
practice$in$film$songs$until$the$1950s,$the$entire$orchestra$plays$the$
melody$in$octaves$with$the$singer$to$give$the$mel-$ody$extra$emphasis$in$
the$recording5$The$melodic$simplicity$and$lullaby-like$approach$suit$both$
the$song$situation$and$the$singing$conventions$of$the$time5$Yet,$the$
singersM$voices$are$noticeably$weaker$and$less$supple$than$those$of$the$
professional$playback$singers$who$would$come$to$dominate$film$songs$
just$a$few$years$later$in$the$1940s;$in$this$instance,$the$upper$registers$of$
both$singers$sound$a$little$strained5$Indeed,$this$is$reinforced$by$the$fact$
that$Ashok$Kumar$sings$the$film$version$of$this$song,$whereas$Arun$
Kumar$sings$the$gramophone$version5$In$the$accompaniment,$one$can$
hear$the$orchestra$playing$a$double-time$arpeggio$figure$that$adds$
energy$to$the$background$and$propels$the$song$forward5$Despite$the$
restricted$frequency$range$of$the$recording,$one$can$also$sense,$but$not$
hear,$the$upper$harmon-$ics$of$a$string$bass$that$help$to$provide$
additional$momentum$to$the$song5$A$gorgeous$violin$countermelody$
adds$melodic$tension$to$the$refrain$of$the$song,$but$it$is$relatively$low$in$
the$recording$mix5$Percussion$is$also$very$low$in$the$mix,$and$only$the$
tabla$pitch$tuned$to$the$fundamental$note$is$consistently$audible5$The$
song$clocks$in$at$a$little$over$three$minutes,$just$long$enough$to$fit$on$a$
10-inch,$78$rpm$record5$
In$addition$to$this$popular$lullaby,$Kismet$also$famously$features$the$
nationalist$song$ Door$hato$ai$duniya$walo,$Hindustan$hamara$hai $> Go$
away$foreigners,$India$is$oursp @$>video$252@5$Depicted$as$a$song$at$a$stage$
show,$ Door$hato $transparently$calls$for$the$end$of$colonial$rule$in$
India5$The$lyrics$were$written$by$Kavi$Pradeep,$a$poet$who$became$
famous$as$a$nationalist$lyricist$in$Hindi$films$in$the$wake$of$the$Quit$
India$movement$of$19425$While$the$song$was$clearly$aimed$at$the$British$
presence$in$India,$the$narrative$context$in$Kismet$resorts$to$the$rather$
obvious$subterfuge$of$referring$to$these$ foreigners $as$the$Japanese$
rather$than$the$British,$thus$endsabling$the$film$to$get$by$the$
Britishdscsdc-controlled$film$censor$board5$
Both$the$film$and$music$of$Kismet$exemplify$a$point$just$before$a$criti-$
cal$moment$of$transition$for$Indian$filmmaking,$not$only$because$India$
THe$eMerGence$of$FILMI$STyle$!27$%
Video$252N$ Door$hatao$duniyawalo$ko $
was$to$gain$its$independence$from$England$just$a$few$years$later,$but$
also$because$it$was$produced$in$the$period$just$before$the$emergence$of$
the$freelance$system$that$largely$replaced$the$studio$system$of$film$
production$at$the$end$of$the$1940s5$The$consequences$of$this$transition$in$
filmmak-$ing$would$come$to$inAlect$the$content,$practices,$and$music$of$
Indian$films$throughout$the$period$of$ Old$Bollywood $>roughly$1940
1994,$accord-$ing$to$Booth$2008@5$In$this$chapter,$I$examine$the$music$of$
early$Hindi$films,$paying$particular$attention$to$the$emergence$of$the$
mukhṛā-antarā$song$form5$I$also$examine$the$collaboration$between$film$
directors,$music$directors,$arrangers,$and$lyricists$in$the$composition$of$
film$songs5$An$understanding$of$these$roles$in$song$production$sheds$
light$on$the$ways$in$which$these$relationships$inAlect$the$narrative$
contexts$of$songs$in$films$and$some$of$the$meanings$that$these$songs$
bear5$I$suggest$that$these$com-$positional$practices$are$a$part$of$the$
enduring$legacy$of$Hindi$films$that$continue$into$the$contemporary$
moment5$Not$all$of$the$practices$of$this$period$lingered$beyond$IndiaMs$
independence,$however,$specifically$the$dominance$of$actor-singers$like$
Ashok$Kumar,$Noorjehan,$and$K5$L5$Saigal5$Nevertheless,$although$there$is$
a$distinct$moment$of$separation$between$acting$and$singing$in$Hindi$
films,$I$argue$that$the$vocal$inAluences$of$Noorjehan$and$Saigal$carried$
forward$into$the$post-independence$period$when$playback$singing$began$
to$dominate5$The$second$half$of$the$chapter$focuses$on$the$innovations$of$
the$music$director$Naushad$Ali,$who$was$the$single$most$popular$music$
director$of$the$1940s5$The$chapter$concludes$with$a$discussion$of$songs$in$
two$important$Naushad$soundtracks$of$the$late$colonial$periodN$the$films$
Anmol$Ghadi$>Mehboob$Khan$1946@$and$Shahjehan$>A5$R5$Kardar$1946@,$
each$of$which$illustrates$both$the$height$of$the$actor-singer$era,$as$well$
as$formal$and$stylistic$characteristics$that$would$manifest$in$later$Hindi$
film$songs5$
INDIAN%FILMS%AND%SONGS%IN%THE%LATE%COLONIAL%ERA%_1931 1947`%
As$I$noted$above,$the$film$Kismet$bears$many$of$the$traces$of$being$a$film$
of$the$late$colonial$period$of$India5$The$British$had$been$present$in$India$
since$the$17th$century,$largely$through$the$commercial$concern$of$the$
British$East$India$Company5$This$joint$stock$company$had$military,$
moral,$and$financial$support$from$the$British$government,$yet$it$was$not$
officially$a$part$of$the$
government5$However,$this$colonial$approach$changed$after$the$Mutiny$
of$1857,$a$failed$rebellion$against$the$increasing$British$power$on$the$
subcon-$tinent5$The$British$government$took$control$and$ruled$all$of$
India,$an$area$that$spans$what$is$now$Afghanistan$to$Myanmar5$An$
indigenous$indepen-$dence$movement$had$been$present$in$India$for$
many$decades,$but$gained$steam$under$the$leadership$of$Mahatma$
Gandhi$in$the$early$20th$century5$Born$in$the$Indian$state$of$Gujarat,$
Gandhi$received$a$law$degree$in$London$and$practiced$law$for$two$
decades$in$South$Africa$as$a$civil$rights$advo-$cate5$He$returned$to$India$
in$1915$to$join$the$independence$movement$and$began$to$adopt$the$
principles$of$nonviolent$protest$and$noncooperation,$a$sosdccial$
mobilization$strategy$that$has$since$been$widely$deployed$all$over$the$
world5$The$goal$was$to$convince$Britain$of$its$moral$imperative$to$allow$
India$to$rule$itself5$This$freedom$movement,$coupled$with$decolonization$
after$World$War$II,$led$to$Britain$ceding$its$Indian$colonies$to$local$
govern-$ments$on$August$15,$19475$The$British$left$a$lasting$legacy,$
however,$that$appeared$in$the$form$of$communication,$road,$and$rail$
networks,$as$well$as$in$music$and$culture5$However,$this$British-
inAluenced$cosmopolitanism$was$frequently$the$source$of$contention$for$
the$new$Indian$nation-state,$as$I$suggest$in$chapter$35$
Cinema$is$one$of$the$legacies$that$developed$at$the$end$of$the$colo-$nial$
era5$The$first$film$was$produced$in$India$in$1899,$not$long$after$the$
medium$debuted$internationally5$Indian$filmmakers$initially$relied$upon$
the$novelty$of$moving$pictures$to$attract$paying$customers$away$
frosdcsdcm$their$primary$competitionN$Religious$epics$and$local$theatrical$
productions$staging$multi-hour$dramas5$Cinematic$adaptations$of$theatre$
productions$featured$music$as$a$central$component,$which$helps$to$
explain$the$initial,$and$perhaps$enduring,$popularity$of$music$in$Indian$
films5$Similarly,$the$earliest$films$used$stories$from$the$Hindu$epics$>e5g5,$
the$Mahabharata$and$the$Ramayana@$and$other$mythological$stories$to$
attract$these$mass$audi-$ences,$who$came$from$a$variety$of$classes$and$
ideologies5$In$the$early$years$of$Indian$cinema,$there$were$several$centers$
for$film$productionN$Calcutta$>now$Kolkata@,$Lahore,$Kolhapur/Pune,$and$
Bombay$>now$Mumbai@5$The$first$sound$film$came$to$India$in$1931;$it$
transformed$the$nascent$film$industry,$led$to$the$obsolescence$of$the$
silent$film,$the$emergence$of$the$actor-singer,$and$a$further$
fragmentation$into$film$industries$based$upon$regional$language$>see$
chapter$4@5$Several$authors$have$described$the$his-$torical$transition$from$
the$silent$era$>1896$to$1931@$to$the$sound$film$> talkie @$at$length,1$but$
there$are$a$few$points$worth$emphasizing$in$this$discussion$of$early$film$
songs5$Secsd
First,$films$of$the$nominally$ silent$film $era$were$never$actually$silent5$

The$cosmopolitan$mix$of$Indian/Western$instruments$and$styles$that$
would$
characterize$later$eras$of$film$song$was$already$in$use$in$the$live$
orchestras$accompanying$films$of$the$silent$era$in$theaters5$Several$of$the$
early$music$directors$began$working$in$these$orchestras$and$later$
transitioned$into$music$direction$for$films$when$the$sound$film$came$
into$vogue$>e5g5,$R5$C5$Boral,$Pankaj$Mullick,$and$Naushad$Ali@5$Musical$
accompaniment$was$an$important$component$of$silent$films,$in$part$to$
mask$the$noise$of$the$film$projector$and$in$part$to$add$another$
dimension$to$the$film-going$experi-$ence5$As$the$music$scholar$Bhaskar$
Chandravarkar$has$notedN$
The$harmonium$and$the$tabla$players$were$expected$to$use$not$only$their$instru-$
ments,$but$their$feet$to$stamp,$their$voices$to$shout$and$generally$boost$excite-$
ment$during$the$fight$sequences5$ Marop $ Chup$Saalep $ Khamoshp $were$the$
words$the$musicians$bellowed$as$the$villain$was$being$beaten$black$and$blue5$The$
musicians$were$not$only$the$music$directors,$but$even$the$dialogue$writers$and$
dubbers;$in$any$case$they$were$the$first$commentary$readers-speakers$that$the$
industry$knew$>quoted$in$Garga$1996,$51@5$
Second,$the$sound$aesthetics$of$early$films$emerged$from$the$19-century$
Parsi,$Marathi,$and$other$regional$theater$traditions$that$were$
themselves$cosmopolitan$in$origination$and$regularly$featured$songs$as$a$
component$of$the$narrative$of$a$play52$Early$sound$films$were$contiguous$
with$these$theatrical$traditions5$The$first$sound$films$had$many$short$
songs$that$used$small$ensembles$and$had$a$melodic$basis$in$IndiaMs$
classical,$semi-classical,$and$folk$music$traditions53$Early$film$songs$of$the$
1930s$and$M40s$featured$heavily$ornamented$melodic$lines,$sparse$textures,$
and$minimal$harmony5$Instrumentation$of$this$period$usually$consisted$
of$tabla,$harmonium,$sarangi,$and$classically$trained$actor-singers54$Songs$
of$this$period$also$had$an$open$form$and$varied$in$length$between$two$
vand$three$minutes5$These$songs$borrowed$heavily$from$the$Indian$
classical$melodic$>rāga@$and$metric$>tāla@$systems$and$foldsclowed$classical$
conventions$of$melodic$and$rhythmic$ornamentation5$In$this$early$period$
of$film$song,$lyrics$were$written$to$fit$preexisting$melodies5$But$music$
directors$increasingly$began$to$compose$melodies$to$fit$lyrics$written$for$
the$film,$and$both$of$which$began$to$take$on$novel$charactericxvcxstics$
that$suggested$the$outlines$of$a$new$Indian$genre$of$popular$music5$This$
period$was$formative$for$the$conventions$of$Hindi$film$song$that$
developed$in$the$late$1940s$and$M50s,$especially$in$the$cre-$ation$of$an$
identifiably$filmi$mode$of$vocal$performance$and$the$stylistic$mediation$
of$folk$and$classical$musics$for$heterogeneous$audiences5$
While$the$form,$content,$and$vocal$approach$of$these$songs$emerged$from$
Indian$classical$and$theatrical$conventions,$Ashok$Ranade$>2006@$has$
argued$that$most$of$these$early$ songs $were$simply$musical$passages$of$
a$
brief$couplet$or$line$of$verse$rather$than$full-Aledged$songs5$It$took$a$few$
years$for$film$songs$to$develop$as$a$genre$in$their$own$dsright,$especially$
once$the$mukhṛā-antarā$form$began$to$crystalize,$and$developments$in$
record-$ing$technology$enabled$larger$orchestras$and$the$introduction$of$
playback$singing5$Unfortunately,$most$of$the$recordings$from$1930s$and$
early$1940s$films$have$been$lost,$and$only$fragments$of$a$few$films$
remain$that$might$help$scholars$compare$early$conventions$with$later$
ones5$Nevertheless,$care-$ful$listeners$will$note$that,$in$extant$recordings$
from$the$1940s,$the$voice$is$supported$by$one$or$more$melodic$
instruments$>usually$violin,$sarangi,$or$harmonium@,$and$only$rarely$is$
more$than$one$percussion$instrument$play-$ing$in$the$background$
>usually$tabla$or$dholak@5$More$instruments$were$used$in$the$musical$
interludes$separating$the$stanzas,$but$these$interludes$tended$to$last$only$
a$few$seconds$and$were$quite$compressed$in$length$com-$pared$to$film$
songs$in$the$1950s$and$beyond5$
SEPARATING%SOUND%AND%VISION^%THE%ACTOR-SINGERS%K=%L=%SAIGAL%
AND%NOORJEHAN%
As$film$orchestral$and$performance$practices$began$to$take$shape$in$the$
late$colonial$period,$actor-singers$>i5e5,$actors$singing$their$own$songs$in$
films@$reigned$in$the$period$from$1935$to$19475$Though$talented$actors,$
Ranade$>2006@$has$noted$that$many$actor-singers$had$mediocre$singing$
abilities$at$best5$Yet,$their$performances$were$sufficient$to$provide$a$char-$
ismatic$screen$presence$that$suited$the$film$narrative5$While$there$were$
numerous$actor-singers$in$this$period,$K5$L5$Saigal$and$Noorjehan$are$fre-$
quently$mentioned$as$exceptions$to$the$rule$of$vocal$mediocrity$in$the$
late$colonial$era5$Many$of$their$recordings,$especially$those$of$the$
mid-1940s,$are$still$fondly$recollected$by$film$song$connoisseurs,$and$each$
of$them$had$a$formative$inAluence$on$the$emergence$of$playback$singing5$
Kundan$Lal$Saigal$>1904 1947@$grew$up$in$Jammu$when$this$region$was$
one$of$the$great$classical$music$centers$of$India5$While$reputed$to$have$
lacked$formal$music$training,$Saigal$was$exposed$to$classical$and$semi-
classical$music,$especially$tawayMif$>courtesan@$performances$at$a$very$
early$age5$Despite$his$lack$of$formal$instruction,$he$was$remarkably$well-
versed$in$the$Indian$rāga$system$and$had$great$facility$with$rāga-based$
light$classical$genres5$After$a$period$of$wandering$in$North$India,$Saigal$
landed$in$Kolkata$and$was$discovered$by$the$music$director$Pankaj$
Mullick$in$19315$His$discovery$at$the$moment$that$sound$films$came$into$
vogue$was$fortsdvuitous,$as$many$of$the$earlier$silent$film$actors$were$
deemed$unsuitable$for$the$era$of$sound;$many$of$them$were$Anglo-
Indians$who$
could$not$comfortably$speak$an$Indian$language5$Saigal$went$on$to$
become$a$renowned$actor-singer,$and$performed$the$lead$role$in$the$first$
Hindi$adaptation$of$Saratchandra$ChatterjeeMs$novel$Devdas$>Pramathesh$
Barua$1935@,$as$well$as$two$songs$in$the$Bengali$version$of$the$film5$His$
portrayal$of$Devdas$was$one$of$his$best-known$roles,$and$while$this$film$
is$not$avail-$able$today,$SaigalMs$voice$is$widely$available$on$the$film$
soundtrack5$Saigal$remained$in$Kolkata$until$1941$and$then$moved$to$
Mumbai$to$pursue$his$career$in$Hindi$films5$He$acted$and$sang$in$29$
films$until$his$untimely$death$at$the$age$of$42$from$diabetes$and$
excessive$drinking$>Neville$2011@5$
Saigal$ushered$in$a$new$style$of$singing$for$films$that$was$distinct$and$
highly$inAluential5$He$is$particularly$famous$for$introducing$the$vocal$
technique$of$crooning$into$the$microphone$rather$than$singing$in$full$
voice,$a$practice$that$was$adopted$by$later$playback$singers5$SaigalMs$
recorded$voice$inspired$many$of$the$first$generation$of$professional$play-$
back$singers,$including$Mohammed$Rafi,$Lata$Mangeshkar,$Mukesh,$and$
Kishore$Kumar5$He$is$also$known$for$popularizing$the$Urdu$ghazal$in$
film,$a$song$genre$that$had$largely$been$limited$to$courtesan$performers$
but$became$a$popular$song$style$>see$chapter$4@5$In$addition$to$his$work$
in$films,$he$recorded$a$number$of$non-film$ghazal$albums5$Many$of$his$
performances$are$still$well$known,$and$his$voice$is$an$icon$of$early$film$
songs5$
Along$with$Saigal,$Noorjehan$>1926 2000@$helped$to$transform$the$vocal$
aesthetics$of$late$colonial$film$song5$Known$as$ The$Nightingale, $
Noorjehan$was$born$Allarakhi$in$Kasur,$Punjab$>now$in$Pakistan@5$Her$
father$brought$her$to$Kolkata$in$1932$to$audition$for$film$studios$at$the$
beginning$of$the$talkies$era5$She$earned$a$salaried$position$in$a$studio$
and$received$classical$vocal$instruction$from$Ustad$Ghulam$Mohammad$
Khan5$She$also$acted$in$several$films$of$the$1930s$as$a$child$artist5$
Noorjehan$sang$in$her$first$film$in$1938,$and$her$debut$as$a$starring$
actor-singer$was$in$Khandan$>Shaukat$Hussain$1942@5$She$moved$to$
Mumbai$in$1942$and$dominated$a$five-year$period$of$Hindi$film$song$
>1942 1947@$before$mov-$ing$to$Lahore$after$Partition$to$join$the$Pakistani$
film$industry5$Although$Noorjehan$was$a$contemporary$of$K5$L5$Saigal,$
she$never$sang$with$him5$The$rich$timbre$of$her$voice$and$its$
comparatively$lower$tessitura$was$espe-$cially$notable$in$classic$Hindi$
film$at$the$end$of$the$actor-singer$era,$and$she$had$much$greater$vocal$
control$than$most$of$her$contemporaries5$She$was$the$primary$vocal$
inAluence$for$Lata$Mangeshkar$in$her$early$years,$and$critics$have$
wondered$whether$Lata$would$have$come$to$dominate$had$Noorjahan$
not$left$India$>Bharatan$1995@5$Had$Noorjehan$remained,$the$sound$of$
LataMs$voice$as$that$of$Indian$womanhood$>which$I$describe$in$chapter$3@$
would$have$undoubtedly$been$inAlected$in$very$different$ways5$
Nevertheless,$Noorjehan$was$a$powerful$inAluence$for$singers$of$this$era,$
and$much$of$her$legacy$is$still$celebrated$today5$Sc
THE%MUKHṚĀ-ANTARĀ%FORM%
While$the$actor-singer$period$of$Hindi$films$lasted$for$a$little$over$a$
decade,$one$of$the$dimensions$of$film$song$that$became$conventional$in$
the$early$1940s$is$the$song$form,$which$has$had$a$more$lasting$impact5$
Considering$that$thousands$of$songs$have$been$recorded$for$Indian$cin-$
ema,$it$goes$without$saying$that$there$are$a$number$of$different$song$
forms$in$use,$many$of$which$are$borrowed$from$other$folk$or$popular$
traditions5$Nevertheless,$there$is$a$certain$consistency$to$Hindi$film$song$
form$that$audiences$anticipate$when$they$listen$to$what$Arnold$>1991@$
has$called$the$ mainstream$Hindi$film$song5 $For$the$purposes$of$this$
book,$I$will$call$this$the$mukhṛā-antarā$form,$which$is$the$term$used$by$
contemporary$music$directors$to$describe$the$formal$dimensions$of$
mainstream$Hindi$film$songs$that$have$been$in$place$for$decades5$It$is$
this$crystallization$of$song$form$that$Ranade$>2006@$described,$but$did$not$
elaborate$upon,$that$helps$give$the$genre$of$Hindi$film$song$a$certain$
stylistic$cohesiveness5$
The$mukhṛā-antarā$form$is$a$versatile,$scalable$song$form$that$can$utilize$
various$poetic$styles$and$meters$>e5g5,$ghazals@$through$a$particular$kind$
of$melodic$repetition5$If$one$were$to$chart$the$form$of$most$film$songs,$
trans-$lated$into$conventional$terms$used$in$Western$music,$one$would$
likely$see$a$structure$that$has$an$introduction$and$two$or$three$stanzasN$
Introduction$ $refrain$>svx2@$ $interlude$Verse$ $refrain$ $interlude

Verse$ $refrain$ $interlude
Verse$ $refrain$ $conclusion$
In$the$terminology$used$within$the$Indian$film$industry,$the$stanza$
struc-$ture$looks$like$thisN$
Music$ $mukhṛā$ $music

antarā$ $>refrain/mukhṛā@$ $music$antarā$ $>refrain/mukhṛā@$ $music$antarā$ $
>refrain/mukhṛā@$ $music$
Most$film$songs$begin$with$some$sort$of$non-lyrical$musical$
introduction,$which$music$directors$simply$call$ music5 $The$
instrumental$melody$of$this$
introduction$is$frequently$just$as$recognizable$as$the$melody$of$the$
refrain,$and$it$is$just$as$frequently$the$music$used$to$end$a$song5$
Interludes$separate$the$sung$melodic-lyrical$sections$known$as$the$
mukhṛā$and$antarā5$These$terms$are$derived$from$Indian$classical$music$
and$denote$particular$com-$ponents$of$song$form,$but$they$have$slightly$
different$meanings$in$film$songs55$The$mukhṛā$>literally$ face @$begins$the$
sung$portion$of$most$film$songs5$It$is$a$long$refrain$that$contains$the$
memorable$melodic$information$that$is$repeated$throughout$the$song$in$
whole$or$in$part$as$a$refrain$at$the$ends$of$verses5$Portions$of$the$mukhṛā$
are$generally$used$in$ways$that$are$analogous$to$ the$hook $in$Western$
pop$music$parlance,$and$as$such,$the$mukhṛā$is$the$part$of$the$song$most$
likely$to$be$used$in$radio$or$television$advertising5$The$first$line$of$the$
mukhṛā$has$historically$been$the$title$of$the$song,$although$some$
contemporary$music$directors$have$begun$using$the$final$line$of$the$
mukhṛā$as$the$song$title5$Most$film$songs$follow$the$first$instance$of$a$
mukhṛā$with$an$instrumental$interlude,$which$musicians$usually$call$
music $or$ M15 $Different$eras$of$film$song$have$interludes$of$different$
lengths,$but$generally$speaking,$songs$of$the$1940s$had$very$short$
interludes$so$that$they$could$fit$on$78$rpm$recordings5$By$the$1970s,$
inter-$ludes$might$be$as$long$as$a$minute$in$length5$This$interlude$is$
followed$by$a$structure$that$begins$with$an$antarā,$which$is$a$section$
containing$lyr-$ics$with$a$melody$that$is$distinct$fromsdvsds$the$mukhṛā5$
In$terms$of$lyrical$form$>as$opposed$to$melodic$form@,$the$antarā$is$
roughly$analogous$to$a$verse$or$stanza5$The$melody$at$the$end$of$the$
antarā$contains$material$found$sag$within$a$film$song$follows$relatively$
predictable$patterns$to$aid$listeners$in$digesting$new$songs,$even$as$songs$
can$be$extended$or$contracted$by$adding$or$removing$particular$melodic$
sections5$
THE%PRODUCTION%OF%FILM%SONGS%
In$addition$to$the$codification$of$song$form$in$the$1940s,$the$cine-$
matographic$and$narrative$conventions$of$songs$in$films$also$became$
$ $
Time%
0N00$0N13$0N24$0N31$0N41$0N45$1N19$1N37$1N50$2N06$2N47$3N16$
Figure%2=2^%
Melodic%Form%
Introduction$
Mukhṛā
A
$ $
The$mukhṛā-antarā$song$form$of$ Awaz$de$kahan$hai5 $
conventional5$The$ideologies$and$processes$of$creating$and$incorporat-$
ing$songs$into$films$have$been$covered$in$some$detail$by$Morcom$>ddvc$
2007@$and$Booth$>2008@,$but$I$include$a$short$summary$here$for$readers$
who$are$unfamiliar$with$the$role$of$songs$in$the$production$of$films5$For$
the$sake$of$the$argument$in$this$book,$it$is$important$to$emphasize$that$
one$cannot$examine$the$significance$of$songs$in$Hindi$films$solely$in$
musical$terms5$Rather,$even$at$the$earliest$stages$of$song$production,$
musical$meaning$is$produced$by$various$agents$in$and$through$the$
conAluence$of$visual,$aural,$narrative,$and$economic$resources$brought$
together$to$pro-$duce$a$film5$That$is$to$say,$songs$are$written$for$
moments$in$the$narrative$that$communicate$a$complex$of$musical$and$
extra-musical$information5$
One$of$the$most$intriguing$aspects$of$the$production$of$Indian$films$is$
that$songs$are$among$the$first$parts$of$any$film$to$be$conceptualized$and$
crafted5$In$large$part,$this$is$due$to$the$fact$that$the$music$of$the$song$
needs$to$be$composed,$rehearsed,$and$recorded$before$it$can$be$ played$
back $for$the$actors$to$lip-sync$to$as$the$song$sequence$is$ picturized $
>i5e5,$set$to$a$visual$narrative@5$At$the$very$first$stages$of$film$production,$
screenwriters$and$film$directors$collaborate$in$a$ story$sitting $in$order$
to$determine$how$many$songs$will$be$in$the$film,$where$they$will$be$in$
the$film,$and$what$the$ song$situations $will$be$>i5e5,$in$which$narrative$
contexts$the$songs$will$appear@5$This$information$is$then$relayed$to$the$
music$director$and$lyricist$who$will$be$crafting$the$songs$to$fit$these$
situations5$Depending$on$the$rel-$ative$skill$and$experience$of$the$film$
director,$he$or$she$might$only$vaguely$suggest$the$need$for$a$ sad$song $
or$a$ romantic$song $at$a$particular$place$
Mukhṛā$_ Awaaz$de `$Mukhṛā$_ awaaz$mein `$Mukhṛā$_ duniya$meri `$
Antarā$_ aaj$raat `$Antarā$_ chalne$ko `$Mukhṛā$_ kaise$tu `$
Antarā$_ kismat$chha `$Antarā$_ barbad$mein `$Mukhṛā$_ bedard `$
in$the$film5$It$is$more$likely$that$they$will$convey$additional$visual$and$
nar-$rative$information$such$as$the$actors/characters$that$will$appear$in$
the$song,$the$emotional$states$of$the$characters,$the$social$context$of$an$
event$>e5g5,$a$cabaret$show$or$religious$worship@,$the$timeframe$that$will$
be$repre-$sented,$the$locations$that$will$be$filmed,$or$even$the$angles$and$
movement$used$by$the$cameras$>Morcom$2007@5$Film$directors$can$
facilitate$or$inhibit$the$creation$of$good$music$for$their$films,$depending$
on$how$much$musi-$cal$knowledge$they$have$and$their$vision$for$the$role$
of$music$in$their$film5$Some$film$directors,$such$as$Raj$Kapoor,$Guru$
Dutt,$Mani$Ratnam,$and$Yash$Chopra,$had$very$clear$ideas$about$what$
they$wanted$and$how$to$guide$music$directors$in$order$to$execute$their$
vision5$Yet,$not$every$song$is$aptly$connected$to$the$film$narrative5$Many$
films$include$an$extraneous$song$or$two$in$order$to$alleviate$the$risk$of$a$
film$Alopping$at$the$box$office5$Film$producers$and$distributors$sometimes$
felt$that$particular$films$required$additional$song$sequences$for$the$sake$
of$marketing$the$film$>Ganti$2012@5$But$many$songs$seem$unnecessary$for$
the$development$of$the$film$narra-$tive$and$have$a$ tacked-on $feeling$to$
them,$which$critics$frequently$note$in$film$reviews5$Film$producers$
operate$on$the$business$side$of$the$film$and$ultimately$want$music$that$
will$have$sufficient$commercial$appeal$to$entice$mass$audiences$to$the$
theatre5$As$such,$film$producers$have$an$impression$of$what$audiences$
will$want$to$hear$that$may$or$may$not$align$with$the$real$success$of$a$
film$or$soundtrack5$
Once$the$narrative$moments$and$styles$of$songs$are$determined,$the$
music$director$and$lyricist$collaborate$on$crafting$the$basic$song$melodies$
and$lyrics5$Typically,$they$focus$on$the$mukhṛā$of$the$song$first,$then$the$
melodies$and$lyrics$of$the$antarās5$Once$these$melodies$are$composed,$
music$directors$and$their$assistants$write$the$ music $>i5e5,$the$
background$accompaniment$to$fit$the$melody@5$Until$the$mid-1990s,$
compositions$developed$through$collaboration$with$a$small$group$of$
sitting$musicians $>typically$including$melodic,$harmonic,$and$rhythmic$
instruments@$who$worked$through$various$musical$ideas$to$determine$
what$sounded$best$for$the$song$situation$>see$Booth$2008,$167 175@5$This$
small$ensemble$might$also$be$present$to$play$the$nascent$musical$ideas$in$
order$to$pitch$the$song$>i5e5,$present$the$song$for$approval@$to$the$film$
director$and/or$producer5$The$music$directorial$team$then$focuses$on$the$
musical$interludes$that$separate$the$stanzas$of$the$song5$These$interludes$
are$equally$oriented$to$the$song$situation,$as$they$might$underscore$some$
aspect$of$the$visual$narrative$cre-$ated$by$the$picturization$in$ways$that$
are$comparable$to$the$cinematic$uses$of$a$background$score5$Thus,$the$
music$in$the$interludes$might$indicate$the$location$where$the$film$was$
shot$or$was$purported$to$represent$>e5g5,$a$particular$country$or$Indian$
state@,$some$element$of$the$social$context$of$
the$song$>e5g5,$a$nightclub$or$religious$observance@,$or$some$other$
onscreen$action$>e5g5,$the$aging$of$a$character,$a$love$or$fight$scene@5$
Once$the$melody,$lyrics,$and$music$have$been$developed,$music$directors$
typically$begin$the$rehearsal$and$recording$process$of$the$song5$Of$course,$
the$song$recording$process$has$changed$substantially$over$the$last$70$
years$due$to$the$affordances$of$new$technologies5$In$the$1930s,$for$
example,$songs$were$recorded$as$a$live$take$on$a$single$microphone$onto$
optical$film$with$all$of$the$musicians$present$at$the$recording5$By$the$
1950s,$some$music$directors$extensively$rehearsed$the$orchestras$
separately$from$the$singers$and$then$brought$them$all$together$at$the$
very$end$to$record$the$song5$By$the$1980s,$it$became$possible$to$record$the$
orchestra$for$each$of$the$songs$in$advance$and$then$bring$singers$in$to$
rehearse$and$record$several$songs$in$one$afternoon5$By$the$2000s,$it$
became$common$for$music$directors$and$programmers$to$compose$a$
rough$version$of$a$song$with$music$software$and$sample$libraries$>i5e5,$
digitized$instruments$and$rhythm$loops@$and$then$bring$in$singers$and$
other$musicians$to$humanize$the$result5$Once$the$song$is$recorded,$it$
might$still$undergo$minor$changes$to$fit$the$require-$ments$of$the$film,$
such$as$adding,$subtracting,$or$adjusting$portions$of$an$interlude$to$fit$
the$movement$of$the$camera5$Nevertheless,$a$>relatively@$final$version$of$
the$song$is$needed$before$the$director$can$picturize$the$song$sequence$
with$the$actors5$
Although$this$outline$gives$some$indication$of$how$a$typical$song$is$com-$
posed$and$recorded,$every$song$is$unique5$Undoubtedly,$many$songs$have$
emerged$from$an$approach$or$process$different$from$the$one$described$
above5$Moreover,$while$the$music$director$is$responsible$for$the$music$in$
the$film,$it$is$important$to$note$that$the$film$director$and$producer$
ultimately$approve$which$songs$will$appear$in$a$film$and$they$might$be$
involved$to$a$greater$or$lesser$extent$at$various$stages$of$composition5$
There$are$many$stories$of$music$directors$pitching$song$melodies$to$film$
dcvirectors$and$hav-$ing$them$rejected,$or$recording$songs$that$were$not$
included$in$films5$This$is$not$to$suggest,$however,$that$songs$that$are$
rejected$for$a$particular$film$are$wasted$efforts5$For$the$sake$of$efficiency,$
many$music$directors$keep$a$ bank $of$melodies$to$pitch$for$any$film$
project,$and$these$songs$sometimes$find$a$home$in$other$films5$One$well-
known$example$is$the$S5$D5$Burman$melody$for$what$was$to$be$the$title$
song$of$Guru$DuttMs$final$film,$Baharein$Phir$Bhi$Aayengi$>1966@,$but$was$
rejected$by$the$director5$Burman$subse-$quently$recycled$this$melody$into$
the$peppy$and$very$popular$song$ Ye$dil$na$hota$behara $> My$heart$
wouldnMt$have$been$unfortunate @$for$the$film$Jewel$Thief$>Vijay$Anand$
1967@5$While$it$is$common$for$music$directors$to$repurpose$compositions$
that$have$been$rejected$for$a$film$project,$there$have$been$times$when$
film$directors$or$producers$have$heard$songs$that$dvddv
they$like$from$other$sources$>such$as$Indian$folk$songs$or$international$
recordings@$and$requested$that$music$directors$create$a$version$of$these$
songs$to$be$adapted$for$their$film5$
PRODUCTION%ROLES^%MUSIC%DIRECTORS,%ARRANGERS,%AND%ASSISTANTS%
In$its$historical$and$contemporary$usage,$the$term$ music$director $refers$

to$the$person$who$is$primarily$accountable$for$composing$the$melodies$
for and$overseeing$the$production$of Indian$film$songs5$While$the$ori-$
gin$of$the$term$ music$director $to$denote$the$composer$of$film$melodies$
is$rather$fuzzy,$it$is$likely$contiguous$with$the$adaptation$of$late$19th-
century$theatre$practices$into$early$20th-century$cinematic$practices5$
Since$many$of$the$early$music$directors$in$cinema$had$also$worked$in$
theatre$and$silent$film$orchestras,$this$seems$to$be$the$most$reasonable$
explanation5$Music$directors$are$nominally$responsible$for$all$of$the$
music$in$any$given$film,$but$in$practice,$the$musical$scores$>i5e5,$
background$music@$are$frequently$created$by$music$arrangers$or$
assistants$who$work$alongside$the$music$director5$As$much$as$they$
compose$the$songs,$music$directors$also$man-$age$and$negotiate$with$a$
constellation$of$people$>e5g5,$lyricists,$assistants,$technicians,$musicians,$
and$singers@$who$help$them$craft$the$songs$from$beginning$to$end$>Booth$
2008@5$It$is$noteworthy$that$like$other$aspects$of$film$direction$and$
production,$the$overwhelming$majority$of$people$involved$in$music$
production$are$menN$With$the$exception$of$playback$sing-$ing,$very$few$
women$have$worked$as$music$directors,$lyricists,$arrangers,$and$
musicians57$
Music$directors$and$singers$are$the$focal$points$in$discussions$of$Indian$
film$songs$and,$as$I$noted$in$the$preface,$there$are$numerous$book-length$
biographies$and$retrospectives$of$particular$music$directors5$Yet,$few$of$
these$biographies$account$for$the$fact$that$the$people$working$alongside$
them$sometimes$had$extraordinary$inAluence$on$the$final$results5$Indeed,$
some$of$the$elements$that$make$many$songs$memorable$>e5g5,$a$rhythm,$
an$instrumental$solo,$a$countermelody,$a$moment$of$orchestration,$etc5@$
were$likely$developed$through$the$collaboration$of$a$team$rather$than$by$
any$individual$decision$of$a$music$director5$In$a$larger$historical$context,$
one$of$the$most$important$production$roles$in$film$music$is$the$music$
arranger$>also$sometimes$called$the$music$assistant@5$While$the$term$
arranger $in$a$Western$context$connotes$a$person$who$adapts$a$musical$
composition$for$instruments$or$styles$for$which$it$was$not$originally$
written,$it$has$a$signifi-$cantly$different$meaning$in$the$context$of$
Indian$film$songs5$The$role$of$the$
arranger$can$vary$from$one$music$director$to$another,$but$generally$
speak-$ing,$the$arranger$Aleshes$out$the$musical$details$in$the$song$and$
makes$the$necessary$preparations$for$recording5$As$Alison$Arnold$>1991@$
points$out,$arrangers$became$invaluable$assets$to$music$directors$at$the$
end$of$the$film$studio$era$since$they$enabled$music$directors$to$take$on$
more$projects$>i5e5,$music$directors$outsourced$some$of$the$musical$labor,$
including$orchestra-$tion,$copying,$rehearsing,$and$conducting@5$Some$
arrangers$worked$very$closely$with$music$directors$in$composing$the$
melody$and$accompaniment$in$the$directorMs$studio5$Among$other$things,$
an$arranger$might$compose$the$countermelodies,$write$the$musical$
interludes,$beginnings,$and$end-$ings,$and$develop$the$orchestration$>i5e5,$
combining$the$sounds$and$tex-$tures$of$various$musical$instruments@5$The$
task$of$incorporating$Western$harmony$into$film$songs$also$generally$fell$
to$arrangers$since,$until$very$recently,$few$music$directors$had$an$
extensive$understanding$of$harmony5$In$terms$of$preparing$a$song$for$
recording,$arrangers$might$also$transcribe$the$melody$into$Western$or$
Indian$musical$notation,$write$out$the$music$parts$for$the$musicians,$
recruit$the$necessary$musicians$for$the$orchestra,$rehearse$the$orchestra,$
and$conduct$the$orchestra$in$the$recording$studio5$Many$arrangers$also$
played$prominent$instruments$in$the$orchestra5$
Historically,$there$has$been$a$great$deal$of$variability$in$the$composi-$
tional$approach$of$individual$music$directors5$Some$music$directors$felt$
compelled$to$have$complete$control$over$the$entire$compositional$process,$
while$others$were$more$open$to$collaborating$with$music$assistants$and$
musicians5$For$example,$the$music$director$Madan$Mohan$once$suggested$
that$to$him,$a$music$assistant$was$little$more$than$a$stenographer$who$
noted$his$musical$ideas;$he$did$not$contribute$to$the$music$composition$
processes$>Bharatan$1995@5$Other$music$directors$like$R5$D5$Burman$or$A5$
R5$Rahman$have$been$more$open$about$describing$the$creative$pro-$cess$
as$a$collaborative$effort5$In$so$doing,$they$point$to$the$interactions$
between$music$directors,$arrangers,$and$musicians$in$crafting$the$
melodies$and$music$of$songs,$as$well$as$the$malleability$of$the$creative$
process5$Some$music$directors$had$less$musical$knowledge$than$others$
and,$when$it$came$to$issues$such$as$harmony$or$orchestration,$they$may$
have$more$or$less$relied$on$the$skills$of$their$respective$assistants5$Of$
course,$musicians$usu-$ally$knew$which$music$directors$were$filling$a$
managerial$role$more$than$a$composdsvitional$one$>Booth$2008@5$
As$far$as$their$socsds$reason,$Gregory$Booth$
>2008@$has$aptly$described$arranging$as$one$of$the$musical$roles$that$lie$
behind$the$curtain $in$Indian$cinema5$Yet$until$recently,$most$music$
direc-$tors$learned$the$craft$by$apprenticing$as$musicians$and/or$music$
assistants$to$an$established$music$director,$which$has$prompted$the$
lyricist$Gulzar$>2003@$to$suggest$that$arrangers$are,$in$essence,$potential$
music$directors5$Moreover,$many$of$the$most$prominent$music$directors$
worked$first$as$arrangers$and$musicians;$notable$examples$include$
Ghulam$Mohammed$who$worked$with$Naushad,$Shankar-Jaikishan$with$
Husnlal-Bhagatram,$R5$D5$Burman$with$his$father$S5$D5$Burman,$
Laxmikant-Pyarelal$with$Kalyanji-Anandji,$A5$R5$Rahman$with$Ilayaraja,$
and$so$forth5$It$is$also$noteworthy$that$many$musicians$from$the$state$of$
Goa,$who$performed$at$night$in$jazz$and$rock$bands,$worked$as$arrangers$
during$the$day$>see$chapter$4@5$Some$of$these$prominent$Goan$arrangers$
include$A5$B5$Albuquerque$and$Peter$Dorado$who$worked$with$C5$
Ramchandra$and$other$music$directors$of$the$1940s$and$1950s,$Sebastian$
DMSouza$who$worked$extensively$with$Shankar-Jaikishan,$and$Anthony$
Gonsalves$who$worked$with$Laxmikant-Pyarelal5$There$are$very$few$Goan$
music$directors,$how-$ever5$Gregory$BoothMs$interlocutors$who$worked$in$
the$1960s 1980s$film$orchestras$noted$in$interviews$that$they$viewed$film$
music$as$merely$a$hobby$rather$than$a$central$career$opportunity,$at$
least$until$the$work$in$MumbaiMs$jazz$clubs$began$to$dry$up$in$the$1970s5$
THE%INNOVATIONS%OF%NAUSHAD%ALI%_1919 2006`%
Naushad$Ali$is$one$of$the$foremost$music$directors$in$Indian$film$history5$
His$musical$innovations$cemented$the$form,$recording$techniques,$and$
orchestration$that$would$be$adopted$by$later$music$directors5$NaushadMs$
films$dominated$the$1940s,$and$he$became$one$of$the$first$superstar$
music$directors$in$Hindi$cinema5$
Born$in$Lucknow,$Naushad$studied$the$sitar$and$harmonium$and$
repaired$instruments$in$a$music$shop$in$his$youth5$He$also$played$the$
harmonium$in$theatres$for$silent$films$that$were$shown$in$Lucknow5$He$
rebelled$against$his$familyMs$psdvrejudice$against$musicians,$running$
away$from$home$in$order$to$compose$and$perform$songs$for$nautanki$
>folk$theater@,$which$exposed$him$to$the$North$Indian$folk$traditions$that$
he$included$in$many$of$his$film$songs5$Naushad$eventually$settled$in$
Mumbai$in$1937$to$join$the$film$industry5$He$struggled$in$his$first$years,$
including$brieAly$living$on$a$foot-$path$>sidewalk@$opposite$the$cinema$
hall$that,$16$years$later,$would$debut$one$of$his$most$important$films,$
Baiju$Bawra$>Vijay$Bhatt$1952@5$He$first$worked$as$a$pianist$in$film$
orchestras$and$apprenticed$as$an$assistant$with$
the$music$director$Khemchand$Prakash5$His$music$directorial$debut$was$
Premnagar$>M5$Bhavani$1940@5$In$this$project,$he$experienced$firsthand$
the$technological$constraints$of$recording$songs$in$live$takes$outside,$
which$were$performed$at$night$to$minimize$background$noise,$and$with$
musi-$cians$stationed$behind$the$scenery$to$be$outside$the$camera$frame5$
His$first$hit$film,$Rattan$>M5$Sadiq$1944@,$was$followed$by$a$long$string$of$
successful$films$in$the$1940s$and$M50s$that$led$him$to$transition$from$
being$a$salaried$music$director$to$being$the$highest-paid$musicsdv$
director$of$his$time5$Indeed,$Naushad$was$the$first$music$director$to$
achieve$the$benchmark$of$charg-$ing$one$lakh$rupees$>i5e5,$one$hundred$
thousand$rupees@$for$composing$the$songs$and$music$for$a$film$>Bharatan$
2013@5$
A$series$of$successful$films$gave$Naushad$a$singular$power$among$music$
directors$that$has$not$since$been$seen5$Because$he$had$produced$so$many$
hits$in$the$1940s,$he$could$determine$the$musical$characteristics$of$a$song$
with$minimal$meddling$from$film$producers$and$directors5$In$interviews,$
Naushad$frequently$recounted$an$anecdote$from$his$early$years$that$
indexes$this$powerN$
When$I$recorded$my$first$song$for$MehboobMs$ Anmol$Ghadi, $he$asked$

_Noorjehan`$to$change$a$note,$add$a$stress$there5$He$was$the$boss5$The$next$day$I$
purposely$went$on$to$the$sets$while$the$song$was$being$filmed5$Mehboob$wel-$
comed$me,$saying$ Look$at$your$song$being$shotp $ May$I$see$through$the$cam-$
era? $I$asked5$He$allowed$me5$I$peered$through$it$and$asked$the$people$around$to$
move$the$table$to$the$left,$a$chair$to$the$right5$Mehboob$caught$me$by$the$ear$
and$said,$ Your$job$is$music,$direction$is$my$job5 $I$said$thsdvdssdvsdvsddssdvsdat$
was$the$very$admis-$sion$I$wanted$from$him,$that$his$job$was$direction$and$not$
music5$MehboobMs$answer$was$clear$from$thereon never$to$enter$the$music$room$
again,$and$I$did$all$the$films$unfettered$>quoted$in$Chopra$2012;$also$in$Bharatan$
2013@5$
Perhaps$not$surprisingly,$considering$the$way$he$recounts$this$incident,$
several$of$NaushadMs$most$important$soundtracks$were$composed$for$the$
film$director$Mehboob$Khan,$including$Anmol$Ghadi$>1943@,$Mother$India$
>1957@,$and$Mughal-e-Azam$>1960@5$He$had$more$or$less$free$rein$over$his$
compositional$approach,$and$each$of$these$films$is$considered$to$be$a$
musi-$cal$and$cinematic$masterpiece5$
Naushad$was$given$the$luxury$of$taking$as$much$time$as$he$needed$to$
compose$and$perfect$a$song5$Accordingly,$while$his$output$was$relatively$
small$compared$to$other$marquee$music$directors,$he$likely$had$the$high-$
est$percent$of$blockbuster$hits$among$his$66$film$soundtracks5$He$end-$
lessly$polished$song$melodies$and$required$rehearsal$after$rehearsal$from$
his$singers,$regardless$of$how$established$they$might$be5$This$painstaking$
approach$to$composition$is$the$subject$of$another$anecdote$in$which$a$
filmmaker$asked$Naushad$to$compose$10$songs$in$20$days5$Naushad$is$
famously$reported$to$have$told$this$filmmakerN$ I$canMt$even$give$you$one$
song$in$_20`$days$5$5$5$my$music$room$is$not$a$department$storep $>quoted$
in$Premchand$2003,$386@5$He$had$a$reputation$for$being$a$choosy$
composer$who$would$only$rarely$work$on$more$than$one$film$project$at$
a$time5$His$refusal$to$incorporate$more$trendy$international$sounds$to$
accommodate$the$changing$needs$of$song$situations$meant$that$he$
essentially$stopped$working$after$the$1960s,$although$he$did$compose$for$
the$occasional$film$dfvuntil$his$death$in$20065$In$his$later$years,$Naushad$
was$the$leader$of$the$Indian$Performing$Rights$Society,$which$administers$
the$publishing$rights$of$compositions,$and$he$spearheaded$attempts$to$
challenge$the$copyright$laws$that$enabled$the$film$song$remix$fashion$of$
the$2000s$>see$chapter$7@5$
Naushad$is$credited$with$a$number$of$important$innovations$in$film$
songs$of$the$1940s$and$M50s5$He$pioneered$the$use$of$large$orchestras,$some$
including$more$than$100$musicians5$He$used$the$highest$available$
standards$in$the$studio$and$is$attributed$with$introducing$the$practice$of$
recording$voice$and$orchestra$on$separate$tracks,$as$well$as$innova-$tions$
in$song$mixing$and$acoustic$design5$This$attention$to$detail$in$the$studio,$
coupled$with$the$large$orchestra,$gave$his$songs$a$huge,$distinc-$tive$
sound$that$was$enhanced$in$the$2004$remastering$of$his$magnum$opus$
Mughal-e-Azam$>Mehboob$Khan$1960@5$Ashok$Ranade$notes$that$Naushad$
was$instrumental$in$solidifying$the$form$of$film$songs$>i5e5,$the$mukhṛā-
antarā$form@,$ tightening$the$also$important$for$the$development and$
later$dominance of$several$significant$playback$singers5$He$discovered$
the$singer$Suraiya$as$a$youth,$and$Lata$Mangeshkar$and$Mohammed$
Rafi$came$of$age$when$Naushad$was$at$the$height$of$his$prominence5$The$
journalist$Raju$Bharatan$>1995@$credits$Naushad$with$emphasizing$Lata$
and$RafiMs$versatility$in$his$songs,$especially$in$drawing$from$their$
mastery$of$both$classical$and$folk$idioms5$This$versatility$and$resultant$
popularity$led$to$their$dominance$as$playback$singers$for$several$decades$
as$their$virtuosity$drew$the$attention$of$other$music$directors$>see$
chapter$3@5$More$than$anything$else,$Naushad$is$celebrated$as$the$music$
director$who$successfully$mediated$Indian$classical$music$in$ways$that$
were$
accessible$to$mass$audiences5$The$soundtrack$for$the$film$Baiju$Bawra$is$
the$most$frequently$cited$example,$although$a$large$number$of$his$song$
melodies$in$other$films$have$a$direct$basis$in$Indian$rāgas5$Finally,$
Naushad$also$had$a$rare$gift$for$Hindi/Urdu$poetry$and$crafted$songs$
along$with$his$lyricists$to$a$much$greater$extent$than$other$music$
directors$of$the$time,$many$of$whom$grew$up$in$other$parts$of$India$and$
spoke$different$regional$languagsdves$>e5g5,$S5$D5$Burman,$Salil$
Chowdhury,$and$Anil$Biswas$who$grew$up$in$Bengal$and$spoke$Bengali-
accented$Hindi@5$
Anecdotes$about$Naushad$and$his$contemporaries$are$frequently$mobi-$
lized$by$Indian$music$critics$and$fans$to$compare$the$early$film$song$era$
to$later$eras5$These$comparisons$can$be$reduced$to$a$set$of$binaries$that$
disparage$both$the$music$directors$and$the$music$of$later$eras$>i5e5,$film$
song$after$the$1950s$when$Naushad$dominated@5$These$discursive$tropes$
include$slow$versus$fast$compositional$styles,$ timeless $versus$ forget-$
table $melodies,$Indian$versus$Western$orientations,$greater$versus$lesser$
value$of$music$direction$to$film$production,$quality$versus$quantity,$non-$
commercial$versus$commercial,$etc5$These$comparative$tropes$are$modular$
and$sometimes$contradictory,$but$they$have$been$applied$to$other$music$
directors$and$songs,$as$well$as$changes$in$prevailing$social$attitudes$
about$Indian$musics$>see$Beaster-Jones$2009@5$
AWAZ%DE%KAHAN%HAI %_ CALL%OUT%TO%ME,%WHERE%ARE%YOU? `%
ANMOL%GHADI%_MEHBOOB%KHAN%1946`%
Anmol$Ghadi$was$one$of$the$actor-singer$NoorjehanMs$last$films$in$
Bombay$cinema$before$she$emigrated$to$the$newly$formed$Pakistan,$and$
her$only$collaboration$with$Naushad5$This$is$one$of$the$most$popular$
films$of$the$1940s,$and$several$of$the$songs$are$still$considered$evergreen$
>i5e5,$classic@$hits5$The$film$exemplifies$the$seamless$incorporation$of$songs$
into$the$nar-$rative$and$their$revelation$of$each$characterMs$emotional$
state,$especially$through$indirect$address5$The$tensions$that$emerge$from$
a$love$triangle$that$requires$a$sacrifice,$as$well$as$the$disparity$of$wealth$
between$the$char-$acters,$are$relatively$conventional$themes$within$Hindi$
films5$
The$film$begins$with$the$boy$Chander$>Surendra@$chasing$the$carriage$of$
the$girl$Lata$>Noorjehan@5$Before$her$family$moves$from$the$village$to$
Mumbai,$Lata$gives$Chander$her$fatherMs$watch,$rationalizing$that$her$
wealthy$father$can$simply$buy$another$one5$This$anmol$ghadi$>priceless$
watch@$becomes$the$object$that$connects$Lata$with$Chander$for$the$rest$of$
the$film$even$as$it$accentuates$the$wealth$disparity$between$Chander$
and$his$friends5$Chander$grows$up$in$the$village$while$his$widowed$
mother$
THe$eMerGence$of$FILMI$STyle$zdve,$he$convinces$Chander$and$ChanderMs$mother$
to$join$him$in$Mumbai$so$that$Chander$can$run$his$music$shop5$Chander$
proves$to$be$a$mediocre$shopkeeper,$but$in$the$meantime$encounters$
Basanti$>Suraiya@$who$dallies$at$his$shop$and$makes$excuses$to$return$to$
Alirt5$The$film$soon$reveals$that$Basanti$is$LataMs$friend,$and$that$Renu$is$
LataMs$nom$de$plume5$Chander$and$Lata$later$encounter$each$other$by$
accident;$now$adults,$though$strangely$familiar$to$one$another,$they$do$
not$fully$recognize$each$other5$It$is$at$this$moment$that$the$duet$ Awaz$
de$kahan$hai,$duniya$meri$jawan$hai $> Call$out$to$me,$where$are$you?$
My$world$is$so$youthful @$shows$both$of$them$realizing$that$they$have$
found$their$childhood$love5$Not$knowing$of$LataMs$and$ChanderMs$relation-$
ship,$Prakash$falls$in$love$with$Lata$and$is$arranged$to$be$married$to$her5$
Lata$brieAly$considers$running$away$from$home,$debating$the$conAlicts$of$
love$versus$familial$obligation,$but$ultimately$consents$to$marry$Prakash5$
In$order$to$remove$himself$from$this$heartbreak,$Chander$leaves$PrakashMs$
house,$sacrificing$his$love$for$Lata$for$his$friend5$He$returns$home$with$
his$mother,$who$dies$at$the$end$of$their$journey5$Still$unaware$of$the$
love$between$Chander$and$Lata,$Prakash$is$upset$that$Chander$is$not$
present$for$his$wedding$to$Lata5$At$the$moment$he$vows$never$to$marry,$
however,$Chander$returns,$and$as$a$wedding$gift,$Chander$gives$the$
watch$back$to$Lata5$She$gifts$him$in$return$ ādha$mera$ġam $> half$of$
my$sorrows @5$The$film$ends$with$Chander$walking$alone$in$the$twilight,$
and$with$Basanti$running$to$catch$up$with$him5$
Anmol$Ghadi$has$some$of$the$most$important$and$memorable$music$in$
Indian$film$history5$The$soundtrack$contains$fine$vocal$performances$by$
the$actor-singers$Noorjehan$and$Suraiya,$as$well$as$early$examples$of$
playback$singing$by$Mohammed$Rafi,$Shamshad$Begum,$and$Zohrabai$
Ambalewali5$Each$of$the$last$three$singers$became$an$important$voice$in$
the$post-colonial$playback$period5$The$film$is$especially$well$known$for$
the$Noorjehan$songs$ Awaz$de$kahan$hai $> Call$out$to$me @$>figure$253@,$
Jawan$hai$mohhabat $> My$love$is$youthful @,$and$ Mere$bachpan$ke$
saathi $> My$childhood$companion @5$
Awaz$de$kahan$hai $>video$253@$is$a$duet$between$Noorjehan$and$
Surendra,$and$a$classic$example$of$the$use$of$a$rāga$as$the$basis$of$a$film$
song$melody$>Rāg$Pahādi@5$The$song$is$in$a$six-beat$meter$at$a$tempo$of$
approxi-$mately$165$bpm$in$the$accompaniment,$although$the$
languorous$melody$
!%44%$%Bollywood$Sounds
Noorjehan$singing$ Awaz$de$kahan $>Anmol$Ghadi$_1946`@$as$she$looks$at$the$

night$sky5$Video$253N Awaz$de$kahan$hai $
makes$the$song$sound$slower$and$more$contemplative5$Like$other$songs$of$
this$era,$the$vocal$melody$dominates$the$recording$mix$and$the$vocalists$
are$supported$by$strings$and$woodwinds$in$octaves,$with$tabla$as$rhythm$
accompaniment5$The$diatonic$and$largely$unornamented$vocal$melody$
stays$within$an$octave$range$for$each$singer5$The$song$uses$a$mukhṛā-
antarā$form,$with$two$stanzas$and$short$>1 2$cycles@$musical$interludes$
separating$the$stanzas$that$keep$the$song$at$approximat$
You$made$decisions$because$you$thought$they$were$
right5$The$answer$would$have$been$subjective$this$
time,$too5$Only$now,$you$are$not$sure$of$the$
answer,$you$hesitate,$and$so$remain$silent5$This$
silence$will$cost$you$dear5$You$will$succeed$in$
taking$me$to$the$sorcerer$who$will$use$his$magic$to$
make$me$his$genie$and$do$his$bidding5$His$first$
order$for$me$will$be$to$kill$you5$So$you$see,$
Vikramaditya,$as$long$as$you$were$karta,$taking$
calls,$you$were$doing$yourself$a$favour5$As$soon$as$
you$stop$making$your$own$decisions,$stop$being$a$
karta,$you$asdvre$at$the$mercy$of$others$and$you$
are$sure$to$end$up$dead5 $
Everyone$looks$at$the$karta$for$a$decision$despite$
data$being$unreliable,$the$future$being$uncsdvso$is$
the$yajaman5$
The$investors$are$chasing$Deepak5$He$built$an$online$
coaching$class$of$engineering$students$that$was$
bought$by$a$large$educational$portal$for$a$
phenomenal$amount5$Now$the$investors$expect$
Deepak$to$repeat$this$success5$Deepak$is$filled$with$
self-doubt5$He$is$not$sure$what$it$was$about$the$
website$he$built$that$made$it$so$valuable$in$the$eyes$
of$the$buyers5$Was$it$just$luck?$Since$he$does$not$
know$what$made$him$successful,$how$can$he$repeat$
the$success?$There$was$nothing$objective$about$his$
creation5$Must$he$follow$his$gut$instincts$again?$But$
the$investors$will$not$allow$him$to$do$so;$their$
auditors$will$keep$asking$him$for$explanations$and$
reasons,$assuming$his$calls$are$rational5$And$the$
media,$which$celebrated$the$sale,$is$watching$his$
every$move$continuously5$He$is$a$victim$of$success5$
How$he$wishes$he$never$became$an$entrepreneur5$
How$he$wishes$he$could$roll$back$the$clock,$be$a$
simple$engineer$
working$in$a$factory,$diligently$doing$what$the$boss$
tells$him$to$do5$ $
All%decisions%are%contextual%
Amongst$the$twenty-five$stories$that$the$vetal$told$
Vikramaditya,$this$is$oneN$a$king$killed$a$merchant$
and$laid$claim$to$all$his$property5$The$merchantMs$
widow$Aled$the$kingdom$swearing$revenge5$She$
seduced$a$priest$and$was$impregnated$by$him5$She$
abandoned$the$son$thus$born$at$the$door$of$a$
childless$king$who$adopted$the$foundling$and$raised$
him$as$his$own5$ Who$is$the$father$of$this$childN$the$
merchant$who$was$married$to$his$mother,$the$priest$
who$made$his$mother$pregnant$or$the$king$who$
adopted$him? $
Vikramaditya$replies$dsvwith$the$caveat$that$the$
answer$would$depend$on$the$culture$to$which$the$
king$belongs5$In$some$cultures$only$biological$
fathers$matter,$in$some,$legal$fathers$matter$and$in$
others,$foster$fathers$matter$more5$There$is$no$
objective$answer$in$matters$related$to$humans5$
In$the$Mahabharat,$Pandu$is$called$the$father$of$the$
Pandavs$even$though$he$is$not$their$biological$
father5$The$law$of$the$land$states$that$a$man$is$the$
father$of$hise5$Is$that$ethical?$In$the$Ramayan,$Ram$
is$celebrated$for$being$faithful$to$one$wife,$yet$in$
the$Mahabharat,$men$have$many$wives$and$the$
Pdf$
Pandavs$even$share$a$common$wife5$What$is$
appropriate$conduct?
Laws$by$their$very$nature$are$arbitrary$and$depend$
on$context5$What$one$community$considers$fair,$
another$may$not$consider$to$be$fair5$What$is$
considered$fair$bysdv$one$generation$is$not$
considered$fair$by$the$next5$Rules$always$change$in$
times$of$war$and$in$times$of$peace,$as$they$do$in$
times$of$
fortune$and$misfortune5
Thus,$no$decision$is$right$or$wrong5$Decisions$can$be$
beneficial$or$harmful,$
in$the$short-term$or$long-term,$to$oneself$or$to$
others5$Essentially,$every$decision$has$a$consequence,$
no$matter$which$rule$is$upheld$and$which$one$is$
ignored5$This$law$of$consequence$is$known$as$
karma5$
Mr5$Gupta$has$to$choose$a$successor5$Should$it$be$
his$eldest$son$who$is$not$very$shrewd?$Should$it$be$
the$second$son$who$is$smart$but$not$interested$in$
the$business?$Must$it$be$his$daughter,$who$feels$
gender$should$not$be$a$criterion,$dsAho$does$not$
belong$to$the$community,$which$will$annoy$a$lot$of$
shareholders?$Must$the$decision$be$based$on$
emotion,$equality,$fairness,$loyalty,$or$the$growth$of$
the$business$and$shareholder$value?$Each$and$every$
answer$will$have$opponents5$Must$he$simply$divide$
the$business$before$he$dies$for$the$sake$of$peace$or$
let$his$two$sons$and$daughter$fight$it$out$in$court$
after$his$death?$There$is$no$right$answer,$he$realizes5$
Traditionally,$in$the$community,$the$eldest$son$
inherited$everything5$That$was$convenient$but$often$
disastrous5$Mr5$Gupta$does$not$want$to$impress$the$
community;$he$wants$his$legacy$to$outlive$him5$He$
also$wants$all$his$children$to$be$ddv
happy5$His$desires$impact$the$decision$as$much$as$
the$context5$ $
Not%everyone%can%handle%the%
burden%of%uncertainty%
One$day,$Bhartrihari$receives$a$jewel$from$a$
traveller$who$is$visiting$his$kingdom5$ Only$a$king$
such$as$you$is$worthy$of$possessing$it, $says$the$
traveller5$
That$night,$the$king$gives$the$jewel$to$his$beloved$
queen$because$he$feels$she$is$more$worthy$of$it5$
The$next$day,$to$his$gresdcat$surprise,$he$finds$the$
same$jewel$in$a$basket$full$of$dung$being$carried$by$
the$lady$who$cleans$the$stables5$
On$being$questioned,$the$cleaning$lady$says$it$has$
been$given$to$her$by$her$lover,$the$man$who$grooms$
the$royal$horses5$When$the$groom$is$accused$of$
theft,$he$reveals$it$is$a$gift$from$a$nymph$who$visits$
him$every$night$in$the$stables5$The$king$decides$to$
investigate5$
The$following$night,$Bhartrihari$hides$in$the$stables$
and$realizes$that$the$snymphM$is$none$other$than$his$
beloved$queenp$Blinded$by$love,$he$does$not$see$that$
his$wife$loves$another$man$and$she$does$not$see$
that$the$man$she$finds$attractive$cares$for$another$
woman5$
After$this$incident,$the$king$is$unable$to$take$any$
decisions5$He$doubts$everything$he$sees5$Uncertainty$
paralyzes$him5$He$trusts$no$one5$In$despair,$he$
decides$to$become$a$hermit$and$give$up$his$throne$
to$his$younger$brother,$Vikramaditya5$
Bhartrihari$has$to$confront$the$horror$of$human$
existence5$We$can$never$know$everything$and$we$
can$never$be$sure5$All$information$is$incomplete,$
and$all$readings$distorted$by$personal$prejudice5$
And$yet$we$have$to$take$decisions$all$the$time$and$
hope$the$results$favour$us5$Bhartrihari$feels$
powerless5$He$is$unable$to$conduct$the$yagna$and$
passes$on$the$reins$of$his$kingdom$to$his$younger$
brother,$Vikramaditya5$
While$everyone$has$the$potential$of$being$a$karta$or$
a$yajaman,$not$everyone$is$willing$to$take$decisions$
and$be$responsible$for$the$outcome5$We$would$
rather$be$devata$>reactive@$than$yajaman$>proactive@5$
Madhukar,$head$of$markedsvting,$recommends$that$
Arshiya$be$made$the$head$of$corporate$
communications5$Soon$after$her$promotion,$Arshiya$
begins$to$behave$very$differently5$She$becomes$more$
arrogant$and$
imperious5$She$is$no$longer$as$gentle$or$as$kind5$
Madhukar$realizes$that$as$long$as$Arshiya$reported$
to$him,$she$behaved$very$nicely5$Now$that$she$
reports$directly$to$the$managing$director,$she$is$not$
obliged$to$be$nice5$Madhukar$realizes$that$the$data$
on$the$basis$of$which$he$made$the$recommendation$
was$false5$He$decides$to$never$again$recommend$
anyone$for$a$job$or$promotion5$Ergo,$he$will$never$
be$a$yajaman$again5$
$$$$$$$$
Sf
Every%decision%has%a%consequence%
In$the$Ramayan,$Dashrath$shoots$an$arrow$in$the$
direction$of$a$sound$that$he$believes$to$be$the$sound$
of$deer$drinking$water5$It$turns$out$to$be$the$sound$
of$water$being$collected$in$a$pot5$The$arrow$fatally$
injures$the$young$man$who$was$fetching$the$water5$
The$young$man$is$Shravan5$His$old$and$blind$
parents$do$not$see$this$event$as$an$accident5$They$
see$it$as$murder5$They$curse$Dashrath$to,$like$them,$
die$of$heartbreak$following$separation$from$his$son5$
In$the$Mahabharat,$Pandu$shoots$an$arrow$at$a$
deer,$not$realizing$that$it$is$copulating$with$a$doe,$
and$that$it$is,$in$fact,$no$deer$but$a$sage$called$
Kindama$who$has$taken$the$form$of$a$deer,$along$
with$his$wife,$in$order$to$mate$in$the$open$air5$
Kindama$curses$Pandu$that$should$he$touch$a$
woman$and$try$to$have$sex$with$her,$he$will$die$
instantly5$As$a$result,$Pandu$cannot$father$children5$
He$feels$he$is$unfit$to$be$king$as$he$will$never$father$
an$heir5$So$he$renounces$the$throne$and$stays$in$the$
jungle,$choosing$to$be$a$hermit,$a$decision$that$
takes$everyone$in$the$palace$by$surprise5sdc$
The$notion$of$karma$is$unique$to$Indian$thought5$
No$action$exists$in$isolation5$Every$decision$impacts$
the$ecosystem5$Karma$is$often$mistaken$for$the$
adage,$ As$you$sow,$so$shall$you$reap5 $The$
assumption$then$is$that$if$we$sow$good$deeds,$we$
will$reap$good$rewards5$But$who$decides$what$
action$is$good$or$bad?$The$desire$to$qualify$an$
action,$and$its$consequence,$as$good$or$bad,$right$or$
wrong,$is$a$peculiarly$human$trait5$Nature$does$not$
do$so5$
Action$impacts$the$self,$the$people$around$and$the$
environment$at$large5$Every$person$is$impacted$at$
three$levelsN$the$physical$level,$the$mental$level$and$
the$social$level5$Thus,$a$tiny$ripple$can$result$in$a$
storm,$and$the$ripple-causer$needs$to$take$
responsibility$for$it5$
An$arrow$that$has$been$released$from$the$bow$is$a$
metaphor$for$a$decision$that$cannot$be$withdrawn5$
It$has$consequences$that$a$yajaman$has$to$face5$
There$is$no$escapesdvsd5$This$is$a$heavy$burden$to$
bear5$
For$years,$they$manufactured$automobile$parts5$But$
when$Ritwik$decides$they$should$open$service$
centres$for$luxury$cars,$the$whole$family$opposes$
him5$ Do$it$with$yvour$own$moneyp $his$brother$
says5$So$Ritwik$uses$his$own$money$and$
investments5$If$he$succeeds,$the$profits$are$his$alone5$
He$will$prove$once$ansft$of$his$life$wondering$about$
all$the$things$that$could$have$happened$if$only$he$
had$
had$the$guts$to$take$a$risk5$There$is$no$escape$from$
consequences5$ $
Decisions%are%hindsight%
Garud,$the$eagle,$is$enjoying$the$song$of$a$sparrow$
atop$Mount$Kailas$when$he$observes$Yama,$the$god$
of$death,$also$looking$at$the$bird5$But$Yama$is$
frowning5$Maybe$he$does$not$like$the$song5$Fearing$
for$the$welfare$of$the$little$bird,$Garud,$with$
compassion$in$his$heart,$decides$to$take$the$bird$
away$from$YamaMs$line$of$sight5$
Garud$takes$the$bird$in$the$palm$of$his$hand$and$
Alies$to$a$forest$far$away,$beyond$the$seven$
mountains$and$seven$rivers5$There,$he$leaves$the$
sparrow$on$a$tree$full$of$succulent$fruits5$When$he$
returns$to$Mount$Kailas,$he$finds$Yama$smiling5$
Yama$explains,$ My$account$books$are$balanced5$I$
saw$a$sparrow$here$singing$a$song5$It$was$supposed$
to$die$today$but$not$here5$It$was$supposed$to$die$in$
a$forest$far$beyond$the$seven$mountains$and$seven$
rivers,$eaten$by$a$python$that$lives$under$a$tree$full$
of$succulent$fruits5$This$has$happened,$thanks$to$
you,$Garud5 $
Garud$realizes$in$hindsight$that$what$he$thought$
was$an$act$of$kindness$turned$out$to$be$an$act$
ofsdvhe$hope$that$they$will$minimize$surprises5$
Huge$amounts$of$time$are$taken$to$ensure$the$data$
and$the$analysis$is$right$so$that$the$results$are$
predictable5$As$organizations$grow$larger,$the$cost$of$
mistakes$is$higher,$and$so$much$more$time$and$
energy$is$taken$while$taking$decisions5$And$yet,$
despite$all$precautions,$things$can$and$do$go$wrong,$
often$because$assumptions$are$incorrect5$A$yajaman$
needs$to$take$this$in$his$stride5$
A$yajaman$needs$to$be$defined$not$by$the$outcome,$
achievement,$goal$or$performance,$but$by$his$ability$
to$take$decisions$proactively$and$responsibly5$
It$seemed$like$the$right$thing$to$do$at$the$timeN$
leaving$the$job$and$starting$out$on$his$own5$Parul$
thought$that$the$clients$would$love$to$have$the$
same$work$done$at$a$lower$cost$by$a$freelance$
consultant5$But$when$she$started$visiting$clients$she$
realized$there$were$more$freelance$consultants$than$
she$had$anticipated5$The$competition$was$fierce5$So$
she$started$offering$outsourcing$services5$And$
suddenly,$she$found$herself$much$in$demand$and$
the$owner$of$a$thriving$business5$Her$husband$said$
that$resigning$from$the$consulting$firm$was$the$best$
thing$she$had$done5$
But$Parul$knows$that$she$left$to$be$a$consultant$and$
had$never$dreamed$she$would$become$an$
entrepreneur5$This$was$not$a$future$she$had$
planned$or$anyone$had$predicted5$She$is$not$sure$if$
what$has$happened$is$good$or$bad5$
$$$$$$$$
Decisions%are%often%rationalized%in%
hindsight%
In$the$battlefield$of$Kurukshetra,$when$Bhisma$sees$
Shikhandi$standing$on$KrishnaMs$chariot,$he$lowers$
his$bow5$Taking$advantage$of$this,$Arjun$who$is$
standing$behind$Shikhandi$lets$loose$a$volley$of$
arrows$that$pins$Bhisma$to$the$ground5$Even$though$
thecdsd$great$general$of$the$Kaurav$army$cannot$be$
killed,$Arjun$has$managed$to$incapacitate$him,$
increasing$the$chances$of$Pandav$victory5$
The$Kauravs$protestN$the$rules$were$breached,$
Shikhandi$was$a$woman$and$no$woman$is$allowed$
on$the$battlefield5$
The$Pandavs$insist$Shikhandi$is$a$macondition5$Yet$to$
truly$grasp$the$nettle,$however,$a$longer$timeline$is$required5$
For$much$of$the$last$200$years$ChinaMs$destiny$has$been$shaped$by$its$
exposure$to$the$wider$world5$The$real$tipping$point$was$the$1839$opium$
War5$This$was$the$moment$at$which$tensions$with$international$trade$ $
tensions$born$of$the$Middle$KingdomMs$hermetic$pursuit$of$autonomy$ $
transformed$into$outright$aggression5$From$this$juncture,$China$
experienced$a$century$of$subjugation$at$the$hands$of$competing$colonial$
powers,$which$sdgd$ChinaMs$doors$in$1978,$and$is$widely$seen$as$the$
architect$of$its$meteoric$rise$to$todayMs$position$of$global$pre-eminence514$
Deng$had$lived$through$ChinaMs$all-time$lows5$If$these$had$resulted$from$
Chinese$obstinacy$in$the$face$of$globalizing$currents,$he$now$realized$
that$ChinaMs$future$must$grasp$the$obverse$face$of$this$historical$coin5$
Modern$China$has$harnessed$this$opening$up$with$seemingly$unbridled$
abandon5$
Longer$and$more$complete$histories$are$available$elsewhere,$so$I$will$not$
repeat$them5$rather,$this$brief$exposition$provides$some$context$to$the$
China$that$will$now$be$under$discussion5$Its$recent$history$has$been$
equally$tumultuous5$But$the$
InTroDuCTIon$3$
4$SHoppIng$MALLS$AnD$puBLIC$SpACe$In$MoDern$CHInA$
trajectory$has$been$largely$upwards5$China,$desperate$to$escape$the$
historical$mire$into$which$it$had$fallen,$has$been$playing$catch-up$in$
rapid$fashion5$In$this$period,$it$has$concertinaed$a$process$of$economic$
development$that$took$over$200$years$in$the$Western$world5$Accordingly,$
its$urban$landscape$resembles$a$bewildering$potpourri$of$conditions5$
Hyper-modernity$and$antiquity$nestle$side$by$side,$as$do$opulence$and$
poverty5$Development$is$constant5$The$territory$outdates$the$map$before$
it$can$even$be$drawn5$
Much$commentary,$and$architectural$production$for$that$matter,$
appears$to$be$seduced$by$the$speed$and$scale$of$this$condition515$For$
example$nancy$Lin,$under$the$umbrella$of$the$Masters$programme$run$
by$rem$Koolhaas$at$Harvard,$has$described$how$sarchitectural$design$is$
produced$ten$times$faster$in$China$than$in$the$uSM516$But$for$all$their$
romanticism$of$modern$ChinaMs$Alux,$these$commentaries$rarely$leave$one$
feeling$less$bafAled$at$their$conclusion5$Furthermore,$they$infer$an$idea$of$
Chinese$development$that$is$wilful$and$chaotic5$on$the$ground$this$may,$
at$times,$appear$to$be$an$inviolable$criterion$of$the$Chinese$urban$
experience,$but$the$reality$is$far$from$the$case5$overseeing$all$is$the$
panoptic$eye$of$the$one-party$state$and$its$development$mantra$ofN$
sSocialism$with$Chinese$characteristicsM5$Deng$Xiaoping$outlined$its$aims$
succinctlyN$
Socialism$means$eliminating$poverty5$Pauperism$is$not$socialism,$still$less$
communism5$The$superiority$of$the$socialist$system$lies$above$all$in$its$ability$to$
develop$the$productive$forces$and$to$improve$the$peopleMs$material$and$cultural$
life517$
ChinaMs$social$landscape$ $and$the$architectural$forms$through$which$it$
is$lived$and$represented$ $is$instrumentally$guided$by$the$state5$Its$built$
environment$is$no$accident5$Architecture$both$guides,$and$is$the$product$
of,$this$developmental$imperative5$If$the$shopping$mall$is$now$a$keystone$
of$Chinese$spublicM$space,$it$is$riven$with$the$seeds$of$ChinaMs$future$and$
the$tensions$embodied$in$its$ongoing$evolution5$As$such,$it$offers$the$
possibility$of$a$more$nuanced$understanding$of$ChinaMs$architectural$
modernity$and,$in$turn,$a$richer$set$of$ideas$about$what$a$shopping$mall$
may$be5$
plan%of%WoRk%
My$enquiry,$therefore,$occupies$an$intersection5$As$an$urban$entity$in$
China,$the$shopping$mall$is$forced$to$make$connections$above$and$
beyond$those$that$are$considered$intrinsic$to$its$more$customary$
situation$in$Western$suburbia5$In$embracing$the$complexity$of$the$
Chinese$urban$condition$have$new$spatial$and$programmatic$
characteristics$evolved$within$the$typology,$and$do$these$serve$its$
betterment?$Transposition$out$of$its$Western$comfort$sag$a$complex$
culture$that$is$not$my$own;$it$allows$me$to$attain$a$degree$of$
understanding$of$that$culture5$An$appreciation$of$the$shopping$mall$in$a$
Western$context$is$the$platform$from$which$its$degrees$of$difference$in$a$
Chinese$situation$can$be$understood5$It$presents$both$a$limit$and$a$
benchmark5$A$conceptual$limit$must$not$throttle$the$scope$of$enquiry$at$
hand,$however5$The$forces$and$relations$of$production$shaping$modern$
ChinaMs$pseudo-capitalist$spatiality$reach$into$many$areas$of$its$social$
composition5$The$form$that$my$investigative$structure$takes$must$
therefore$acknowledge$and$make$room$for$the$exploration$of$these$
attributes5$
Although$China$is$the$primary$focus$of$this$study,$it$is$also$important$to$
acknowledge$that$any$discussion$of$China,$and$the$shopping$mall$for$
that$matter,$intersects$with$global$concerns5$If$China$now$sshakes$the$
worldM22$it$is$equally$the$case$ $as$the$preceding$brief$history$illustrated$ $
that$is$has$been$shaken$by$the$world5$This$speaks$of$a$pre-condition$and$
post-condition,$both$of$which$are$culturally$hybridizedN$the$former$by$the$
imposition$of$colonial$occupation,$the$latter$by$ChinaMs$increasing$global$
preeminence5$Viewed$in$parallel$with$the$picture$of$the$shopping$mall$
afforded$by$this$intersection,$these$pre-conditions$and$post-conditions$
assume$vital$importance$to$the$construction$of$a$more$informed$critical$
history$that$concerns$the$typology$as$a$whole5$Accordingly,$this$study$
will$contextualize$matters$by$looking$at$the$shopping$mallMs$pre-
conditions$in$the$uSA,$Britain,$Singapore,$Hong$Kong$and$Japan$to$
understand$the$factors$that$have$inAluenced$its$hybrid$form$on$the$
Chinese$mainland5$From$here,$the$development$of$a$distinctly$Chinese$
shopping$mall$will$be$explored5$This$exploration$will$conclude$with$a$
discussion$of$post-conditions$that$may$result$in$the$future$via$the$export$
of$this$hybrid$typology$into$the$milieu$of$modern,$global$shopping$mall$
development5$Therefore,$while$a$significant$portion$of$this$book$will$
discuss$global$issues,$its$aim$is$always$to$further$a$more$nuanced$
understanding$of$the$shopping$mall$in$the$context$of$China5$
Stuart$HallMs$essay,$sencoding,$DecodingM,$provides$a$number$of$useful$
cues,$describing$the$circulation$of$globalized$media$asN$
a$structure$produced$and$sustained$through$the$articulation$of$linked$but$
distinctive$moments$ $production,$circulation,$distribution,$consumption,$
InTroDuCTIon$5$
reproduction5$This$would$be$to$think$of$the$process$as$a$scomplex$structure$in$
dominanceM,$sustained$through$the$articulation$of$connected$practices,$each$of$
which,$however,$retains$its$distinctiveness$and$has$its$own$specific$modality,$its$
own$forms$and$conditions$of$existence523$
Transposed$to$the$mall,$whose$socio-spatial$framework$and$re-
contextualization$within$the$Chinese$heartland$echo$this$scomplex$
structure$in$dominanceM$a$critical$analysis$that$parallels$HallMs$
framework$is$proposed5$Broadly$speaking,$Its$concerns$also$coincide$with$
the$perceived/conceived/lived$trialectic$pioneered$by$Lefebvre524$By$
defining$these$smomentsM$and$exploring$the$discursive$relationship$
between$them,$this$critical$framework$will$allow$us$to$dematerialize$the$
invariance$of$built$form5$The$following$nine$chapters$will$thus$comprise$
an$interdisciplinary$investigation$through$which$the$Chinese$shopping$
mall$can$be$deconstructed5$It$is$worth$describing$this$structure$in$a$little$
more$detail5$
Chapter$1,$sA$Brief$History$of$MallsM,$is,$more$accurately,$a$critique$of$the$
shopping$mallMs$history5$Its$purpose$is$to$set$the$theoretical$tone$by$
digging$beneath$the$surface$of$more$conventional$histories$to$get$to$the$
root$of$the$more$fundamental$factors$behind$the$shopping$mallMs$
architectural$production5$As$such,$it$as$much$historical$critique$as$it$is$
history5$Drawing$on$my$own$previous$research25$I$identify$the$spatial$
characteristics$that$have$ensured$the$Western$shopping$mallMs$longevity5$
employing$various$spatial$and$social$theories,$I$explain$what$these$
architectural$devices$mean$for$the$shopping$mallMs$existential$
constructs526$These$will$be$the$benchmarks$against$which$the$dimensions$
of$difference$inherent$in$the$Chinese$shopping$mall$can$be$measured5$
Chapter$2,$seastern$promisesM,$explores$the$locations$within$which$
architectural$production$of$the$hybrid$shopping$mall$now$prevalent$in$
urban$China$initially$took$place5$Accordingly$a$number$of$Asian$
antecedents$to$the$Chinese$mall$are$discussed5$Assimilations$of$metabolist$
theories$in$Singapore,27$adaptations$to$the$challenging$topography$of$
Hong$Kong,$and$Tadao$AndoMs$concrete$austerity$in$Tokyo$form$the$basis$
of$this$investigation5$
Chapter$3,$sA$new$BreedM,$turns$to$the$production$of$the$Chinese$shopping$
mall$itself5$ChinaMs$extant$urban$conditions$advave$acted$as$a$precursor$
to$the$shopping$mallMs$integration$into$its$metropolitan$cores528$From$here$
I$turn$to$the$identification$of$the$spatial$characteristics$that$define$the$
Chinese$mall$typology5$
Chapter$4,$sThe$rubM,$discusses$the$shopping$mallMs$circulation$as$a$totem$
of$ChinaMs$economic$potency5$In$particular,$this$chapter$explores$how$
divergences$between$the$communist$and$capitalist$ideologies$that$guide$
ChinaMs$development$attempt$a$degree$of$resolution$in$the$space$of$the$
shopping$mall5$The$erasure$of$ChinaMs$past$in$service$of$its$future$will$be$
explored$through$the$spaces$of$DongguanMs$South$China$Mall$ $the$most$
plausible$contender$for$the$title$of$the$largest$shopping$mall$in$the$
world529$This$edifice$of$consumption$also$suffers$the$ignominy$of$being$
one$of$the$worldMs$most$spectacular$real-estate$failures530$Its$near$total$
vacancy$reveals$a$number$of$fissures$in$the$forces$and$relations$of$
production$
that$have$underpinned$ChinaMs$rise5$Accordingly,$its$investigation$may$
reveal$more$clearly$the$value$systems$that$guide$the$one-party$state5$
Chapter$5,$sA$new$DayM,$moves$the$discussion$to$Chinese$shopping$malls$
where$business$is$truly$booming5$Here,$circulation$and$distribution$of$the$
Communist$partyMs$message$becomes$spatialized5$The$unique$
characteristics$of$these$spaces$are$bound$to$pivotal$moments$in$ChinaMs$
growth$and$the$tensions$it$experiences$with$competing$economic$
powers531$Moreover,$its$all-pervasive$urban$presence$is$discussed$as$the$
basis$for$articulating$an$emergent$Chinese$class$structure532$
Chapter$6,$sThe$City$reifiedM,$looks$at$the$spatialization$of$ChinaMs$nascent$
class$structure$throughout$the$whole$urban$field5$The$shopping$mall$can$
be$seen$here$as$a$key$agent$for$the$distribution$of$this$ideological$web5$
Changing$conceptions$ofvdsd$ChinaMs$gated33$urban$formations$are$
explored$through$the$shopping$mallMs$segmentary$structure534$This$
scenario,$in$turn,$implies$the$creation$of$distinct$spatial$networks35$
formed$on$the$basis$of$class$lines5$Is$the$right$to$the$contemporary$
Chinese$city$based$solely$on$ones$ability$to$consume?$
Chapter$7,$sThe$BleedM,$explores$the$lived$dimensions$of$the$Chinese$
shopping$mall$ $the$means$by$which$it$is$consumed$by$its$users5$
Aberrant$behavior$is$the$dominant$object$of$analysis$here5$In$identifying$
where$the$mall$fails$to$follow$a$pre-programmed$agenda$of$consumption,$
the$potential$for$a$broader$cultural$orientation$is$possible5$A$disturbing$
branch$of$insubordination$has$manifested$itself$in$acts$of$suicide$that$
have$exercised$a$particular$kind$of$architectural$violence36$on$ChinaMs$
shopping$mall$atriums5$These$acts$reveal$the$anomic$tension37$that$
characterizes$inhabitation$of$the$Chinese$shopping$mall$for$many5$They$
also$spur$a$more$in-depth$exploration$of$the$many$other$lived$
dimensions$of$the$mall5$
Chapter$8,$sgoing$Down$to$ChinatownM,$discusses$architectural$form$itself$
as$an$object$of$consumption5$An$initial$exploration$of$the$broader$
landscape$of$architectural$production$in$China$establishes$a$framework$
within$which$the$architectural$language$of$the$hybrid$shopping$mall$can$
be$contextualized5$By$looking$at$the$ephemeral,$affective$surface$language$
of$the$Chinese$shopping$mall,$its$aspirational$dimensions$can$be$
understood$as$a$broader$reAlection$of$currents$that$inform$an$emergent$
urban$vernacular5$Tensions$between$modern$and$nostalgic$architectural$
representations$are$edsvst-modern$tropes$that$more$conventionally$blight$
the$shopping$mall538$The$meaning$of$this$affective$language$is$ultimately$
cast$as$a$filter$that$informs$attitudes$to$ChinaMs$envirosdv$shopping$mallMs$
planning$and$design$characteristics$are$strongest$is$fundamental$to$this$
analysis5$Similarly,$these$sites$provide$scope$to$explore$the$tensions$
between$ChinaMs$socialist/communist$political$framework$and$its$
exposure$to$the$impetus$of$globalization5$The$focal$
InTroDuCTIon$7$
points$of$ChinaMs$opening$up$and$the$development$of$what$Cook$describes$
as$the$sinternationalized$metropolisM,39$offer$the$most$fruitful$areas$for$
study5$Beijing,$Shanghai$and$the$pearl$river$Delta$will$thus$provide$
geographical$focus;$each$having$boasted$the$location$of$the$worldMs$largest$
shopping$mall$at$some$point$since$the$turn$of$the$millennium5$
Beijing$will$occupy$centre-stage5$As$the$seat$of$political$power$it$provides$
an$opportunity$to$evaluate$the$urban$shopping$mall$in$the$heart$of$
ChinaMs$socialist$market$economy5$BeijingMs$historic$city$plan$represented$
an$idealized$Chinese$metropolis$and$enshrined$many$important$ideas$
about$urban$space540$The$impact$of$these$ideas$on$the$Chinese$psyche41$
plays$an$important$part$in$understanding$the$widespread$adoption$of$
the$shopping$mall$in$this$part$of$the$world5$Beijing$remains$the$fulcrum$
around$which$China$experiments$with$the$future$of$its$society5$
Shanghai$was,$for$centuries,$the$centre$of$global$trade$in$mainland$
China5$As$a$result$of$the$internationalization$that$this$status$brought,$
Shanghai$has$often$been$considered$saheadM$of$other$Chinese$cities5$Does$
Shanghai$therefore$reAlect$the$cutting$edge$of$shopping$mall$design$in$
China?$or$does$its$prominence$on$the$global$stage$result$in$the$
internationalized$homogenization$of$urban$space?$
The$pearl$river$Delta$and$its$special$economic$zone$is$defined$by$a$
symbiotic$relationship$between$the$former$colonial$territory$of$Hong$
Kong$and$the$manufacturing$hubs$of$Shenzhen,$guangzhou$and$
Dongguan5$It$brings$ChinaMs$seemingly$polarized$facets$of$production$and$
consumption$into$close$proximity$and$asks$some$awkward$questions$of$
the$shopping$mallMs$societal$relevance$in$this$context5$
A$study$of$the$shopping$mall$in$contemporary$China$presents$an$
opportunity$to$provide$meaningful$insight$into$a$much-maligned$
building$typology5$evolution,$in$terms$of$this$architectural$form,$has$
taken$place$in$little$over$50$years$ $as$opposed$to$the$centuries,$even$
millennia,$of$trial-and-error$evolution$that$have$defined$most$of$the$
building$classifications$we$take$for$granted$today5$Much$architectural$
criticism$of$the$shopping$mall$fails$to$find$a$vocabulary$that$is$able$to$
address$the$levels$of$meaning$implicit$within$its$built$manifestations5$Yet$
the$shopping$mall$endures5$To$remain$a$relevant$social$art$architecture$
must$foster$a$more$holistic$understanding$of$this$phenomenon5$This$is$a$
necessary$and$integral$part$of$the$process$of$adapting$to$globalizing$
forces5$An$investigation$of$Chinese$malls$offers$an$excellent$case$study,$
indeed$a$microcosm,$of$what$is$happening$in$all$our$cities$today5$
noTes%
5 1$$SeeN$Longstreth,$richard,$City$Centre$to$Regional$MallN$Architecture,$the$
Automobile,$and$Retailing$in$Los$Angeles,$1920 1950$>LondonN$The$MIT$
press,$1997@;$Wall,$Alex,$Victor$GruenN$From$Urban$Shop$to$New$City$
>BarcelonaN$Actar,$2005@5$
5 2$$SeeN$Baudrillard,$Jean,$The$Consumer$SocietyN$Myths$and$Structures$
>LondonN$Sage$publications,$1970@;$Kowinski,$Wiliam$Severini,$The$Malling$
of$AmericaN$Travels$in$the$United$States$of$Shopping$>Bloomington,$InN$
Xlibris,$1985@5$
5 3$$SeeN$Koolhaas,$rem$>ed5@,$Harvard$Design$School$Guide$to$Shopping$>KolnN$
Taschen$gmbH,$2001@5$
5 4$$SeeN$Betsky,$Aaron$and$Adigard,$erik,$Architecture$Must$BurnN$A$
Manifesto$for$an$Architecture$Beyond$Building$>LondonN$Thames$&$Hudson,$
2000@,$p5$75$
5 5$$SeeN$Lury,$Celia,$Consumer$Culture$>CambridgeN$polity$press,$1996@5$
5 6$$SeeN$Dovey,$Kim,$Framing$PlacesN$Mediating$Power$in$Built$Form$>LondonN$
routledge,$1999@;$Shane,$David$grahame,$Recombinant$UrbanismN$
Conceptual$Modeling$in$Architecture,$Urban$Design,$and$City$Theory$
>ChichesterN$John$Wiley$and$Sons,$2005@;$Shane,$David$grahame,$Urban$
Design$Since$1945$ $A$Global$Perspective$>ChichesterN$John$Wiley$and$Sons,$
2011@5$
5 7$$SeeN$Miller,$Daniel,$A$Theory$of$Shopping$>oxfordN$Blackwell$publishers,$
1998@;$Miller,$Daniel,$Jackson,$peter,$Thrift,$nigel,$Holbrook,$Beverley$and$
rowlands,$Michael,$Shopping,$Place$and$Identity$>LondonN$routledge,$1998@;$
Morris,$Mesdv 5 8$$SeeN$Jewell,$nicholas,$sThe$fall$and$rise$of$the$
British$mallM,$The$Journal$of$Architecture,$Volume$6,$Winter$2001,$pp5$317
785$
5 9$$SeeN$Ibrahim,$Ibrahim,$srevisiting$the$shopping$mallN$Building$shopping$
centres$as$traditional$retail$outlets$needs$a$re-thinkM5$Management$
Thinking,$March$4,$20135$Available$atN$httpN//www5management-
thinking5org/content/revisiting-shopping-mall$_accessed$March$31,$2013`5$
5 10$$SeeN$Spence,$Jonathan$D5,$The$Search$for$Modern$China,$Second$Edition$
>new$YorkN$W5$W5$norton$and$Company,$1999@5$
5 11$$SeeN$Dikotter,$Frank,$MaoMs$Great$FamineN$The$History$of$ChinaMs$Most$
Devastating$Catastrophe,$1958 62$>LondonN$Bloomsbury,$2010@;$pan,$philip,$
Out$of$MaoMs$ShadowN$The$Struggle$for$the$Soul$of$a$New$China$>LondonN$
picador,$2009@5$
5 12$$Kynge,$James,$China$Shakes$the$WorldN$The$Rise$of$a$Hungry$Nation$
>LondonN$phoenix/$orion$Books$Ltd,$2007@5$
5 13$$SeeN$Kissinger,$Henry,$On$China$>LondonN$penguin,$2012@5$
5 14$$SeeN$Harvey,$David,$A$Brief$History$of$Neoliberalism$>oxfordN$oxford$
university$press,$2005@;$Hewitt,$Duncan,$Getting$Rich$FirstN$Life$in$a$
Changing$China$>LondonN$Vintage/The$random$House$group$Ltd,$2007@5$
5 15$$SeeN$Hewitt,$Getting$Rich$First;$Hornsby,$Adrian$and$Mars,$neville$>eds@,$
The$Chinese$DreamN$A$Society$Under$Construction$>rotterdamN$010$
publishers,$2008@;$Koolhaas,$rem$>ed5@,$The$Great$Leap$Forward$>KolnN$
Taschen$gmbH,$2001@;$Kynge,$China$Shakes$the$World5$
5 16$$Lin,$nancy,$sArchitecture,$ShenzhenM,$in$rem$Koolhaas$>ed5@,$The$Great$
Leap$Forward$>Taschen$gmbH;$Koln,$2001@,$p5$1615$
5 18$$SeeN$Hewitt,$Getting$Rich$First;$Hornsby$and$Mars,$The$Chinese$Dream;$
Kynge,$China$Shakes$the$World;$Leach,$neil,$China$>Hong$KongN$Map$Book$
publishers,$2004@5$
5 19$$SeeN$HassenpAlug,$Dieter,$The$Urban$Code$of$China$>BaselN$Birkhauser$
gmbH,$2010@5$
5 20$$SeeN$Hornsby$and$Mars,$The$Chinese$Dream;$Leach,$China5$
InTroDuCTIon$9$
10$SHoppIng$MALLS$AnD$puBLIC$SpACe$In$dos 5 23$$Hall,$Stuart,$sencoding,$
decodingM,$in$Simon$During$>ed5@,$The$Cultural$Studies$ReaderN$
Second$Edition$>LondonN$routledge,$1999@,$p5$5085$
5 24$$SeeN$Lefebvre,$Henri,$The$Production$of$Space,$trans5$Smith,$Donald$
nicholson$>Malden,$MAN$Blackwell,$1991@;$Soja,$edward$W5,$ThirdspaceN$
Journeys$to$Los$Angeles$and$Other$Real-and-Imagined$Places$>oxfordN$
Blackwell,$1996@5$
5 25$$SeeN$Jewell,$The$Fall$and$Rise$of$the$British$Mall5$
5 26$$SeeN$Benjamin,$Walter,$The$Arcades$Project$>LondonN$Harvard$university$
press,$2004@;$Colomina,$Beatriz,$Privacy$and$PublicityN$Modern$Architecture$
as$Mass$Media$>London$and$Cambridge,$MAN$The$MIT$press,$1995@;$De$
Certeau,$Michel,$The$Practice$of$Everyday$Life$>Berkley$and$Los$Angeles,$CAN$
university$of$California$press,$1988@;$Deleuze,$gilles$and$guattari,$Felix,$A$
Thousand$Plateaus$>LondonN$Continuum,$2004@;$Dovey,$Kim,$Becoming$
PlacesN$Urbanism/Architecture/Identity/Power$>LondonN$routledge,$2009@;$
Dovey,$Framing$Places;$Hillier,$Bill,$Space$is$the$Machine$>CambridgeN$
Cambridge$university$press,$1996@;$Klein,$naomi,$No$Logo$>LondonN$Harper$
Collins$publishers,$2000@;$Miller,$A$Theory$of$Shopping;$Sennett,$richard,$
Flesh$and$StoneN$The$Body$and$the$City$in$Western$Civilization$>LondonN$
Faber$and$Faber,$1994@5$
va,$Jianying,$China$PopN$How$Soap$Operas,$Tabloids$and$Bestsellers$are$
Transforming$a$Culture$>new$YorkN$The$new$York$press,$1995@;$Zhu,$Jianfei,$
Chinese$Spatial$StrategiesN$Imperial$Beijing$1420 1911$>LondonN$routledge,$
2004@5$
5 29$$SeeN$sList$of$largest$shopping$malls$in$the$worldM5$Wikipedia5$Available$
atN$httpN//$en5wikipedia5org/wiki/
List_of_the_world%27s_largest_shopping_malls#List_of_the_$
world527s_largest_shopping_malls$_accessed$January$12,$201sdf 5 31$
$SeeN$rein,$Shaun,$The$End$of$Cheap$ChinaN$Economic$and$Cultural$Trends$
That$Will$Disrupt$the$World$>Hoboken,$nJN$John$Wiley$and$Sons,$2012@5$
5 32$$SeeN$Lash,$Scott$and$urry,$John,$The$End$of$Organized$Capitalism$
>Cambridge/oxfordN$polity$press/Blackwell$publishers,$1987@5$
5 33$$SeeN$Atkinson,$rowland$and$Blandy,$Sarah$>eds@,$Gated$Communities$
>oxonN$routledge,$2006@;$King,$Anthony$D5$>ed5@,$Spaces$of$Global$CulturesN$
Architecture,$Urbanism,$Identity$>oxonN$routledge,$2004@5$
5 34$$SeeN$Dovey,$Becoming$Places5$
5 35$$SeeN$Shane,$Recombinant$Urbanism5$
5 36$$SeeN$Tschumi,$Bernard,$Architecture$and$Disjunction$>London$and$
Cambridge,$MAN$The$MIT$press,$1996@5$
ddv
5 37$$SeeN$Durkheim,$emile,$Suicide$>oxonN5 39$$SeeN$Cook,$Ian$g5,$sBeijing$
as$an$ Internationalized$Metropolis M,$in$Fulong$Wu$>ed5@,$Globalization$
and$the$Chinese$City$>oxonN$routledge,$2006@,$pp5$63 55$
5 40$$SeeN$Zhu,$Chinese$Spatial$Strategies5$
5 41$$SeeN$King,$Spaces$of$Global$Cultures;$Zha,$China$Pop5$
InTroDuCTIon$11$
This$page$has$been$left$blank$intentionally$
1
A%Brief%History%of%Malls%
Beginnings$are$the$bane$of$the$writer5$And$histories$are$blighted$by$the$
spectre$of$fiction5$Furthermore,$an$edifice$of$bewilderment$surrounds$
architectural$histories$of$the$shopping$mall5$Where,$then,$may$I$begin?$
Just$as$Proust$begins$the$story$of$his$life$with$an$awakening,$so$must$every$
presentation$of$history$begin$with$awakening;$in$fact,$it$should$treat$of$nothing$
else51$
For$Walter$Benjamin,$the$arcades$of$nineteenth-century$Paris$were$a$
medium$whose$exploration$would$awaken$a$dreaming$collective52$His$
intention,$sadly$unrealized,$was$a$historical-materialist$expose$of$the$
socio-spatial$and$subjective$psychological$conditions$of$nineteenth-
century$capitalism5$Benjamin$sought$to$unravel$what$he$saw$as$a$crisis$
of$historical$representation$ $one$that$had$channeled$the$myth$of$
progress$as$a$means$of$legitimating$the$advance$of$high$capitalism5$
The$concept$of$progress$had$to$run$counter$to$the$critical$theory$of$history
from$the$moment$it$ceased$to$be$applied$as$a$criterion$to$specific$historical$
developments$and$instead$was$required$to$measure$the$span$between$a$legendary$
inception$and$a$legendary$end$of$history5$In$other$words;$as$soon$as$it$becomes$
the$signature$of$historical$process$as$a$whole,$the$concept$of$progress$bespeaks$an$
uncritical$hypostatization$rather$than$a$critical$interrogation53$
TimeMs$passage$has$done$little$to$dampen$the$imperative$of$treating$
BenjaminMs$original$expose$as$a$starting$point,$this$time$for$the$
construction$of$a$brief,$critical,$history$of$the$shopping$mall5$Not$only$
does$the$shopping$mall$represent$a$direct$typological$evolution$of$the$
Parisian$arcade5$Its$titular$position,$at$the$forefront$of$globalized$capitalMs$
unrelenting$march,$also$masks$the$more$unsavoury$facets$of$the$sfreeM$
market$ $manifest$inequality,$cynical$profiteering$and$transient$fashions$
$beneath$the$banner$of$progress5$The$endeavor$of$this$opening$chapter$is$
thus$an$exegesis$of$the$shopping$mallMs$historical$advance$over$the$late-
twentieth$and$early-tsdvwenty-first$centuries5$
sdv
151$A$Parisian$arcade$in$the$present$day5$Image$courtesy$of$Nicholas$Jewell5$
IS%THIS%HISTORY?%
What$do$we$mean$when$we$use$the$words$sshopping$mallM?$When$did$
these$words$first$attain$significance$in$describing$the$man-made$
landscape$of$modernity?$
shopping$mall$n$ $a$large$enclosed$shopping$centre5
shopping$centre$n$ $a$complex$of$stores,$restaurants$and$sometimes$banks,$
usually$under$the$same$roof54$
The$difficulty$with$definitions$as$open-ended$as$those$given$above$is$
understanding$just$when,$historically,$the$shopping$mall$entered$the$
modern$psyche5$Any$number$of$antecedents$can$be$identified,$ranging$
from$citations$of$the$seventh-century$Damascene$Souq$Al$Hamdia$as$the$
first$shopping$mall,$to$more$recent$nineteenth-$century$examples$such$as$
londonMs$Burlington$Arcade$or$MilanMs$Galleria$Vittorio$emanuele$II55$
spatial$qualities$displayed$in$the$nineteenth-century$Parisian$arcade$also$
inform$this$typological$lineage5$Gilloch,$for$instance,$notes$thatN$
the$construction$of$the$arcade$involved$a$particular$alteration$ $or,$rather,$
invasion$ $of$spaceN$the$street,$that$which$is$exterior$to$the$building,$became$
interiorized,$was$made$part$of$the$building$itself56$
This$statement$is$as$true$od$work$faithfully$records$the$prototypical$
architectural$forms$that$emerged$within$the$early-twentieth$century$
sprawl$of$los$Angeles5$These$shaped$the$modern$American$landscape,$and$
included$a$number$of$early$experiments$with$the$shopping$mall57$The$
decisive$shift,$however,$was$realized$in$Detroit,$sMotor$City$UsAM,$and$has$
defined$the$paradigm$ever$since5$
The$origins$of$the$covered$shopping$mall$as$a$building$type$can$be$traced$back$to$
the$early$1950s$and$specifically$to$the$Northland$Shopping$Centre,$Detroit$
>completed$1954@$by$Victor$Gruen5$Situated$on$the$outskirts$of$the$city,$the$centre$
was$designed$almost$exclusively$for$the$car$owning$public5$The$inward-looking$
complex$sits$in$a$sea$of$car$parking$ $a$self-contained$shopping$city$divorced$
from$any$urban$context5$The$type$proved$to$be$so$successful$that$it$quickly$
became$the$norm$for$large$scale$shopping$developments$all$over$the$USA,$with$
ultimately$disastrous$consequences$for$the$social$and$economic$wellbeing$of$
American$cities58$
Considered$in$this$sense,$the$shopping$mall$represents$one$of$the$most$
recent$additions$to$the$lexicon$of$built$forms$that$constitute$a$sense$of$
formal$order$in$the$modern,$man-made$landscape$of$Western$capitalist$
societies5$In$1950s$America,$its$
A$BrIeF$HIsTory$oF$MAlls$15$
16$sHoPPING$MAlls$AND$PUBlIC$sPACe$IN$MoDerN$CHINA$
early$development$is$largely$attributable$to$a$single$architect,$the$
Austrian$émigré$architect$Victor$Gruen59$He$saw$that$the$motorcar$was$
sthe$means$by$which$the$last$vestige$of$community$coherence$was$
destroyedM510$yet$he$also$understood$that$the$car$was$a$necessity$for$
modern$living5$More$than$anyone,$he$saw$the$shopping$mall$as$the$
means$to$provide$AmericaMs$car-borne$suburban$population$with$some$of$
the$benefits$and$amenities$of$urban$life5$Gruen$described$the$mall$asN$
a$place$that$not$only$provides$suburbanites$with$their$physical$living$
requirements,$but$simultaneously$serves$their$civic,$cultural$and$social$
community$needs,$_and$as$such`$it$will$make$a$most$significant$contribution$to$
the$enrichment$of$our$lives511$
Two$decisive$criterion$therefore$separated$this$typological$advance$from$
its$historical$antecedents$ $its$increased$scale$and$suburban$situation5$
GruenMs$intention$was$to$create$a$focused$and$coherent$surbanM$centre$
within$the$sprawling$anonymity$of$AmericaMs$suburban$landscape5$
Founded$on$the$most$noble$of$motives,$the$question$must$then$be$asked$
of$the$shopping$mallN$where$did$it$all$go$wrong?$
riding$on$the$success$of$the$Northland$Centre$and$the$design$of$further$
enclosed$malls$ $such$as$the$southdale$Centre,$Minnesota$ $Victor$
GruenMs$major$book$and$manifesto,$Shopping$Towns$USA,$was$first$
published$in$19605$It$served$as$the$benchmark$for$the$evolution$of$
shopping$malls,$assuming$an$almost$biblical$significance$for$architects,$
planners,$developers,$engineers$and$others$involved$in$their$design$and$
construction5$Many$of$the$planning$innovations$displayed$in$the$book$
remain$prevalent$today5$What$Gruen$proposed$was$an$improvement$to$
the$typical$strip$developments$that$existed$on$the$outskirts$of$American$
towns$and$cities5$Typically$these$fell$into$two$categories5$either$a$series$of$
stores$located$along$a$major$highway$ $whose$viability$depended$on$car$
access$and$the$volume$of$parking$spaces$they$could$offer$ $or$a$stand-
alone$sbig-boxM$warehouse$which$offered$a$wide$range$of$competitively$
priced$goods$under$one$roof5$GruenMs$solution$was$to$unite$the$positive$
qualities$of$the$two$in$a$format$that$seemingly$transcended$their$
limitations5$As$longstreth$notes,$the$result$was$sa$total$environment$
made$feasible$only$by$widespread$automobile$use$while$excluding$the$
negative$effects$of$trafficM512$By$assimilating$the$variety$of$stores$offered$in$
strip$developments$and$the$convenience$of$the$sbig-boxM$warehouses,$
Gruen$conceived$the$shopping$mall$as$a$safe,$sheltered,$climatically$
constant,$traffic-free,$pedestrian$environment5$
GruenMs$most$significant$innovation,$however,$was$the$balance$that$he$
struck$between$the$desires$of$the$consumer$and$the$demands$of$the$
retailer5$As$a$result,$the$physical$materialization$of$the$mall$was$
governed$by$a$devastatingly$simple$and$effective$plan$form$that$was$
christened$the$sdumb-bellM5$It$consisted$of$a$single$internal$shopping$street$
with$two$large$sanchor$storesM$acting$as$smagnetsM$at$either$end$of$the$
route5$Instantly$beloved$by$developers$everywhere,$the$giddy,$weightless$
effect$of$this$layout$on$the$American$consumer$was$named$after$its$
creator5$Dubbed$sthe$Gruen$Transfer$or$Gruen$effect,$the$theory$holds$
that$shoppers$will$be$so$bedazzled$by$varchitects;$an$individual$project$would$
only$be$as$good$as$the$developer$and$the$developerMs$support$for$his$architect5$
With$some$exceptions,$developers$reduced$the$investment$in$public$spaces,$
community$services,$landscape,$and$art$and$made$the$regional$shopping$centre$
more$and$more$what$Alfred$Taubman,$the$renowned$shopping-centre$developer$
from$Detroit,$had$called$itN$sa$machine$for$selling,$not$an$architectural$problemM514$
Gruen$did$not$submit$to$this$state$of$affairs$meekly,$however5$He$was,$at$
heart,$a$committed$urbanist$ $a$fact$demonstrated$most$notably$by$his$
unbuilt$masterplan$for$downtown$Fort$Worth,$Texas5$lauded$by$Jane$
Jacobs15$this$project$predated$Shopping$Towns$USA$by$five$years5$It$
reAlected$GruenMs$desire$to$adapt$the$shopping$mall$to$the$town$centre$in$
order$to$provide$a$focused,$integrated,$pedestrian$urban$realm5$yet$the$
intersection$of$private$capital$and$state$politics$necessary$to$realize$such$
a$vision$never$materialized5$This$project,$however,$established$a$theme$
that$informed$his$later$written$work$ $The$Heart$of$Our$Cities$in$1964$
and$Centres$of$the$Urban$Environment$in$19735$Both$of$these$books$
acknowledged$the$damage$caused$by$suburban$shopping$mall$
developments$throughout$America$and$explored$a$more$critical$
architectural$practice$that$might$reconcile$the$mall$with$the$city516$
Critical$practice,$however,$remained$on$paper5$As$a$device$for$capital$
accumulation$the$shopping$mall$was$in$rude$health$and$its$mechanics$
were$well$understood5$The$property$developers$that$funded$these$
developments$thus$had$little$need$for$architects,$particularly$those$that$
might$challenge$a$highly$profitable$status-quo5$Capital$was$now$
positioned$to$marginalize$architectural$critique$before$it$had$any$
opportunity$to$manifest$itself$in$built$form5$As$a$result,$endless$
repetitions$of$the$dumbbell$have$bound$the$shopping$mall$typology$into$
a$stasis$of$non-evolution$that$has$metastasized$across$AmericaMs$
sprawling$landscape$and$much$of$the$western$world5$As$Hardwick$statesN$
while$Gruen$cannot$single-handedly$be$credited$with$all$the$clanging$of$cash$
registers$and$swiping$of$Visas$in$the$last$half-century,$more$than$any$other$
invention$GruenMs$realized$vision$of$the$mall$has$been$the$venue$where$
Americans$have$acted$out$their$love$affair$with$shopping517$
By$1980,$there$were$28,500$shopping$malls$across$the$UsA518$In$the$same$
year,$Gruen,$broken$by$the$Faustian$pact$he$had$enacted$with$his$
creation,$died$in$his$native$Vienna519$Far$from$a$distinctive$splaceM$that$
gave$a$sense$of$local$identity$to$an$otherwise$indistinguishable$suburban$
environment,$the$mall$had$become$as$much$a$standardized$product$as$
any$of$the$commodities$sold$within$it5$simultaneously$it$had$contributed$
to$the$decline$of$many$urban$centres$with$which$it$was$now$a$direct$
competitor5$This$replication$made$the$shopping$mall$a$phenomenon$
whose$
A$BrIeF$HIsTory$oF$MAlls$17$
18$sHoPPING$MAlls$AND$PUBlIC$sPACe$IN$MoDerN$CHINA$
mass-produced$anonymity$and$placelessness$typified$to$an$even$greater$
extent$the$sillnessM$of$the$landscape$that$it$was$supposed$to$cure5$dval$
context$in$which$it$operates$ $particularly$in$the$case$of$a$building$as$
nakedly$capitalistic$as$the$shopping$mall$ $is$one$that$risks$obsolescence5$
If$a$more$enlightened$perspective$is$to$be$applied$to$the$history$of$the$
shopping$mall,$an$unravelling$of$the$pseudo-science$behind$its$spatial$
formula$must$therefore$be$the$first$port$of$call5$From$this$baseline$a$more$
informed$discussion,$concerning$how$and$where$this$spatial$formula$is$
now$developing,$can$then$proceed5$
Jean$Baudrillard$captures$the$global$appeal$that$has$overridden$the$
concerns$of$the$shopping$malls$most$vociferous$detractorsN$
A$new$art$of$living,$a$new$way$of$living,$say$the$adverts$ $a$sswitched-onM$daily$
experience5$You$can$shop$pleasantly$in$a$single$air$conditioned$location,$buy$
your$food$there,$purchase$things$for$your$Alat$or$country$cottage$ $clothing,$
Alowers,$the$latest$novel$or$the$latest$gadget5$And$you$can$do$all$this$in$a$single$
trip,$while$husband$and$children$watch$a$film,$and$then$dine$together$right$
there520$sdvsd
As$a$convenient$lifestyle$choice,$one$that$concentrated$the$desirable$
elements$of$consumption$within$a$single$protective$and$intelligible$
environment,$the$sclassicM$American$mall$offered$itself$as$an$alternative$to$
the$city$centre5$Moreover,$it$was$a$choice$that$was$coupled$to$perceptions$
of$the$motor$car$as$a$symbol$of$suburban$freedom5$Validation$was$
derived$in$opposition$to$the$congestion,$confusion$and$threat$implicit$
within$the$traditional$urban$core5$The$shopping$mall$offered$the$
convenience,$comfort$and$security$that$the$urban$realm$theoretically$
could$not5$But$a$significant$problem$lay$in$the$structural$characteristics$
that$underpinned$this$alternate$urbanity5$
Victor$Gruen$described$the$mall$asN$
a$conveniently$accessible,$amply$stocked$shopping$area$with$plentiful$and$free$
parking5$This$is$the$purely$practical$need$for$which$the$shopping$centre$was$
originally$conceived$and$which$many$centres$most$adequately$fulfil521$
yet$the$infrastructure$that$this$requires$ $the$acres$of$asphalt$required$
for$the$car-$based$approach$journey$and$splentiful$and$free$parkingM$ $has$
little$to$do$with$the$snew$way$of$livingM$suggested$by$BaudrillardMs$de$
nN$he$was$born$with$a$female$body$but$later$in$life,$
due$to$the$intervention$of$a$yaksha$called$Sthuna,$
had$obtained$male$genitalia5$Does$that$make$
Shikhandi$a$man$or$a$woman?$Is$Bhisma$wrong$to$
assume$Shikhandi$is$a$woman?$Is$Arjun$right$to$
assume$Shikhandi$is$a$man?$Since$the$outcome$
benefits$the$Pandavs,$we$can$say$ArjunMs$call$is$
right,$but$the$answer$is$anything$but$objective5$
At$the$time$of$action,$our$decision$is$based$on$a$set$
of$assumptions5$The$assumptions$may$be$wrong5$
Leaders$have$to$constantly$deal$with$uncertainty,$
give$hope$tdco$the$people$even$when$nothing$is$
clear5$Decisions$become$good$or$bad$in$hindsight5$
We$would$like$tdvso$believe$that$a$decision$is$
rational5$More$often$than$not,$decisions$are$
rationalized5$
Often$in$business$we$take$decisions$based$on$how$
we$interpret$the$situation,$not$being$sure$of$
whether$the$call$we$have$taken$will$work$or$not5$
When$it$works,$we$are$often$taken$by$surprise5$But$
the$world$at$large$demands$an$explanation5$We$are$
expected$to$prove$that$our$decisions$were$strategic,$
not$simply$a$Aluke5$To$say$that$a$certain$victory$was$
a$Aluke$makes$us$nervous5$Corporations$reject$this5$
Once$the$numbers$come,$the$manager$has$to$spend$
hours$creating$a$story$rationalizing$his$action$so$
that$everything$looks$as$if$it$were$part$of$a$pre-
conceived$plan5$
As$the$head$of$research$and$development,$Dr5$
Sulabha$prepares$various$types$of$snacks$that$the$
company$then$promotes$in$the$market5$Some$
succeed,$some$do$not5$Some$become$very$successful5$
Each$time$the$management$asks$Dr5$Sulabha$to$give$
reasons$why$she$feels$a$particular$snack$will$be$very$
successful$and$why$they$should$invest$in$that$
productMs$development5$She$feels$there$is$no$one,$
except$maybe$a$fortune-teller,$who$could$actually$
give$the$right$answer,$but$she$is$compelled$to$come$
up$with$satisfactory$logiczvdl$regime$by$reclaiming$and$
instituting$the$rule$of$law5$More$cynical$readings$suggest$that$the$
judicial$review$was$uncontroversial$in$the$absence$of$a$strong$
tradition$of$judicial$interference$with$the$executive571$A$closer$
reading$of$the$workings$of$the$assembly$makes$it$clear$that$several$
members,$particularly$practicing$law-$yers,$saw$it$almost$as$a$
natural$step572$
The$Supreme$Court$of$IndiaN$A$Public$and$Secret$Archive$
The$Supreme$Court$of$India$is$located$on$seventeen$acres$in$the$
heart$of$New$Delhi$>fig5$053@5$Built$in$1958$and$designed$by$Ganesh$
Bhikaji$Deolalikar,$the$first$Indian$to$head$the$Public$Works$
Department,$the$white$and$red$sandstone$complex$closely$mimics$
the$architectural$style$of$the$colonial$public$buildings$in$New$
Delhi5$The$complex$itself$is$shaped$to$symbolize$the$scales$of$
justice5$A$majestic$red$sandstone$staircase$directs$visitors$and$the$
public$gaze$toward$a$high$colonnaded$gallery$that$wraps$around$
the$building5$
Much$of$the$public$business$of$the$court$is$carried$out$at$this$
level5$The$col-$onnade$leads$to$multiple$wood-paneled$courtrooms$
hung$with$portraits$of$legal$luminaries5$Litigants,$visitors,$clerks,$
and$interns$mill$around$the$court-$room5$Bored$policemen$
desultorily$pat$down$visitors$and$confiscate$the$occasional$mobile$
phone5$The$judges,$preceded$by$magnificently$turbaned$ushers$in$
gilded$uniforms,$move$through$their$own$private$red-carpeted$
corri-$dors,$where$conversation$is$carried$out$in$hushed$tones5$
Stoic$court$officials$in$black$jackets$fill$up$the$offices$in$both$
wings,$slowly$moving$reams$of$paper-$work5$Cutting$through$all$
the$spaces$are$hundreds$of$black-robed$lawyers,$arguing,$gossiping,$
and$occasionally$sprinting$between$courtrooms$with$their$robes$
billowing$around$them5$This$is$the$public$view$of$the$court,$
emphasized$by$the$dozen$odd$OB$vans$and$television$crews$that$
are$almost$permanently$parked$in$the$lawn$across$the$main$
staircase5$The$Supreme$Court$is$a$designated$court$of$record$and$is$
required$to$preserve$its$records$for$all$eternity5$Its$final$judgments$
are$public$and$are$scrutinized$extensively$by$lawyers$and$reported$
16$Introduction$
Fig5$0535$The$newly$buizxvals$in$this$ secret $archive5$
The$aura$of$secrecy$around$the$Supreme$Court$Record$Room$>and$
the$record$rooms$of$the$lower$courts@$is$partly$physical,$in$terms$of$
difficulty$of$access,$and$partly$methodological,$in$terms$of$its$
value$as$a$source5$No$formal$procedure$exists$for$researchers$to$
consult$Supreme$Court$records;$access$is$granted$at$the$discretion$
of$the$registrar5$Furthermore,$legal$scholars$empha-$size$the$final$
reported$judgment$because$it$is$the$only$document$with$future$
consequences$and$precedent$value5$The$chief$justice$of$India,$who$
very$gener-$ously$gave$me$permission$to$consult$the$records$and$
work$in$the$court,$was$bemused$by$my$goal5$ The$judgments$are$
available$online, $he$reminded$me$twice,$emphasizing$that$I$need$
not$spend$several$months$in$the$musky$interior$of$the$record$
room5$Court$officials,$while$personally$welcoming$me,$were$un-$
sure$where$to$place$me5$The$usual$visitors$to$the$record$room$were$
Advocates-$on-Record$who$wanted$to$consult$a$specific$file$on$a$
case$that$was$usually$subject$to$a$continuing$litigation,$and$these$
individuals$left$within$a$few$min-$utes$after$cross-checking$details5$
In$the$absence$of$a$designated$space$for$
Introduction$17$
research,$it$was$decided$that$I$would$be$allotted$the$workspace$of$
whichever$official$was$on$leave$that$particular$day5$Over$the$
course$of$six$months,$I,$along$with$cloth$bundles$of$files,$moved$
through$a$series$of$offices$in$the$court$com-$plex5$This$book$is$
grounded$in$the$exploration$of$this$archive,$both$as$a$physi-$cal$
space$and$a$discursive$one574$
In$order$to$understand$the$process$of$constitutional$change,$I$
sought$early$challenges$to$the$new$regulatory$authorities$and$
legislation$that$were$set$up$as$part$of$the$state$project$to$
transform$society$and$the$economy,$which$emerged$as$critical$
cases5$These$cases$became$important$as$legal$precedents$and$also$
resonated$outside$the$legal$sphere,$in$the$form$of$discussions$
within$the$government$or$in$the$public$sphere5$Thus$some,$like$the$
cow$slaughter$case,$were$repeatedly$and$frequently$cited$by$early$
law$textbooks$and$com-$mentators;$otherv$cartoons5$The$
constitutional$archive,$while$centered$in$the$record$room,$is$much$
larger$than$the$records$it$contains5$
Another$important$feature$of$this$archive$that$became$apparent$to$
me$was$that$the$challenges$to$particular$regulatory$laws$were$
dominated$by$individuals$who$belonged$to$the$same$caste$or$
community5$Since$South$Asian$names$mark$both$religion$and$
caste,$I$first$noticed$this$phenomenon$when$looking$at$the$
registers$of$case$names,$but$a$close$examination$of$the$case$file$
showed$that$litigants$almost$always$identified$themselves$by$the$
community$they$belonged$to5$Minority$communities$>of$caste$and$
religion@$appeared$to$be$overrepresented$in$the$courts,$which$
shows$that$they$took$the$stateMs$obligations$to$protect$them$
seriously5$This$book$provides$evidence$that$electoral$minorities
that$is,$members$of$communities$that$were$unlikely$to$represent$
themselves$through$electoral$democracy$because$of$class,$sex,$or$
race were$overrepre-$sented$before$the$courts$in$constitutional$
cases5$Central$to$the$construction$of$the$constitutional$order$is$a$
distinctive$form$of$subalternity$generated$with$the$installation$of$
electoral$democracy$through$the$tension$between$legislation$and$
judicial$review5$
Although$such$a$study$cannot$be$exhaustive,$this$book$attempts$to$
capture$the$broadest$range$possible$of$regulatory$measures$and$
geographical$distribu-$tion,$ranging$from$Bombay$to$Bengal$and$
covering$large$cities,$small$towns,$and$rural$settings5$Much$of$the$
existing$scholarship$on$the$Constitution$is$orga-$nized$on$the$
evolution$of$particular$rights,$largely$property,$free$speech,$and$
religious$liberty,$and$is$written$to$explain$the$evolution$of$that$
particular$right$
18$Introduction$doc
to$the$present$moment5$This$bookMs$analytic$frame$is$the$new$
regulatory$state$that$emerged$in$the$1950s,$and$it$pays$
considerable$attention$to$the$under-$explored$areas$of$civil$
liberties$>e5g5,$freedom$of$profession@$as$well$as$the$field$of$
administrative$law5$Questions$over$the$right$to$property,$religion,$
equality$and$free$speech$are$also$explored575$
Book$Schema$
This$book$seeks$to$demonstrate$how$constitutionalism$became$the$
governing$frame$in$postcolonial$India$through$a$social$history$of$
constitutional$and$ad-$ministrative$processes5$It$does$so$through$
the$minutiae$of$multiple$constitu-$tional$encounters$between$
citizens$and$the$postcolonial$state$rather$than$through$the$
construction$of$a$teleological$narrative5$
The$four$numbered$chapters$are$each$named$after$a$leading$case$
that$domi-$nates$the$field5$This$is$in$tribute$to$both$the$formal$
discipline$of$common$law$adjudication,$which$is$organized$around$
legal$cases,$and$the$genre$of$popular$legaldsv$writing5$Legal$
thrillers$like$the$Perry$Mason$novels$of$Earle$Stanley$Gardner$or$
the$courtroom$dramas$of$John$Mortimer$remain$popular$in$India5$
Lawyers$like$Khalid$Lasdvtif$>K5$L5@$Gauba$and$Kailas$Nath$Katju$
wrote$best-$selling$and$salacious$titled$narrativdsvsexual$behavior5$
Through$an$engagement$with$quotidian$practices,$each$chapter$
also$highlights$the$changes$or$lack$thereof$during$the$transition$
from$the$colonial$to$the$postcolonial5$Second,$in$recognition$of$the$
plurality$of$citizen$experiences$with$the$Constitution,$the$analysis$
focuses$on$a$different$citizen$political$subject$in$each$case5$
Chapters$1$and$2$deal$with$new$spheres$of$rmeri$chaat$ke$Baal$
chateau
egulation,$prohibition,$and$market$controls,$whereas$chapters$3$
and$4$focus$on$how$older$regulatory$debates$over$prostitution$and$
beef$eating$became$transformed$in$independent$India5$Finally,$
each$chapter$is$also$repre-$sentative$of$a$new$form$of$legal$
strategy$or$technique$that$emerged$in$the$period5$
Chapter$1$is$built$on$the$litigation$over$the$imposition$of$a$
draconian$Pro-$hibition$regime$on$Bombay$and$focuses$on$the$
emerging$practice$of$the$test$case5$It$also$highlights$how$
constitutional$cases$came$to$affect$everyday$legal-$ity5$The$
Prohibition$laws$in$Bombay$and$other$provinces,$brought$in$to$
enforce$
Introduction$19$
Article$47$of$the$Constitution,$were$among$the$earliest$attempts$by$
the$post-$colonial$state$to$regulate$the$everyday$life$of$its$citizens5$
The$Prohibition$policy$was$a$critical$aspect$of$the$attempt$of$the$
state$to$fashion$a$postcolonial$iden-$tity$for$itself$by$freeing$its$
citizens$from$what$it$called$the$foreign$practice$of$drinking5$
However,$it$relied$on$the$mechanisms$of$the$colonial$state$for$its$
implementation,$opening$up$questions$about$state$involvement$in$
private$life$and$the$role$of$the$police$in$a$democracy5$Givenv$that$
the$majority$of$litigants$were$Parsis$>Indian$Zoroastrians@,$a$
community$with$strong$links$to$the$liquor$trade,$this$chapter$
explores$the$emerging$idea$of$public$interest$and$the$rela-$tionship$
between$liberty,$property,$and$community$identity5$The$chapter$
also$demonstrates$how$even$minimal$legal$victories$were$able$to$
erode$the$stateMs$confidence$in$its$abilities5$
Chapter$2$examines$a$series$of$administrative$law$challenges$to$the$
Essential$Commodities$Act5$Independent$India$retained$commodity$
controls$that$were$established$to$meet$wartime$shortages$but$had$
become$a$permanent$instru-$ment$for$addressing$the$needs$of$the$
developmentalist$state5$The$system$of$commodity$controls$
exemplified$the$permit-license-quota$Ra,$a$form$of$eco-$nomic$
regulation$that$characterized$the$Nehruvian$state,$and$sought$to$
discipline$the$market$economy$by$criminalizing$economic$offenses5$
Economic$offenders,$often$petty$traders$from$the$Marwari$
community$who$were$denied$political$legitimacy,$sought$to$
challenge$this$new$criminal$law$through$the$language$of$
constitutionalism5$Complicating$the$view$that$this$system$of$
controls$contrib-$uted$to$a$culture$of$corruption,$this$chapter$
argues$that$judicial$review$of$ad-$ministrative$action,$the$
hallmark$of$the$rule$of$law$in$a$state,$emerged$in$India$from$this$
illegality$and$culture$of$corruption5$Dvd
Although$the$first$two$chapters$focus$on$the$new$fields$of$politics$
>Pro-$hibition$and$economic$controls,$respectively@$thzxv$elections,$
the$new$elected$state$governments$of$north$India$enacted$strict$
laws$prohibiting$cow$slaughter$and$criminalizing$the$
consumption$of$beef5$This$chapter$exam-$ines$a$writ$petition$
brought$by$three$thousand$Muslim$butchers possibly$
20$Introduction$
IndiaMs$first$class-action$suit that$challenged$these$bans$through$a$
language$of$economic$rights$rather$than$religious$freedom5$It$
examines$how$religious$freedom,$minority$rights,$and$political$
mobilization$were$transformed$through$the$emergence$of$the$
Constitution$as$a$site$for$politics5$
Chapter$4$explores$the$new$laws$against$prostitution,$enacted$to$
enforce$Article$23$of$the$Constitution,$which$sought$to$end$the$
trafficking$of$women5$For$nationalists$and$leaders$of$the$Indian$
womenMs$movement,$independence$meant$the$achievement$of$
constitutional$and$legal$equality$and$the$emergence$of$the$
republican$female$citizen$as$a$moral,$productive$member$of$
society5$However,$legislators$and$social$workers$were$confronted$by$
a$different$con-$ception$of$freedom$when$sex$workers$began$to$file$
constitutional$challenges$to$the$antitrafficking$laws5$They$asserted$
their$constitutional$right$to$a$trade$or$a$profession$and$to$freedom$
of$movement$around$the$country,$and$they$challenged$the$
procedural$irregularities$in$the$new$statutes5$The$chapter$dem-$
onstrates$that$despite$the$sex$workersM$minimal$success$in$the$
courts,$this$liti-$gation$prompted$mobilization$and$associational$
politics$outside$the$court$and$brought$rights$language$into$the$
everyday$life$of$the$sex$trade5$This$is$evident$from$the$deep$
anxieties$this$largely$unsuccessful$litigation$created$for$$doliti-$
cians,$bureaucrats,$and$middle-class$womenMs$activists5$
The$epilogue$underscores$the$three$connected$themes$that$emerge$
from$the$casesN$the$process$through$which$the$Constitution$
emerged$as$an$organi-$zational$assumption$and$a$background$
threat$for$the$state;$the$greater$accept-$ability$of$procedural$over$
substantive$challenges$to$government$action;$and$the$origins$of$
constitutisdvdsvsdvdsonal$consciousness$among$certain$citizens5$
Demonstrating$the$early$emergence$of$the$constitutional$field$
through$the$acts$of$marginal$citizens,$this$book$challenges$the$
established$narrative$of$the$rise$of$judicial$power$in$India$as$well$
as$theories$of$juristocracy$jaa$ma$chide$laude
globally,$which$locate$this$shift$in$the$1980s$and$identify$the$main$
actors$as$judges,$politicians,$and$international$nongovernmental$
organizations$>NGOs@5$
Rethinking$the$PeopleMs$ConstitutionN$The$Constitution$
The$title$of$this$book,$A$PeopleMs$Constitution,$refers$to$how$we$
understand$con-$stitutions$and$imagine$peopleMs$relationship$to$
them5$Constitutional$and$ad-$ministrative$history$has$long$been$
out$of$fashion$in$India5$This$is$in$complete$contrast$to$the$United$
States,$the$other$nation$with$a$long$history$of$constitu-$tionalism$
and$a$powerful$Supreme$Court,$where$constitutional$history$
threat-$ens$to$crowd$out$other$bodies$of$legal$history5$The$dry$and$
voluminous$tomes$
Introduction$21$
that$exist$on$the$subject$in$India$date$backsdv$to$the$1960s;$they$
are$consulted$largely$by$those$preparing$for$government$service$
examinations$or$serve$as$trea-$tises$for$practicing$lawyers$tracing$
the$evolution$of$a$doctrine577$Judges$are$central,$and$judgments$
are$the$final$word5$The$historianMs$neglect$of$constitu-$tional$law$
arises$from$its$identification$with$elite$histories$and$linear$
narratives5$This$book$makes$a$methodological$shift$by$focusing$on$
the$contingency$of$constitutional$law$and$the$processes$of$
mediation$and$translation5$
The$Constitution$as$P$ractice$dev
This$book$argues$that$by$asking$ What$did$the$court$do? $in$a$

certain$case,$we$fail$to$consider$the$real$contestations$among$
judges,$litigants,$lawyers,$and$other$actors$in$the$presentation$of$
legal$claims5$To$understand$how$constitu-$tional$law$works$in$
India,$then,$it$is$necessary$to$understand$what$people$>whether$
legal$officials$or$ordinary$citizens@$believe$law$is$and$what$they$do$
with$this$knowledge$as$they$make$decisions$in$their$daily$lives578$
An$equally$frustrating$query$is$ Who$won$the$case? $Although$the$
ssquestion$is$tempting,$it$is$reductive$and$often$unhelpful$in$
explaining$peopleMs$repeated$engagement$with$law5$This$book$
challenges$the$idea$that$constitutional$interpretation$is$the$
monopoly$of$state$elites$and$recognizes$that$that$there$are$various$
ways$of$read-$ing$and$interpreting$the$text579$
This$book$challenges$the$singular$truth$produced$by$a$judgment-
driven$nar-$rative$by$emphasizing$the$contingency$and$the$
contestation$that$make$up$the$process$of$litigation5$People$who$
decided$not$to$go$to$court$are$as$important$as$subjects$of$study$as$
people$who$did$go$to$court$when$faced$with$a$similar$dispute5$
Similarly,$this$book$pays$equal$attention$to$the$losers$in$
constitutional$litigation,$exploring$what$their$vision$of$the$
corresdcct$constitutional$order$would$have$been5$Legal$losses$are$
not$always$understood$as$such$outside$the$legal$arena5$The$book$
examines$the$afterlife$of$a$court$case,$not$just$through$its$cir-$
culation$as$legal$precedent$but$also$through$its$effect$on$the$
lowerzxvThe$Constitution$as$Archive$
What$changed$with$the$adoption$of$a$written$constitution?$What$
did$it$mean$to$be$a$citizen$of$a$sovereign$republic?$What$did$
freedom$mean$to$citizens$of$the$Indian$state?$The$answers$to$these$
questions$remain$surprisingly$elusive5$
22$Introduction$
The$Indian$state$after$independence$has$received$little$historical$
attention$com-$pared$to$both$its$colonial$predecessor$and$its$more$
recent$past5$Until$recently,$disciplinary$divisions$marked$the$study$
of$India$before$independence$as$the$province$of$historians;$after$
independence,$political$scientists$and$anthropolo-$gists$
dominate581$Research$was$also$stymied$by$poor$record$keeping$and$
other$archival$practices$of$the$postcolonial$states5$State$documents$
after$indepen-$dence,$the$mainstay$of$histories$of$colonial$India,$
have$rarely$been$transferred$to$the$archives582$
This$book$focuses$on$the$two$decades$that$have$been$described$as$
the$Ne-$hruvian$period,$which$begins$with$Jawaharlal$NehruMs$
appointment$as$prime$minister$in$1947$and$ends$with$his$death$in$
19645$Politically,$the$Congress$Party,$headed$by$Nehru$>whose$
leadership$was$virtually$unchallenged$after$1952@,$held$office$
continuously$in$the$central$government$at$Delhi$and$in$almost$all$
state$and$local$bodies5$In$contrast$to$contemporary$India,$which$is$
dominated$by$neoliberal$economic$policies$and$the$increased$
visibility$of$a$politics$of$iden-$tity$based$on$caste$and$religion,$the$
Nehruvian$period$has$been$defined$as$dominated$by$a$consensus$
on$socialism,$secularism,$and$nonalignment583$Through$
centralized$planning$and$modern$developmental$projects,$the$
primary$aims$of$the$state$were$to$combat$poverty$and$to$reduce$
IndiaMs$dependence$on$Britain5$Its$politics$were$seen$as$modern$and$
liberal$and$were$dominated$by$debates$about$class$rather$than$
identity5$Its$foreign$policy$was$based$on$prin-$cipled$nonalignment$
between$the$Eastern$and$Western$blocs$during$the$Cold$War$and$
an$opposition$to$militarization584$
We$still$know$very$little$about$the$Nehruvian$state585$We$know$
particularly$little$about$the$role$of$provincial$and$local$
governments,$let$alone$the$quotidian$lives$of$ordinary$citizens586$
However,$these$constitutional$cases$are$valuable$for$the$breadth$of$
interactions$between$state$and$citizen$that$it$makes$visible5$The$
Supreme$Court$Record$Room$provides$a$new$archive$of$
postcolonial$India,$and$its$files$contain$a$variety$of$documents,$
including$affidavits,$govern-$ment$memoranda,$newspaper$repoja$
man$chide$load
rts,$and$printed$material,$that$were$submit-$ted$to$the$court$for$
evidence5$Given$the$spotty$coverage$of$records$in$the$state$archives$
for$this$period,$the$courtMs$record$room$becomes$even$more$
valuable587$These$materials$open$up$the$cultural$practices$of$the$
Nehruvian$state,$the$in-$stitutionalization$of$law$and$legal$
discourse$as$the$authoritative$language$of$the$state,$and$the$
materialization$of$the$state$in$5$5$5$signs$and$rituals $and$in$the$
practical$language$of$governance$>i5e5,$assertion$of$territorial$
sovereignty,$development,$and$management$of$the$national$
economy@588$
Introduction$23$
The$emerging$scholarship$on$NehruMs$India$has$focused$on$how$
citizens$en-$countered$the$state$in$various$places5$As$a$result,$
studies$on$state$formation$in$postcolonial$India$have$focused$on$
the$centralized$formation$of$cultural$pro-$duction$from$above,$
either$through$an$analysis$of$debates$among$ powerful$state$
actors $about$state-produced$documentaries,$organization$of$
parades,$and$new$practices$of$town$planning$or$by$tracing$the$
intellectual$history$of$the$new$consensus$on$an$Indian$model$of$
developzxvciety$and$the$economy5$New$instrumentalities$were$
created$to$plan,$review,$and$monitor$these$programs,$and$
thousands$of$new$laws$were$enacted$by$all$levels$of$gov-$ernment5$
Of$the$437$pieces$of$central-government$legislation$passed$in$a$
cen-$tury$and$a$half$and$found$in$a$compilation$of$civil$laws$
made$in$1958,$140$were$passed$in$the$first$decade$of$independence5$
In$addition,$73$of$the$191$acts$in-$volving$penal$sanctions$belonged$
to$the$same$period592$The$majority$dealt$with$social$or$economic$
regulation$or$administrative$process,$whereas$only$28$of$the$
approximately$400$colonial$laws$could$be$identified$as$such593$The$
Con-$stitution$created$a$powerful$central$government$with$vast$
revenue-raising$pow-$ers$and$virtually$blanket$powers$of$
legislation5$The$Planning$Commission$was$established$to$create$
overall$plans$within$which$a$ protective$but$realistic$so-$cialism$
would$be$created5 $The$economy$was$subjected$to$regulatory$
control,$perhaps$more$stringent$than$that$of$the$agencies$set$up$
by$President$Franklin$D5$Roosevelt$as$part$of$the$New$Deal5$A$huge$
public$sector$would$make$the$manufacture$and$production$of$
goods$and$services$so$vital$that$they$could$not$be$left$to$the$
vagaries$of$private$enterprise,$and$a$new$import$policy$would$
24$Introduction$
ensure$a$measure$of$austerity$for$the$national$good$for$the$Indian$
middle$classes594$The$police$powers$of$the$state$expanded$massively$
at$the$same$time$that$democratic$processes$were$being$
implemented5$Police$powers$are$deeply$rooted$in$the$idea$of$public$
welfare,$and$by$tracing$changes$in$police$power$this$book$uncovers$
the$transition$from$the$colonial$idea$of$the$public$to$a$
postcolonial$public5$The$familiar$story$of$the$state$is$of$tax$
collectors$marching$into$villages,$social$workers$teaching$
housewives$about$nutritious$diets,$doc-$tors$vaccinating$babies,$
and$forest$dwellers$being$displaced$to$make$big$dams5$This$book$
shows$a$different$side$of$the$experience,$when$the$people$not$only$
refused$to$pay$the$tax$but$also$started$making$claims$against$the$
state$that$used$the$stateMs$own$vocabulary5$
The$most$visible$practices$of$citizenship$in$NehruMs$India$have$been$
those$of$refugees$and$of$people$displaced$by$partition5$Research$in$
this$area$has$been$aided$by$the$preservation$of$the$records$of$the$
Ministry$of$Refugee$and$Reha-$bilitation,$unlike$other$ministries,$
as$well$as$multiple$projects$to$record$the$oral$xxv$zxvhistories$of$
partition$survivors5$The$refugee$experience$offers$two$models$of$
state$society$relationsN$one$that$recognizes$the$helplessness$of$
individual$citi-$zens$in$the$face$of$bureaucratic$violence$and$
decisions$from$above,$and$one$that$emphasizes$the$active$agency$
of$refugees,$who$used$collectivsdvtion$to$persuade$lower-level$
officials$to$deviate$from$the$letter$of$the$law595$Drawing$on$both$
approaches,$this$book$turns$to$the$emergence$of$the$Constitution$
as$a$field$in$which$the$state$imagination$and$citizen$agency$
would$interact596$
The$archive$of$litigation$captures$a$broad$spectrum$of$everyday$
interactions$between$the$different$levels$of$the$state$and$its$
citizens5$In$1958$the$Law$Com-$mission$report$on$the$
administration$of$justice$argued$that$since$cat$gaya$her$Rohit$k$
Gand$ke$silielie
the$country$stagnated$for$one$hdvh$the$executive$and$succumbed$
to$the$temptation$of$restricting$the$powers$of$the$court597$
As$the$new$state$sought$to$implement$its$policies$through$laws$
and$administra-$tive$action,$those$affected$by$it$frequently$
appeared$before$the$courts5$The$docket$might$include$an$
association$of$printers$challenging$the$state$govern-$mentMs$
takeover$of$textbook$production;98$a$schoolgirl$refusing$to$comply$
with$a$government$order$forcing$her$to$study$in$her$mother$
tongue;99$a$widow$
Introduction$25$
protesting$the$requisitioning$osdcsdcf$her$apartment$by$the$
rationing$office;100$a$Hindu$man$unable$to$take$a$second$wife$
because$of$marriage$law$reform;101$and$a$Communist$Party$
newspaper$editor$facing$censorship$by$the$cendstral$
government5102$It$is$not$surprising,$therefore$that$citizens$ make$
of$the$rituals,$representations,$and$laws$imposed$on$them$
something$quite$different$from$what$their$originators$had$in$
mind5 103$
The$Constitution$as$Democratic$Practice$
Unlike$studies$on$how$the$state$was$produced$from$above,$the$
Constitution$opens$up$ways$that$the$state$is$undone$and$
negotiated$from$below5$As$this$book$demonstrates,$constitutional$
litigation$provided$an$option$for$citizens$to$insert$themselves$
indscto$an$elite$conversation5$The$writ$petition$and$the$new$
Consti-$tution$compelled$state$authorities,$including$high-ranking$
bureaucrats$and$ministers,$to$come$to$court$to$defend$their$
policies5$It$also$required$them$to$respond$specifically$to$the$claims$
made$by$the$litigants5$The$constitutional$courtroom$is$distinctly$
different$in$form$and$content$from$the$records$of$the$executive$or$
the$legislature;$here,$instead$of$citizens$encountering$the$state,$the$
state$suddenly$encounters$its$citizens5$
The$courtroom$was$therefore$the$space$of$the$unexpected5$A$study$
of$the$Supreme$Court$in$the$mid-1960s$showed$that$two-thirds$of$
the$cases$involved$a$level$of$government$on$one$side$and$an$
individual$or$a$private$party$on$the$other$side5$The$government$
lost$fully$40$percent$of$its$cases$in$this$category$of$litigation5$
Moreover,$in$487$of$these$3,272$decisions,$the$validity$of$certain$
legislation$had$been$explicitly$attacked$bydsv$the$private$party$in$
the$dispute,$and$in$128$of$these$instances$the$legislation$was$held$
unconstitutional$or$otherwise$invalid$in$its$entirety$>twenty-seven$
state$laws,$four$laws@$or$in$part$>seventy$state$laws,$twenty-seven$
central$laws@5$The$study$concluded$that$ few,$if$any,$other$
governments$in$the$world$fare$as$poorly$in$encounters$with$their$
citizens$before$the$nationMs$highest$judicial$tribunal5 104$It$is$the$
uncertainty$of$the$encounter$in$the$courtroom$that$makes$it$a$
valuable$archive,$for$law$is$the$arena$in$which$abstract$new$
principles$run$up$against$the$messiness$of$social$change5105$
Rethinking$the$PeopleMs$ConstitutionN$The$People$
The$people$who$inhabit$books$on$constitutional$law$are$judges,$
lawyers,$and$the$occasional$politician5$In$doctrine-driven$
scholarship,$judges$emerge$as$the$central$actors,$and$little$
attention$is$paid$to$the$actual$litigants$or$to$the$
26$Introduction$
Fig5$0545$Scenes$from$Lawyers$of$Delhi$>Pathe$Films,$1948@$of$refugee$lawyers$and$
clients$conducting$business$on$the$streets$outside$the$Delhi$district$courts5$
histories$of$the$disputes5$It$is$not$surprising,$therefore,$that$the$
major$debates$over$constitutional$law$in$India$have$been$framed$
arounsdvdsd$the$question$of$ju-$dicial$intervention$or$activismN$
What$is$the$appropriate$role$for$judges$in$a$democracy?106$This$
book$makes$a$methodological$shift$away$from$the$ap-$proaches$
distinguished$above$and$toward$a$social$history$of$constitutional$
law5$In$seeking$to$integrate$the$subjects$of$Indian$social$history$
>subaltern$actors$and$everyday$life@$and$Indian$constitutional$law$
>high$politics,$judges,$and$po-$litical$theory@,$I$draw$upon$the$
methods$of$constitutional$ethnography$to$ better$understand$how$
constitutional$systems$operate$by$identifying$the$mechanisms$
through$which$governance$is$accomplished$and$the$strategies$
through$which$governance$is$attempted,$experienced,$resisted,$and$
revised,$taken$in$their$historical$depth$and$cultural$context$>fig5$
054@5 107$
The$central$actor$in$this$book$is$the$citizen$litigant,$who$has$
received$little$attention$as$a$political$actor$in$South$Asian$history5$
Litigants,$and$even$litiga-$tion$itself$as$a$mode$of$political$action,$
have$easily$been$labeled$bourgeois$in$India;$as$such,$litigation$has$
been$regarded$as$an$activity$unavailable$to$the$ma-$jority$of$the$
population5$The$popular$argument$is$that$the$bulk$of$democratic$
Introduction$27$sec
politics$in$the$postcolonial$world,$particularly$India,$lies$in$the$
realm$of$politi-$cal$society$in$contrast$to$civil$society5$Whereas$
civil-society$politics$are$marked$by$modern$associations$such$as$
autonomy,$deliberative$decision$making,$and$individual$rights$and$
operate$through$formal$institutions$like$the$courts$and$the$media,$
political-society$politics$ make$their$claims$on$government,$and$in$
turn$are$governed$not$within$the$framework$of$stable$
constitutionally$defined$rights$and$law,$but$rather$through$
temporary,$contextual,$and$unstable$arrange-$ments$arrived$at$
through$direct$political$negotiations5 108$Law$is$regarded$with$
suspicion$here$because$its$application$seeks$to$disrupt$the$tacit$
acceptance$of$illegalities,$such$as$squatting$or$vending$without$a$
license5$
This$book$challenges$the$above$view$as$an$empirical$fact,$showing$
that$thou-$sands$of$individuals$who$turned$to$the$court$were$from$
groups$that$were$mar-$ginalized$both$socially$and$economically$in$
independent$India5$Although$only$a$few$could$be$considered$to$be$
absolutely$poor,$many$participated$in$the$in-$formal$economy$or$
were$rendered$marginal$because$of$their$religion$or$their$sex5$This$
dzxvUnlike$litigation$in$the$United$States,$to$which$it$is$often$
compared,$strate-$gic$litigation$in$India$was$not$driven$by$NGOS$
or$public-interest$law$firms5$For$organizing$legal$campaigns$
nationally,$there$was$no$Indian$equivalent$to$the$American$Civil$
Liberties$Union$in$the$United$States$or$the$Haldane$Soci-$ety$of$
Socialist$Lawyers$in$Britain5$The$lawyers$who$appear$in$this$book$
are$largely$ordinary$lawyers,$handling$a$range$of$different$
matters,$who$were$ap-$proached$by$their$clients5$However,$India$at$
the$time$of$independence$had$at$least$72,425$legal$practitioners5109$
Although$the$number$might$seem$small$rela-$tive$to$IndiaMs$
population,$it$was$the$second$highest$in$the$world$after$the$United$
States$and$was$striking,$compared$to$most$newly$independent$
states$of$Asia$and$Africa5$For$instance,$on$the$eve$of$independence,$
Indonesia$had$only$36$native$lawyers5$China$reported$only$3,000$
lawyers$in$1957,$despite$hav-$ing$a$comparable$population$to$
IndiaMs5$The$situation$in$the$former$British$colonies$was$equally$
dire,$with$expatriate$Indians$making$up$most$of$the$non-$
European$legal$profession$in$eastern$and$southern$Africa5$
By$the$1940s$the$Indian$legal$profession$had$come$to$constitute$a$
fairly$well-$defined$professional$public,$with$common$journals,$
association$meetings,$and$lobbying$groups5$Lawyers$who$
represented$opposite$sides$and$the$judges$who$
28$Introduction$
heard$them$continued$to$share$professional$and$social$bonds5$It$is$
this$bond$that$the$book$explores$in$order$to$contextualize$legal$
professionals$as$mediators5$In$the$decade$after$independence,$
lawyers,$judges,$and$legal$academics$were$consciously$engaged$in$
examining$the$problems$of$the$Indian$legal$system5$Through$
commission$reports,$journal$articles,$biographies,$and$newspaper$
editorials,$they$spoke$as$lawyers$expressing$their$concerns$and$
visions$for$the$new$legal$regime5$
The$People$as$Postcolonial$Citizens$
How$were$the$claims$and$strategies$of$Indians$as$postcolonial$
citizens$different$from$their$claims$as$colonial$subjects?$Rights$
claims$and$rights$consciousness$in$India$did$not$emerge$with$the$
enactment$of$the$Constitution5$The$chal-$lenges$in$a$search$for$
rights$consciousness$arise$from$the$fragmented$nature$of$the$
public$sphere$in$colonial$India5$Indians$were$seen$to$lack$the$
Liberty$Tree$of$British$imaginings5$In$his$history$of$liberal$thought$
in$Idscndia,$Christopher$Bayly$has$emphasized$how$everyday$
encounters$in$colonial$India$informed$the$debates$among$both$
British$and$Indian$intellectuals$over$the$righadng$ships$in$response$
to$mistreatment$opened$up$a$debate$over$the$rights$of$Indians$and$
their$relationship$to$British$property5110$Demanding$access$to$new$
professions$and$jurisdictions$across$the$empire,$Indians$formulated$
and$laid$claim$to$various$universalist$ideas$of$citizenship$even$
when$it$was$being$denied$to$them5111$However,$these$forms$of$
rights$and$claim$making$were$limited$in$significant$ways5$
First,$even$the$most$persuasive$advocate$of$these$British$Indian$
claims$had$little$ability$to$enforce$them5$The$powers$of$the$courts$
were$trimmed,$and$the$limited$representative$government$that$
existed$had$minimal$powers5$Thus$a$majority$of$these$claims$were$
expressed$through$the$petitioning$of$various$au-$thorities,$a$
practice$that$later$nationalists$would$pejoratively$describe$as$men-$
dicant$liberalism5$Early$Indian$
liberasdvsdvdsvvkjsdngaljsvlsdklakdkjcdspahskkkjjatae$they$could$
make$appeals$against$the$despotic$local$colonial$government5112$
Second,$in$the$absence$of$guaranteed$liberties,$many$of$these$
claims$had$to$be$made$with$great$subtlety,$through$ parody,$
innuendo,sdv$and$indirect$criticism, $and$the$claimants$had$to$
search$for$new$forums$in$the$absence$of$representative$institutions$
and$in$view$of$the$elusiveness$of$the$law5113$Finally,$Bayly$
makesdssdv$an$important$distinction$between$claims$made$by$
rights-bearing$
Introduction$29$
individuals$>which$formed$the$basis$of$Indian$liberalism@$and$
claims$made$by$holders$of$ ancient$customary$liberties5 114$
The$demand$for$the$protection$of$ ancient$customary$liberties, $
made$by$subjects$ranging$from$Hindu$widows$insisting$on$their$
inheritance$rights$to$temple$authorities$resisting$taxation,$formed$
the$more$broad-based$secondary$order$of$rights$claims$in$colonial$
India5$This$order$drew$on$promises$made$by$the$colonial$
government,$in$1772$and$1858,$to$apply$Hindu$and$Muslim$reli-$
gious$laws$to$matters$concexvthan$from$any$form$of$systematic$
political$think-$ing5117$Unlike$the$West,$where$group$rights$
emerged$within$established$civic$communities,$in$colonial$India$
rights$were$accorded$to$groups$before$the$for-$mation$of$a$civic$
community,$that$is,$the$nation5118$
The$Constitution$transformed$both$orders$of$rights5$It$brought$
forward$a$written$code$that$explicitly$granted$rights$to$all$
citizens5$Citizens$belonging$to$a$broad$range$of$classes$presented$
themselves$before$the$state$as$rights-bearing$individuals,$in$
contrast$to$petitioners$seeking$to$have$some$rights$recognized$or$
propagandists$working$through$innuendo$or$shadows5$The$
difference$is$not$merely$semantic5$Rights$claims$in$colonial$India$
were$first$a$question$of$recognition that$is,$of$whether$the$
subject$had$a$right whereas$under$the$new$Constitution$they$
became$a$question$of$enforcement,$based$on$an$as-$sumption$that$
the$existence$of$rights$was$already$guaranteed5$A$legally$en-$
forceable$right$is$distinct$from$the$same$right$framed$as$a$moral$
claim$or$as$a$privilege$granted$by$the$benevolent$colonial$state5$
Furthermore,$the$distinction$between$claims$made$as$rights-
bearing$indi-$viduals$and$those$made$as$holders$of$customary$
liberties$became$difficult$to$sustain$after$independence5$The$
argument$for$noninterference$with$custom$and$tradition$had$been$
based$on$the$fragmented$authority$between$the$alien$state$and$its$
commdscunities5$However,$with$independence$the$state$moved$
from$the$outer$sphere$to$encompass$all$areas$of$life5$The$
Constitution$explicitly$
30$Introduction$
recognized$religion$and$family$as$arenas$for$transformation5$The$
right$to$prac-$tice$and$profess$oneMs$religion$was$limited$on$several$
grounds,$including$public$order,$morality,$and$health5119$
The$most$drastic$change$from$the$precolonial$system$was$the$
displacement$of$a$normative$inequality$as$the$foundation$for$the$
conceptions$of$rights$in$India5$Rights$under$the$colonial$
government$were$determined$by$caste,$class,$and$sex$and$drew$on$
custom5120$The$Constitution,$however,$heralded$a$formal$equality$
between$all$citizens$and$created$a$common$source$of$rights$for$all5$
However,$as$the$constitutional$founders$recognized,$this$did$not$
herald$im-$mediate$social$transformation5$Given$the$limited$
history$of$individual$rights$claims$in$colonial$and$precolonial$
India,$from$what$source$did$the$new$post-$colonial$rights$claims$
emerge?$
The$People,$Property,$and$the$Market$
The$cornerstone$of$the$colonial$legal$system$and$classical$liberal$
theory$was$the$protection$of$individual$property$rights5$Property$
law$thus$became$the$framework$within$which$status-based$
community$identities$could$be$incor-$porated$into$state-recognized$
individual$rights5121$The$language$of$property$rights$was$called$on$
even$when$other$rights$were$at$stake for$instance,$dis-$putes$over$
religious$ritual$and$authority$were$settled$by$appealing$to$
property$titles5122$David$Gilmartin$and$Jonathan$Ocko$argue$that$
property$law$provided$the$model$for$the$notions$of$rights$in$
colonial$India$and$linked$the$individual$and$indigenous$
conceptions$of$identity$together5$Thus,$religious$and$custom-$ary$
privileges$came$to$be$conceptualized$as$forms$of$individual$
property5$It$was$not$surprising$that$the$only$right$guaranteed$in$
the$colonial$Government$of$India$Act$of$1935$was$the$right$to$
property5123$
However,$the$right$to$property$itself$became$a$ground$for$
contestation$in$the$Constituent$Assembly5$Several$members$argued$
in$favor$of$weaker$prop-$erty$rights$to$allow$the$state$to$bring$
about$land$reforms$and$redistribute$prop-$erty5$Although$the$
Constitution$guaranteed$the$right$to$hold,$acquire,$and$dispose$of$
property,$the$right$was$subject$to$several$limitations5$Confronted$
with$early$court$decisions$striking$down$land$reform$law$as$
violating$the$right$to$property,$parliament$sought$to$successively$
amend$the$Constitution$and$narrow$the$right5$The$very$first$
amendment$to$the$Constitution$in$1951$granted$the$state$the$
power$to$acquire$property$for$ public$purposes $or$to$ secure$
property$management5 $Laws$implementing$such$acquisitions$were$
declared$immune$to$judicial$review$and$fundamental-rights$
challenges5$The$right$to$
Introduction$31$
property$continued$to$be$eroded$until$the$42nd$Amendment$in$
1978$deleted$it$entirely$from$the$fundamental-rights$section5124$
How$did$a$rights$order$that$was$predicated$on$the$right$to$
property$turn$into$a$system$in$which$property$was$the$least$
secure$right?$This$book$uncovers$a$process$of$translation$in$which$
claims$to$property$were$increasingly$coded$as$the$right$to$freedom$
of$expression,$privacy,$or$equality5$This$move$reversed$the$logic$of$
the$colonial$order$of$rights$in$which$various$claims$had$to$be$
translated$through$the$right$to$property5$
So$how$did$the$colonial$rule$of$property$change$with$
independence?$Based$on$archival$findings,$this$book$argues$that$
the$market$replaced$property$as$the$basis$for$the$new$rights$order5$
This$challenges$the$political$economy$narratives$about$the$
Constitution$that$have$almost$exclusively$considered$real$property$
>i5e5,$urban$and$agricultural$land@5$The$market$had$emerged$as$an$
object$of$governance$in$colonial$India$in$the$late$nineteenth$
century$but$became$central$to$the$postcolonial$stateMs$imagination$
as$it$sought$to$simultaneously$industri-$alize$and$redistribute$
property5$Building$on$Ritu$BirlaMs$work$on$the$imbrica-$tion$of$
culture$with$economy,$this$book$shows$how$the$new$order$of$
rights$grew$out$of$questions$of$consumption,$production,$and$
retail5125$
Studies$of$democracy$in$independent$India$have$predominantly$
focused$on$elections$and$representation$and$have$given$little$
attention$to$the$judicial$pro-$cess5$This$book$considers$writ$
petitions$against$new$government$initiatives$that$sought$to$
radically$transform$the$state$as$critical$events5$A$critical$event$is$
an$event$througdsvh$which$new$modes$of$action$emerge$that$
redefine$traditional$categories$and$that$can$be$acquired$by$a$
variety$of$political$groups5126$These$critical$events$form$a$new$
genealogy$of$Indian$constitutionalism$that$emerges$from$the$
everyday$acts$from$citizens5$Thus,$to$use$the$words$of$Hannah$
Arendt,$this$book$explores$the$process$by$which$the$Constitution$
emerged$as$a$hybrid$realm$where$ private$interests$assumed$public$
significance5 127$
1
The$Case$of$the$ConstableMs$
Nose$
Policing$Prohibition$in$Bombay$
The$summer$of$1951$was$an$exceptionally$hot$one$in$Bombay5$On$
May$29,$Behram$Khurshed$Pesikaka,$a$middle-age$government$
servant,$left$home$after$dinner$for$a$drive$around$south$Bombay$
to$escape$the$oppressive$heat5$As$he$returned$to$his$home$on$
Wodehouse$Road$at$9N30$p5m5,$some$people$ emerged$from$behind$a$
stationary$vehicle$and$suddenly$stepped$out$on$the$path$of$his$
jeep5 1$Althoughsdc$he$braked$and$swerved,$he$was$unable$to$
avoid$them,$and$his$jeep$knocked$down$three$members$of$a$Sindhi$
family52$The$two$women$were$hit$by$one$of$the$front$wheels,$and$
the$man$was$dragged$some$distance$by$the$bumper5$The$police$
constable$on$the$scene$reported$that$PesikakaMs$breath$smelled$of$
alcohol5$Pesikaka$was$accordingly$charged$under$the$Indian$Penal$
Code$for$rash$and$negligent$driving$as$well$as$under$the$newly$
enacted$Bom-$bay$Prohibition$Act$>BPA@,$which$had$made$the$
consumption$of$alcohol$with-$out$a$license$an$offense5$
During$the$trial$the$neighborhood$watchman,$an$independent$
witness,$testi-$fied$that$Pesikaka$was$driving$at$ordinary$speed$and$
exercising$adequate$care5$Furthermore,$the$medical$evidence$
confirmed$that$even$though$Pesikaka$had$smelled$of$alcohol,$his$
pupils$reacted$to$light,$his$speech$was$coherent,$he$was$well$
behaved,$and$he$could$walk$in$a$straight$line5$The$police$doctor$
testified$that$Pesikaka$had$not$been$acting$under$the$inAluence$of$
alcohol5$Despite$the$serious$injuries$that$he$had$inAlicted$on$the$
victims,$Pesikaka$was$acquitted$of$the$charges$of$rash$and$
negligent$driving53$However,$the$High$Court$decided$to$convict$
him$under$the$BPA54$The$court$held$that$the$gist$of$the$offense$
under$the$BPA$lay$in$the$mere$consumption$of$liquor$without$a$
permit5$It$was$en-$tirely$irrelevant$whether$the$person$who$
consumed$liquor$was$drunk$and$
32$
The$Case$of$the$ConstableMs$Nose$33$
incapable5$Once$the$prosecution$established$that$liquor$was$
consumed,$the$burden$of$proof$was$on$the$accused$to$show$that$he$
had$not$consumed$liquor$illegally5$Pesikaka,$who$was$sentenced$to$
one$year$in$Arthur$Road$Jail,$was$one$of$hundreds$of$thousands$of$
people$convicted$under$the$BPA5$By$the$time$the$Prohibition$
regime$was$liberalized$in$1964,$more$than$four$hundred$thousand$
people$had$been$convicted$under$Prohibition55$PesikakaMs$lawyers$
petitioned$the$Supreme$Court$of$India$by$challenging$the$
constitutionality$of$the$Prohi-$bition$laws5$
Prohibition$laws$in$Bombay$and$in$other$provinces$were$among$
the$earliest$attempts$by$the$postcolonial$state$to$regulate$the$
everyday$life$of$its$citizens5$Prohibition$had$been$written$into$the$
Constitution$as$a$goal$for$the$new$state56$This$policy$was$a$
critical$aspect$of$the$stateMs$attempt$to$fashion$a$postcolonial$
identity$for$itself$while$relying$for$its$implementation$on$
mechanisms$of$the$colonial$state5$Central$to$the$issue$of$drinking$
alcohol$was$the$question$of$in-$dividual$freedom5$Yet$even$though$
the$decision$to$drink$was$an$exercise$of$will,$the$act$of$drinking$
could$lead$to$a$loss$of$self-control5$The$regulation$of$alcohol$
required$the$restriction$of$its$movement$and$the$creation$of$
locations$where$drinks$could$and$could$not$be$consumed,$limiting$
the$freedom$of$movement$of$people$and$property5$Thus$the$
imposition$of$Prohibition$had$to$be$recon-$ciled$with$the$new$
constitutional$rights$to$property,$life,$and$liberty5$
Compared$to$authoritarian$regimes,$liberal$states$have$a$greater$
difficulty$enacting$systems$to$control$their$citizensM$habits$of$
consumption57$The$state$machinery$and$the$mechanisms$of$
government$that$had$been$developed$in$the$colonial$period$did$not$
have$to$represent$the$will$of$the$subject5$But$these$con-$stituted$
the$physical$and$ideological$apparatus$available$to$the$
postcolonial$government,$which$sought$to$represent$popular$will5$
The$regulation$of$alcohol$is$an$extremely$productive$example$of$
how$the$major$modes$of$governance$interacted$with$one$another5$
As$an$American$study$of$Prohibition$suggested,$there$are$ few$
major$problems$of$public$administra-$tion$which$do$not$emerge$in$
striking$fashion$with$the$governmental$effort$to$control$the$
consumption$of$alcohol5 8$The$act$of$drinking$is$governed$by$so-$
cial$and$moral$codes,$religious$rituals,$and$individual$desires$that$
differ$widely$across$the$population5$It$is$simultaneously$managed$
through$medicalization,$criminal$law,$licensing$and$zoning$
regulations,$taxation,$and$heasdvsdlth$and$safety$regulations5$
Despite$the$history$of$alcohol$regulation$since$the$nineteenth$
century$and$a$prominent$campaign$for$Prohibition,$there$is$very$
little$known$about$the$sub-$ject59$Most$scholars$have$understood$
the$history$of$Prohibition$in$India$as$a$sec
34$chapter$1$
state$or$bourgeois$project$to$transform$the$culture$and$practice$of$
drinking$in$India,$and$they$have$looked$to$the$strategies$of$
resistance$and$co-optation$that$were$adopted$by$the$lower$classes5$
Studies$on$the$consumption$of$alcohol$on$the$tribal$population$
near$Bombay$have$found$that$despite$a$short-lived$tem-$perance$
movement$among$tribal$people$>which$sought$to$financially$hurt$
moneylenders$and$landowners@,$drinking$practices$remained$
unchanged$even$in$the$face$of$coercive$efforts$by$the$state$and$co-
optation$by$the$nationalists5$Social$histories$of$Prohibition$
emphasize$the$resilience$of$the$masses$in$their$resistance$to$the$
bourgeois$politics$of$Prohibition5$Thus$the$failure$of$Pro-$hibition$
and$temperance$is$predicated$on$the$gap$between$the$masses$and$
the$state5$
PesikakaMs$case,$and$the$dozens$of$legal$challenges$that$preceded$
and$fol-$lowed$it,$demonstrate$a$way$of$citizen$engagement$with$
the$state$that$did$not$turn$on$the$notion$of$this$gap5$The$
Constitution,$in$these$cases,$was$not$an$ex-$ternal$force$but$a$
structure$within$which$Prohibition$could$be$resisted$and$
negotiated5$PesikakaMs$case$is$significant$for$two$reasons5$First,$it$
offers$an$ex-$tremely$well-documented$example$of$how$citizens$
could$find$themselves$in$the$grip$of$Prohibition$laws$while$going$
about$their$everyday$lives5$Second,$PesikakaMs$constitutional$
strategy$marked$an$important$shift$in$how$the$legal$system$could$
be$used$to$subvert$the$regime$of$Prohibition5$The$emergence$and$
end$of$Prohibition$in$the$1950s$was$structured$through$these$court$
cases$and$under$the$shadow$of$the$Constitution5$PesikakaMs$case$
marked$a$turning$point,$when$the$debate$about$Prohibition$moved$
from$the$question$regulating$indi-$viduals$or$populations$to$the$
question$of$regulating$the$state$itself5$
The$Constitution$transformed$the$debate$over$Prohibition$in$ways$
that$the$Constitution$drafters$had$not$anticipated5$Central$to$the$
constitutionalization$of$the$question$was$the$reformulated$idea$of$
the$public$interest$and$its$relation-$ship$to$private$interests5$This$
chapter$examines$the$history$of$alcohol$regulation$in$India$and$
seeks$to$locate$BombayMs$Prohibition$policy$among$the$larger$
apparatus$of$the$postcolonial$welfare$state5$It$then$moves$to$
discuss$the$three$distinctive$forms$of$Prohibition$litigation$that$
emergedN$the$substantive$con-$stitutional$challenge$to$the$
imposition$of$Prohibition,$the$procedural$challenge$to$the$
implementation$of$Prohibition,$and$the$impact$of$this$self-
conscious$constitutional$litigation$on$everyday$criminal$cases5$
Finally,$it$examines$the$effect$of$this$litigation$on$the$stateMs$
confidence$in$its$ability$to$transform$society$through$law5$
Toward$the$Moral$NationN$Prohibition$and$Nationalism$
The$Bombay$Prohibition$Act,$under$which$Pesikaka$was$arrested,$
was$a$strict$and$draconian$piece$of$legislation$enacted$as$part$of$
the$total$Prohibition$policy$adopted$by$the$Congress$Party$
government$in$Bombay$in$19465$The$government$decided$to$
introduce$total$Prohibition$throughout$the$state$over$four$years$
through$a$gradual$cut$in$consumption$of$25$percent$a$year510$To$
this$end,$the$BPA$was$enacted$in$19495$It$prohibited$ the$import,$
export,$transport,$manufac-$ture,$sale,$purchase,$possession,$use,$or$
consumption$of$any$intoxicant,$hemp,$or$the$tapping$of$any$
toddy-producing$tree,$edscxcept$5$5$5$in$accordance$with$the$terms$
and$conditions$of$a$license,$permit,$pass,$or$authorization$granted$
under$the$Act5 11$The$criminalization$of$both$the$consumption$
and$the$pos-$session$of$alcohol$marks$the$BPA$as$a$radical$
departure$from$the$Prohibition$regimes$in$the$United$States,$
Europe,$and$Canada,$which$focused$on$production$and$
distribution5$
Why$did$the$BPA$look$so$different$from$other$contemporary$
experiments$with$Prohibition?12$The$answer$lies$in$the$fact$that$
the$production$and$sale$of$alcohol$in$India$had$become$a$state$
project$in$colonial$India5$In$Bombay$it$had$been$regulated$by$the$
Bombay$Abkari$Act$of$1878$>Abkari$literally$meant$ hard$water @5$
The$Abkari$Act$was$essentially$a$revenue$act$that$sought$to$
generate$maximum$revenue$with$minimum$compensation5$
Motivated$by$a$need$to$increase$profits,$the$government$held$a$
monopoly$over$the$sale$of$liquor$and$auctioned$licenses$for$the$
privilege$to$make$and$sell$liquor$in$specific$areas5$Suc-$cessful$
bidders$then$delegated$their$rights$to$selected$village-level$liquor$
dealers$who$did$the$actual$jobs$of$manufacture$and$sale5$This$
created$a$class$of$middle-$men,$often$outsiders$to$the$village$
economy,$who$had$the$incentive$to$raise$liquor$revenues5$The$Parsi$
community,$which$had$access$to$other$sources$of$capital,$came$to$
dominate$the$liquor$trade$in$province$of$Bombay5$We$will$return$
to$the$effects$of$the$involvement$of$the$Parsis$in$the$liquor$trade$
later$in$the$chapter513$
The$Bombay$Abkari$Act$had$brought$in$a$centralized$system$of$
distilleries$and$promoted$new$drinking$practices,$because$village-
based$alcohol$produc-$tion$provided$more$opportunities$for$
revenue$evasion5$For$instance,$toddy$>made$from$the$sap$of$palm$
trees@,$the$most$popular$form$of$liquor,$was$sub-$ject$to$prohibitive$
taxes$because$it$had$a$short$shelf$life$and$could$not$be$pro-$duced$
through$centralized$distilleries514$Despite$protests,$there$was$a$
steady$change$in$consumption$habits$in$favor$of$factory-made$
liquor5$The$Bombay$government$also$enacted$the$Mhowra$Act$in$
1892,$banning$the$collection$and$
36$chapter$1$
sale$of$mhowra$Alowers,$which$were$used$by$BombayMs$tribal$
population$for$food,$cattle$feed,$and$the$brewing$of$alcohol515$
Criminal$law$was$used$to$regulate$alcohol$only$to$the$extent$that$
revenues$were$hurt5$The$highest$number$of$prosecutions$dealt$with$
cases$of$the$manu-$facture$and$sale$of$illicit$liquor5$A$prototypical$
case$was$that$of$Pestonji$Bar-$jorji,$a$distiller$of$spirits$whose$
license$had$expired5$He$was$arrested$under$the$Abkari$Act$after$the$
police$found$the$copper$utensils$used$for$distillation$in$his$
possession516$Similarly,$dealers$or$purchasers$of$mhowra$Alowers$
were$also$prosecuted517$The$emphasis$was$to$protect$a$major$
source$of$British$govern-$ment$revenue5$
In$contrast,$postcolonial$IndiaMs$alcohol$policy$consisted$of$
determined$de-$mands$for$social$reform$and$not$revenue$needs5$
Middle-class$temperance$movements$the$world$over$had$viewed$
alcoholic$beverages$as$a$root$of$social$evil,$particularly$for$the$
working$class5$While$sharing$that$sentiment,$the$In-$dian$
temperance$movement$stressed$that$drinking$itself$was$alien$to$
Indian$culture518$Unlike$in$Britain,$where$liberal$thought$had$
criticized$temperance$projects$as$violations$of$individual$liberty,$
temperance$was$almost$a$constitu-$tive$feature$of$Indian$
liberalism5$This$arose$both$from$the$belief$that$alcohol$
consumption$was$against$Indian$custom,$which$placed$a$premium$
on$individ-$ual$self-control$and$from$the$fact$that$the$colonial$
government$profited$tre-$mendously$from$alcohol519$The$
foreignness$of$alcohol$is$difficult$to$establish$empirically,$but$it$is$
clear$that$drinking$practices the$kind$of$alcohol$pre-$ferred,$the$
quantities$of$alcohol$drunk,$and$the$sites$of$consumption were$
transformed$by$the$colonial$state5$Revenue$policies$encouraged$the$
consump-$tion$of$industrial-produced,$low-quality$alcohol$over$
home-brewed$liquors$like$toddy$and$mhowra5$Licensing$rules$
shifted$drinking$to$the$new$liquor$shops$and$bars$far$away$from$
fields$and$villages5$
Prohibition$became$a$part$of$the$Congress$PartyMs$ constructive$
program $in$the$mid-1920s,$popularized$by$Mohandas$Gandhi5$This$
was$a$combination$of$three$strategic$reasonsN$the$opportunity$to$
hurt$imperial$revenues,$the$ability$to$forge$a$common$platform$
between$Hindus$and$Muslims,$and$the$inAluence$of$the$global$
temperance$movement520$The$differences$between$the$national-$
ists$and$the$colonial$state$were$laid$bare$in$the$evidence$submitted$
before$the$Bombay$Prohibition$Enquiry$Committee,$with$the$
British$members$and$li-$quor$dealers$supporting$the$status$quo$and$
the$Indian$representatives$arguing$for$stricter$regulation$and$
Prohibition5$
During$civil$disobedience$movements$on$1921$and$1930,$Congress$
Party$volunteers$picketed$liquor$shops$and$sought$to$persuade$
drinkers$to$stop5$
Temperance$volunteers$noted$the$people$who$frequented$liquor$
shops$and$re-$ported$them$to$their$families$and$caste$
organizations5$In$Bombay$presidency$>province@,$social$pressure$
and$threats$of$boycott$were$extremely$successful$in$curbing$
drinking5$Noting$with$alarm$the$success$of$picketing$in$Bombay,$
W5$Dillion,$the$collector,$warned$that$this$would$lead$to$large$
losses$in$excise$revenue$and$upset$civic$budget$estimates5$Not$only$
were$liquor$sales$affected,$there$were$fewer$participants$and$
paltrier$bids$in$the$auction$of$liquor$li-$censes521$The$colonial$
officials$saw$the$demand$for$Prohibition$as$a$ploy$to$destabilize$
the$colonial$state$and$not$tied$to$values$of$temperance5$
However,$central$to$GandhiMs$imagination$was$his$view$of$drinking$
as$a$for-$eign$custom$that$debilitated$the$body$of$the$Indian$
worker$and$peasant$and,$by$extension,$the$Indian$body$politic5$The$
concept$of$swaraj$implied$freedom$not$just$from$foreign$rule$but$
also$from$foreign$customs5$Advocating$total$pro-$hibition,$he$wrote$
that$no$country$was$ better$fitted$for$immediate$prohibition$than$
India5 $First,$drink$was$sapping$the$vitality$of$the$working$classes,$
who$had$to$be$helped$against$themselves5 $Second,$since$the$
intellectual$classes$of$India$did$not$drink$like$those$of$Europe,$
there$would$be$no$referendum$required522$In$this$brief$essay$he$
spells$out$what$emerged$as$the$nationalist$consensus$on$
prohibitionN$Drink$was$a$practice$and$a$problem$for$the$poor,$not$
part$of$the$elite$culture$in$India$as$in$Europe$or$the$United$States5$
The$poor$therefore$had$to$be$saved$from$themselves$through$an$
intervention$of$the$en-$lightened$classes5$A$drunkard$was$a$
diseased$man,$he$wrote,$ quite$unable$to$help$himself5 23$
Gandhi$too$recognized$that$temperance$could$not$be$achieved$
merely$by$giving$speeches$and$through$propaganda5$ Why$do$
people$drink? $he$asked5$ They$drink$because$they$are$suffocated$
living$in$pestilential$dens5 24$Gandhi$was$empathetic$toward$poor$
drinkers,$recognizing$that$for$some$it$was$the$only$way$
bhosdivallo$butte$ke$bathe
Teri$maakAkf
they$could$escape$their$wretched$daily$conditions5$He$urged$
volunteers$to$visit$the$homes$of$drinkers$to$educate$them$on$the$
ills$of$liquor,$to$persuade$liquor$vendors$to$stop$selling$alcohol,$
and$to$picket$liquor$shops5$
However,$although$the$improvement$of$their$conditions$was$
essential,$and$persuasion$was$important,$he$emphasized$that$the$
prohibition$of$intoxicating$liquor$would$ultimately$have$to$be$by$
law5$Recognizing$that$the$colonial$state$was$unlikely$to$damage$
its$revenue$base,$Gandhi$stated$that$such$a$law$would$not$come$
into$being$until$ pressure$from$below$is$felt$in$no$uncertain$
manner5 $He$rejected$the$ specious$argument $that$India$could$not$
be$made$sober$by$compulsion$and$that$those$who$wished$to$drink$
should$have$facilities$pro-$vided$to$them525$ The$state$does$not$
cater$to$the$vices$of$its$people, $he$wrote5$
38$chapter$1$
We$do$not$regulate$or$license$houses$of$ill$fame5$We$do$not$
provide$facilities$to$thieves$to$indulge$their$propensity$for$
thieving5$I$hold$drink$to$be$even$more$damnable$than$thieving$and$
perhaps$even$prostitution5$Is$it$not$often$the$par-$ent$of$both? 26$
Addressing$Congress$Party$workers$at$Bardoli$in$1929,$Gandhi$
highlighted$that$swaraj$could$not$be$established$merely$by$
driving$out$the$English5 $Swaraj$did$not$mean$ the$freedom$to$
live$like$pigs$in$a$pigsty$without$help$or$hindrance$from$anyone5
27$Self-governance$would$therefore$require$Prohibition$to$create$a$
healthy$public5$He$famously$reiterated,$ If$I$were$appointed$
dictator$for$one$hour$for$all$India,$the$first$thing$I$would$do$
would$be$to$close$without$com-$pensation$all$the$liquor$shops$
_and`$destroy$all$the$toddy$palms$such$as$I$know$them$in$Gujarat5
28$
The$emphasis$on$social$transformation$through$the$will$of$the$
state$was$un-$usual$for$Gandhi,$who$had$always$urged$that$social$
reform$must$first$come$through$the$inner$transformation$of$the$
people5$He$argued$against$the$use$of$law$and$compulsion$in$all$his$
other$constructive$projects,$be$it$the$emotive$questions$of$cow$
protection$and$untouchability$or$developmental$works$such$as$the$
improvement$of$sanitation$and$hygiene5$For$Gandhi,$constructive$
work$and$reform$were$necessary$not$just$as$a$duty$to$the$project$
of$nation$making$but$also$to$the$self,$to$regain$the$power$of$
action529$Drink$more$than$anything$else$damaged$the$self$and$
took$away$the$power$of$action5$
Elections$in$1939$allowed$the$Congress$Party$to$form$the$
government$in$a$number$of$provinces5$The$governments$of$Madras,$
Bihar,$the$Central$Prov-$inces,$and$Bombay$introduced$Prohibition$
in$a$phased$mvddsanner5$Gandhi$praised$the$imposition$of$
Prohibition$on$Bombay$in$1939,$stating$appreciatively$that$the$city$
of$Bombay,$with$its$ dirty$chawls,$overcrowded$lanes,$and$
uninhabit-$able$hovels $will$for$the$first$time$become$truly$
beautiful$when$it$goes$dry5$It$was$only$with$Prohibition$and$tof$a$
paper,$or$writing$on$a$gigantic$bottle$instead$of$on$paper5$Or,$you$
might$picture$a$bottle$pouring$paper$out$of$its$mouth$instead$of$
liquid;$or$a$bottle$made$out$of$paper$instead$of$glass5$Pick$the$
association$which$you$think$is$most$ridiculous$and$see$it$in$your$
mindxs$eye$for$a$moment5$
I$cannot$stress,$too$much,$the$necessity$of$actually$see-$ing$this$
picture$in$your$mindxs$eye,$and$making$the$mental$image$as$
ridiculous$as$possible5$You$are$not,$however,$to$stop$and$think$for$
fifteen$minutes$to$find$the$most$illogical$
association;$the$first$ridiculous$one$that$comes$to$mind$is$usually$
the$best$to$use5$Ixll$give$you$two$or$more$ways$in$which$you$
might$form$your$pictures$with$each$pair$of$the$twenty$items5$You$
are$to$pick$the$one$that$you$think$is$
most$ridiculous,$or$one$that$youxve$thought$of$yourself,$and$use$
that$one$association$only5$
We$have$already$linked$carpet$to$paper,$and$then$paper$to$bottle5$
We$now$come$to$the$next$item$which$is,$ybed5y$You$must$make$a$
ridiculous$association$between$bottle$and$bed5$A$bottle$lying$on$a$
bed,$or$anything$like$that$would$be$too$logical5$So$you$might$
picture$yourself$sleeping$in$a$large$bottle$instead$of$a$bed,$or$you$
might$see$yourself$taking$a$snort$from$a$bed$instead$of$a$bottle5$>I$
can$get$pretty$ridicu-$lous5@$See$either$of$these$pictures$in$your$
mind$for$a$mo-$ment,$then$stop$thinking$of$it5$
42$Link$Method$of$Memory$
You$realize,$of$course,$that$we$are$always$associating$the$previous$
object$to$the$present$object5$Since$we$have$just$used,$ybedy;$this$is$
the$previous,$or$the$thing$we$already$know$and$remember5$The$
present$object,$or$the$new$thing$that$we$want$to$remember,$is$
yfish5y$So make$a$ridiculous$association$or$link$between$bed$and$
fish5$You$could$yseey$a$giant$fish$sleeping$in$your$bed;$or$a$bed$
made$out$of$a$gigan-$tic$fish5$See$the$picture$you$think$is$most$
ridiculous5$
Now yfishy$and$ychairy see$the$gigantic$fish$sitting$on$a$chair,$
or$a$large$fish$being$used$as$a$chair5$Or,$youxre$catching$chairs$
instead$of$fish$while$fishing5$
Chair$and$Window See$yourself$sitting$on$a$pane$of$glass$>which$
gives$you$a$pain@$instead$of$a$chair5$Or,$you$might$see$yourself$
violently$throwing$chairs$through$a$closed$window5$See$the$
picture$before$going$on$to$the$next$one5$
Window$and$Telephone See$yourself$answering$the$phone,$but$
when$you$put$it$to$your$ear,$itxs$not$a$phone$youxre$holding,$but$
a$window5$Or,$you$might$see$your$win-$
Link$Method$of$Memory$43$
dow$as$a$large$telephone$dial,$and$you$have$to$lift$the$dial$to$look$
out$the$window5$You$could$see$yourself$sticking$your$hand$
through$a$window$pane$in$order$to$pick$up$the$phone5$See$the$
picture$you$think$is$most$ridiculous,$for$a$moment5$
Telephone$and$Cigarette Youxre$smoking$a$telephone$instead$of$a$
cigarette;$or$youxre$holding$a$large$cigarette$to$your$ear$and$
talking$into$it$instead$of$a$telephone5$Or,$you$might$see$yourself$
picking$up$the$phone$and$a$million$ciga-$rettes$Aly$out$of$the$
mouthpiece$and$hit$you$in$the$face5$
Cigarette$and$Nail Youxre$smoking$a$nail;$or$hammer-$ing$a$lit$
cigarette$into$the$wall$instead$of$a$nail5$
Nail$and$Typewriter Youxre$hammering$a$gigantic$nail$right$
through$a$typewriter,$or$all$the$keys$on$your$type-$writer$are$
nails$and$theyxre$pricking$your$fingertips$as$you$
type-
Typewriter$and$Shoe See$yourself$wearing$typewriters$
instead$of$shoes,$or$youxre$typing$with$your$shoes5$You$might$
want$to$see$a$large$shoe$with$keys$and$youxre$typing$on$that5$
Shoe$and$Microphone Youxre$wearing$microphones$in-$stead$of$
shoes,$or,$youxre$broadcasting$into$a$large$shoe5$
Microphone$and$Pen Youxre$writing$with$a$microphone$
instead$of$a$pen,$or$youxre$broadcasting$and$talking$into$a$giant$
pen5$
Pen$and$Television$set You$could$yseey$a$million$pens$gushing$
out$of$the$television$screen,$or$pens$performing$on$television,$or$
there$is$a$screen$on$a$gigantic$pen$and$youxre$>I$canxt$resist$this$
pun@$watch-ink$a$television$show$on$it5$
Television$set$and$Plate Picture$your$television$screen$as$one$of$
your$kitchen$plates,$or$see$yourself$eating$out$of$the$television$set$
instead$of$out$of$a$plate,$or youxre$eating$out$of$a$plate,$and$
seeing$a$television$show$in$the$plate$while$you$eat5$
out$of$the$television$screen,$or$pens$performing$on$television,$or$
there$is$a$screen$on$a$gigantic$pen$and$youxre$>I$canxt$resist$this$
pun@$watch-ink$a$television$show$on$it5$
Television$set$and$Plate Picture$your$television$screen$as$one$of$
your$kitchen$plates,$or$see$yourself$eating$out$of$the$television$set$
instead$of$out$of$a$plate,$or youxre$eating$out$of$a$plate,$and$
seeing$a$television$show$in$the$plate$while$you$eat5$
Plate$and$Donut ySeey$yourself$biting$into$a$donut,$but$it$cracks$
in$your$mouth$for$itxs$a$plate5$Or,$picture$being$served$dinner$in$a$
gigantic$donut$instead$of$a$plate5$
Donut$and$Automobile You$can$yseey$a$large$donut$driving$an$
automobile;$or,$see$yourself$driving$a$gigantic$donut$instead$of$a$
car5$
Automobile$and$Coffee$Pot A$large$coffee$pot$is$driving$a$car,$or$
youxre$driving$a$gigantic$coffee$pot$instead$of$a$car5$You$might$
picture$your$car$on$your$stove,$with$coffee$perking$in$it5$
Coffee$Pot$and$Brick See$yourself$pouring$steaming$coffee$from$a$
brick$instead$of$a$coffee$pot,$or$yseey$bricks$pouring$from$the$spout$
of$a$coffee$pot$instead$of$coffee5$
Thatxs$itp$If$you$have$actually$yseeny$these$mental$pic-$tures$in$
your$mindxs$eye,$you$will$have$no$trouble$remem-$bering$the$
twenty$items$in$sequence,$from$ycarpety$to$ybrick5y$Of$course,$it$
takes$many$times$the$length$of$time$
to$explain$this$than$to$simply$do$it5$Each$mental$association$must$
be$seen$for$just$the$smallest$fraction$of$a$second,$before$going$on$
to$the$next$one5$
Letxs$see$now$if$you$have$remembered$all$the$items5$If$
you$were$to$yseey$a$carpet,$what$would$that$bring$to$mind$
immediately?$Why,$paper,$of$course5$You$saw$yourself$writing$on$
a$carpet,$instead$of$paper5$Now,$paper$brings$bottle$to$mind,$
because$you$saw$a$bottle$made$of$paper5$You$saw$yourself$
sleeping$in$a$gigantic$bottle$instead$of$a$
bed;$the$bed$had$a$gigantic$fish$sleeping$on$it;$you$were$fishing,$
be$seen$for$just$the$smallest$fraction$of$a$second,$before$going$on$
to$the$next$one5$
Letxs$see$now$if$you$have$remembered$all$the$items5$If$
you$were$to$yseey$a$carpet,$what$would$that$bring$to$mind$
immediately?$Why,$paper,$of$course5$You$saw$yourself$writing$on$
a$carpet,$instead$of$paper5$Now,$paper$brings$bottle$to$mind,$
because$you$saw$a$bottle$made$of$paper5$You$saw$yourself$
sleeping$in$a$gigantic$bottle$instead$of$a$
bed;$the$bed$had$a$gigantic$fish$sleeping$on$it;$you$were$fishing,$
and$catching$chairs$and$you$were$Alinging$chairs$through$your$
closed$window5$Try$itp$You$will$see$that$you$will$go$right$through$
all$the$items$without$missing$or$for-$getting$any$of$them5$
Fantastic??$Unbelievable??$Yesp$But,$as$you$can$see,$entirely$
plausible$and$possible5$Why$not$try$making$your$
own$list$of$objects$and$memorizing$them$in$the$way$that$you$
have$just$learned5$
I$realize,$of$course,$that$we$have$all$been$brought$up$to$think$
logically,$and$here$I$am,$telling$you$to$make$illogical$or$ridiculous$
pictures5$I$know$that$with$some$of$you,$this$may$be$a$bit$of$a$
problem,$at$first5$You$may$have$a$little$difficulty$in$making$those$
ridiculous$pictures5$However,$after$doing$it$for$just$a$little$while,$
the$first$picture$that$comes$to$mind$will$be$a$ridiculous$or$
illogical$one5$Until$that$happens,$here$are$four$simple$rules$to$
help$you5$
15$Picture$your$items$out$of$proportion5$In$other$words,$too$large5$
In$my$sample$associations$for$the$above$items,$I$used$the$word,$
ygiganticy$quite$often5$This$was$to$make$you$get$the$items$out$of$
proportion5$
25$Picture$your$items$in$action$whenever$possible5$Unfor-$
tunately,$it$is$the$violent$and$embarrassing$things$that$we$all$
remember;$much$more$so$than$the$pleasant$things5$If$youxve$ever$
been$acutely$embarrassed,$or$been$in$an$acci-$dent,$no$matter$
how$many$years$ago,$you$donxt$need$a$
the$first$picture$that$comes$to$mind$will$be$a$ridiculous$or$
illogical$one5$Until$that$happens,$here$are$four$simple$rules$to$
help$you5$
15$Picture$your$items$out$of$proportion5$In$other$words,$too$large5$
In$my$sample$associations$for$the$above$items,$I$used$the$word,$
ygiganticy$quite$often5$This$was$to$make$you$get$the$items$out$of$
proportion5$
25$Picture$your$items$in$action$whenever$possible5$Unfor-$
tunately,$it$is$the$violent$and$embarrassing$things$that$we$all$
remember;$much$more$so$than$the$pleasant$things5$If$youxve$ever$
been$acutely$embarrassed,$or$been$in$an$acci-$dent,$no$matter$
how$many$years$ago,$you$donxt$need$a$
trained$memory$to$remember$it$vividly5$You$still$squirm$a$bit$
whenever$you$think$of$that$embarrassing$incident$that$happened$
years$ago,$and$you$probably$can$still$describe$in$detail$the$facts$of$
your$accident5$So$get$violent$action$into$your$association$
whenever$you$can5$
35$Exaggerate$the$amount$of$items5$In$my$sample$asso-$ciation$
between$telephone$and$cigarette,$I$told$you$that$you$might$see$
millions$of$cigarettes$Alying$out$of$the$mouth-$piece,$and$hitting$
you$in$the$face5$If$you$saw$the$cigarettes$lit$and$burning$your$
face,$youxd$have$both$action$and$exaggeration$in$your$picture5$
45$Substitute$your$items5$This$is$the$one$that$I,$per-$sonally,$use$
most$often5$It$is$simply$picturing$one$item$instead$of$another,$i5e5$
Smoking$a$nail$instead$of$a$cigarette5$
15$Out$of$Proportion5$25$Action5$35$Exaggeration5$45$Sub-$stitution5$
Try$to$get$one$or$more$of$the$above$into$your$pictures,$and$with$a$
little$practice$youxll$find$that$a$ridiculous$asso-$ciation$for$any$
two$items$will$come$to$mind$instantly5$The$objects$to$be$
remembered$are$actually$linked$one$to$the$other,$forming$a$chain,$
and$that$is$why$I$call$this$the$Link$method$of$remembering5$The$
entire$Link$method$boils$down$to$thisN Associate$the$first$item$to$
15$Out$of$Proportion5$25$Action5$35$Exaggeration5$45$Sub-$stitution5$
Try$to$get$one$or$more$of$the$above$into$your$pictures,$and$with$a$
little$practice$youxll$find$that$a$ridiculous$asso-$ciation$for$any$
two$items$will$come$to$mind$instantly5$The$objects$to$be$
remembered$are$actually$linked$one$to$the$other,$forming$a$chain,$
and$that$is$why$I$call$this$the$Link$method$of$remembering5$The$
entire$Link$method$boils$down$to$thisN Associate$the$first$item$to$
the$second,$the$second$to$the$third,$third$to$the$fourth,$and$so$on5$
Make$your$associations$as$ridiculous$and/or$illogical$as$possible,$
and$most$important,$SEE$the$pictures$in$your$mindxs$eye5$
In$later$chapters$you$will$learn$some$practical$applica-$tions$of$
the$Link$system how$it$can$help$you$to$recall$your$daily$
schedule$or$errands,$and$how$you$can$use$it$to$help$you$
remember$speeches5$The$Link$system$is$also$used$to$help$memorize$
long$digit$numbers$and$many$other$
things5$However,$donxt$jump$ahead$of$yourself;$donxt$worry$about$
those$things$now5$
Of$course,$you$can$use$the$Link$immediately$to$help$you$
remember$shopping$lists,$or$to$showoff$for$your$friends5$
If$you$want$to$try$this$as$a$memory$stunt,$have$your$friend$call$
off$a$list$of$objects;$have$him$write$them$down$so$that$he$can$
check$you5$If$when$you$try$this$you$find$that$you$are$having$
trouble$recalling$the$first$item,$I$suggest$that$you$associate$that$
item$to$the$person$thatxs$testing$you5$For$
example,$if$ycarpety$were$the$first$item,$you$could$yseey$your$friend$
rolled$up$in$your$carpet5$Also,$if$on$first$trying$this$as$a$stunt,$
you$do$forget$one$of$the$items,$ask$what$it$is$and$strengthen$that$
particular$association5$You$either$didnxt$use$a$ridiculous$enough$
association,$or$you$didnxt$see$it$in$your$mind,$or$you$would$not$
have$forgotten$it5$After$youxve$strengthened$your$original$
association,$youxll$
check$you5$If$when$you$try$this$you$find$that$you$are$having$
trouble$recalling$the$first$item,$I$suggest$that$you$associate$that$
item$to$the$person$thatxs$testing$you5$For$
example,$if$ycarpety$were$the$first$item,$you$could$yseey$your$friend$
rolled$up$in$your$carpet5$Also,$if$on$first$trying$this$as$a$stunt,$
you$do$forget$one$of$the$items,$ask$what$it$is$and$strengthen$that$
particular$association5$You$either$didnxt$use$a$ridiculous$enough$
association,$or$you$didnxt$see$it$in$your$mind,$or$you$would$not$
have$forgotten$it5$After$youxve$strengthened$your$original$
association,$youxll$
be$able$to$rattle$off$the$items$from$first$to$last5$Try$it$and$seep$
The$most$impressive$part$of$it,$is$that$if$your$friend$asks$you$to$
call$off$the$items$two$or$three$hours$later,$you$will$be$able$to$do$
itp$They$will$still$be$brought$to$mind$by$your$original$associations5$
If$you$really$want$to$impress$your$listeners,$call$the$items$off$
backwardsp$In$other$words,$from$the$last$item$called,$right$up$to$
the$first$one5$
Amazingly$enough,$this$works$for$you$automatically5$Just$think$of$
the$last$item,$that$will$recall$the$next$to$last$item,$and$so$on$
down,$or$rather,$up$the$line5$
By$the$way,$why$not$try$Test$#$1$in$Chapter$#$3$again5$Compare$
your$score$now,$with$the$score$you$had$before$you$read$this$
chapter$on$the$Link$method5$
Peg$System$of$Memory$
A$certain$organization,$whose$membership$consisted$of$gag-$
writers$only,$was$having$its$annual$dinner$at$a$swank$hotel$in$
New$York$City5$One$of$the$membership$rules$of$the$organiza-$tion$
was$that$the$members$would$never$actually$tell$a$joke$or$a$gag$to$
each$other5$They$had$memorized$all$the$standard$gags$by$
numbers,$and$instead$of$telling$the$joke,$they$would$save$time$by$
simply$calling$the$number$of$that$particular$one5$
During$the$dinner,$as$a$situation$would$present$itself,$and$any$of$
the$comedy$writers$thought$of$a$gag$to$fit$the$situation,$he$would$
call$the$number,$and$shouts$of$laughter$would$invariably$go$up5$
yNumber$148,y$called$one peals$of$laughter5$yNumber$204,y$
shouted$another more$laughter5$Towards$the$end$of$the$dinner,$
one$of$the$new$members$shouted$yNumber$212,y$and$was$greeted$
by$a$loud$silence5$Whereupon$his$neighbor$turned$to$him$and$
said,$yYouxll$soon$learn,$my$friend,$that$itxs$not$the$
joke$thatxs$important,$but$the$way$you$tell$it5y$
Although$the$above$is$pure$fiction,$most$people$would$say$it$is$
impossible$to$remember$so$many$jokes$by$number5$Let$me$assure$
you$that$it$is$possible,$and$I$will$teach$you$how,$in$a$later$
chapter5$First,$however,$you$must$learn$how$to$remember$the$
numbers5$Numbers$themselves$are$about$the$most$difficult$things$
to$remember$because$they$are$completely$abstract$and$intangible5$
It$is$almost$impossi-$ble$to$picture$a$number5$They$are$geometric$
designs$and$
48$
Peg$System$of$Memory$49$
they$mean$nothing$in$our$minds,$unless$they$have$been$associated$
to$something$you$know,$over$a$period$of$time5$Of$course,$your$
own$address$or$your$own$telephone$number$does$mean$something$
to$you5$The$problem$is$to$be$able$to$associate$any$and$all$numbers$
easily,$quickly,$and$at$any$time5$
If$you$were$to$try$to$hang$a$painting$on$your$bare$living$room$
wall,$what$would$happen?$Why,$the$painting$would$fall$to$the$
Aloor,$of$course5$However,$if$you$had$a$tiny$peg$in$that$wall,$then$
you$would$be$able$to$hang$the$painting$on$it5$What$Ixm$going$to$
do$is$to$give$you$some$ypegsy;$no,$not$for$your$wall but$to$keep$
in$your$mind,$always5$Any-$thing$you$wish$to$remember$from$
now$on,$having$to$do$with$numbers$in$any$way,$you$will$be$able$
to$yhangy$on$these$pegsp$That$is$why$I$call$this$the$PEG$system$of$
memory5$
The$PEG$system$will$show$you$how$to$count$with$objects$>which$
can$be$pictured@$instead$of$numbers5$This$is$not$a$particularly$
new$thought5$It$was$first$introduced$by$Stanislaus$Mink$von$
Wennsshein$along$about$the$year$16485$In$the$year$1730,$the$
entire$system$was$modified$by$Dr5$Richard$Grey,$of$England,$who$
called$the$idea,$letter$or$ynumber$equivalents5y$The$idea$was$great,$
but$the$
method$just$a$bit$clumsy,$because$he$used$vowels$as$well$as$
consonants$in$the$system5$Since$1730,$however,$many$changes$
have$been$made,$although$the$idea$is$basically$the$same5$
In$order$for$you$to$learn$the$method,$you$must$first$learn$a$
simple$phonetic$alphabet5$No$need$for$dismay it$consists$of$only$
ten$sounds,$and$with$my$help,$it$shouldnxt$take$you$more$than$
ten$minutes$to$learn$them5$This$will$be$the$most$worthwhile$ten$
minutes$youxve$ever$spent,$since$this$phonetic$alphabet$will$
eventually$help$you$to$remember$numbers,$or$numbers$in$
conjunction$with$any-$
method$just$a$bit$clumsy,$because$he$used$vowels$as$well$as$
consonants$in$the$system5$Since$1730,$however,$many$changes$
have$been$made,$although$the$idea$is$basically$the$same5$
In$order$for$you$to$learn$the$method,$you$must$first$learn$a$
simple$phonetic$alphabet5$No$need$for$dismay it$consists$of$only$
ten$sounds,$and$with$my$help,$it$shouldnxt$take$you$more$than$
ten$minutes$to$learn$them5$This$will$be$the$most$worthwhile$ten$
minutes$youxve$ever$spent,$since$this$phonetic$alphabet$will$
eventually$help$you$to$remember$numbers,$or$numbers$in$
conjunction$with$any-$
50$Peg$System$of$Memory$
thing$else,$in$such$a$way$that$you$never$would$have$thought$
possible5$
I$will$give$you$now,$a$different$consonant$sound$for$each$of$the$
digits$1,$2,$3,$4,$5,$6,$7,$8,$9$and$05$These$you$must$commit$to$
memory5$Ixll$make$this$simple$for$you$by$giving$you$a$ymemory$
aidy$for$remembering$each$one5$Read$them$carefully$and$with$your$
full$attention5$
The$sound$for$#1$will$always$be T$or$D5$The$letter$T$has$one$
downstroke5$
The$sound$for$#$2$will$always$be N5$Typewritten$n$has$two$
downstrokes5$
The$sound$for$#3$will$always$be M5$Typewritten$m$has$three$
downstrokes5$
The$sound$for$#4$will$always$be R5$Final$sound$of$the$word,$
yfoury$is$R5$
The$sound$for$#5$will$always$be L5$Roman$numeral$for50isL5$
The$sound$for$#6$will$always$be `,$ch,$sh,$soft$g,$etc5$
The$letter$`$turned$around$is$almost$like$the$number$65$
>j6@$
The$sound$for$#7$will$always$be K,$hard$c,$hard$g5$The$
number$7$can$be$used$to$form$a$K5$One$seven$rightside$up,$
and$the$other$upside$down5$>$yK$@$•$
The$sound$for$#8$will$always$be F$or$V5$Written$f$and$figure$8$
both$have$two$loops,$one$above$the$other5$
>f8@5$
The$sound$for$#9$will$always$be P$or$B5$The$number$95$turned$
around$is$P5$
The$sound$for$0$>zero@$will$always$be S$or$Z5$First$sound$of$the$
word,$yzero5y$
If$you$will$attempt$to$picture$the$little$memory$aid$that$I$have$
given$with$each$one,$you$should$remember$them$easily5$Please$
keep$in$mind$that$the$letters$are$not$impor-$
tant;$we$are$interested$in$the$sound$only5$Thatxs$why$I$call$this$a$
phonetic$alphabet5$With$some$of$the$digits$Ixve$given$more$than$
one$letter,$but$the$phonetic$sounds$of$these$letters$are$the$same,$in$
each$case5$Your$lips,$tongue$and$teeth$are$used$in$the$same$
identical$way$to$sound$P$and$B,$or$F$and$V,$or$J,$sh,$ch,$etc5$The$
sound$of$the$letter$G$in$the$exclamation,$ygeey$would,$according$to$
the$phonetic$alphabet,$represent$#6,$whereas$the$same$letter$in$the$
word,$ygoy$would$represent$#75$The$letter$C$in$the$word$ycoaty$
represents$#7,$the$same$letter$in$the$word$ycenty$would$represent$
zero,$since$it$is$pronounced$with$the$s$sound5$The$letters$Kn$in$the$
word,$ykneey$or$yknifey$would$stand$for$#2,$because$the$K$is$silent5$
Remember$then,$it$is$the$sound$thatxs$important,$not$the$letter5$
Now,$look$this$over$onceN $
15$T,D$65$J,sh,ch,g$25$N$75$
K,c,g$
35$M$45$R$55$L$
85$F,v$95$P,b$05$Z,s$
Turn$away$from$this$page$and$see$if$you$remember$the$sounds$
from$one$to$zero5$Test$yourself$on$remembering$them$out$of$order,$
too5$You$should$know$them$all$by$now5$I$could$give$you$one$more$
aid$for$memorizing$these$sounds,$by$telling$you$to$remember$this$
nonsense$phraseN$TeN$MoRe$LoGiC$FiBS5$This$will$help$you$to$
memorize$the$sounds$in$order$from$one$to$zero5$It$is$necessary,$
however,$to$know$them$out$of$sequence so$you$shouldnxt$have$to$
rely$on$the$nonsense$phrase$too$long the$original$memory$aids$
that$I$gave$you,$should$suffice5$
This$simple$phonetic$alphabet$is$of$utmost$importance,$and$the$
sounds$should$be$practiced$until$they$are$second$nature$to$you5$
Once$they$are,$the$rest$of$the$Peg$system$will$be$a$cinch$for$you5$
Here$is$a$method$of$practice$to$
help$you$learn$the$sounds$thoroughlyN $Anytime$you$see$a$
number,$break$it$down$into$sounds$in$your$mind5$For$example,$
you$might$see$the$number$3746$on$a$license$plate;$you$should$be$
able$to$read$it$as$m,$k,$r,$j5$You$might$see$an$address$85-29,$and$be$
able$to$read$it$as$Al-np5$You$can$look$at$any$word$and$practice$
breaking$it$down$into$numbers5$The$word$ymotory$would$be$3145$
The$word$ypapery$is$994,$and$ycigarettey$would$break$down$to$07415$
>The$double$tt$is$the$same$sound$as$a$single$t,$therefore$it$
represents$#1,$not$#115@$
None$of$the$vowels,$a$e$i$o$or$u$have$any$meaning$at$all$in$the$
phonetic$alphabet;$neither$do$the$letters$w,$h$or$y5$>Remember$the$
word,$ywhyy@5$
Before$going$any$further,$complete$the$following$exer-$cises5$The$
first$column$of$words$should$be$changed$to$num-$bers,$and$the$
second$column$of$numbers$must$be$broken$into$sounds5$
climb_____$6124$_____$
butler$______$8903$_____$
chandelier______$2394$_____$
sounds______$0567$_____$
bracelet$______$1109$_____$
hypnotize$______$8374$_____$
You$are$ready$now$to$learn$some$of$those$ypegsy$I$men-$tioned5$I$
would$suggest$however,$that$you$know$the$sounds$thoroughly$
before$you$go$on$to$the$pegs$themselves5$
All$right,$since$we$now$know$a$certain$phonetic$sound$for$all$the$
digits$from$one$to$zero,$you$can$see$that$we$can$make$up$a$word$
for$any$number,$no$matter$how$many$digits$it$contains5$For$
example,$if$we$wanted$to$make$up$a$word$for$#21,$we$could$use$
any$of$the$followingN net,$nut,$knot,$gnat,$nod,$neat,$note,$knit,$
etc5,$because$they$all$begin$with$the$n$sound$>#2@$and$end$with$
the$t$or$d$sound$>#1@5$For$#14$we$could$use$tear,$tire,$tore,$door,$
tier,$deer,$dire,$dray,$tree,$etc5,$because$they$all$begin$with$the$t$or$
d$sound$for$#1,$and$end$with$the$r$sound$for$#45$Remember$that$
we$are$interested$in$the$consonant$sounds$only5$
Do$you$get$the$idea$of$how$I$formed$those$words?$If$you$do,$then$I$
can$go$ahead$and$give$you$the$first$few$ypegs5y$Each$one$of$the$
peg$words$that$I$will$give$you$has$been$specially$chosen$because$it$
is$comparatively$easy$to$picture$in$your$mind,$and$that$is$
important5$
Since$the$number$1$contains$only$one$digit,$and$that$one$digit$is$
represented$by$the$t$or$d$sound,$we$must$use$a$word$that$
contains$only$that$one$consonant$sound5$So,$we$will$use$the$
word,$yTIE5y$From$here$on$in,$the$word,$ytiey$will$always$represent$
the$number$1$to$you5$
As$I$said,$it$is$important$to$be$able$to$picture$these$objects,$so$I$
will$give$explanations$of$all$those$where$I$think$an$explanation$is$
necessary5$
The$word,$yNOAHy$will$always$represent$#25$Picture$
an$old,$white$haired$man$on$an$ark5$
The$word,$yMAy$will$always$mean$#35$Here$I$suggest$that$you$
always$picture$your$own$mother5$
The$word,$yRYEy$will$always$represent$the$number$45$
You$can$picture$either$a$bottle$of$Rye$whiskey$or$a$loaf$of$rye$
bread5$Once$you$decide$on$a$particular$mind$picture$for$this,$or$
for$any$of$the$pegs,$use$that$particular$picture$always5$You$can$
see$how$I$arrive$at$these$words5$They$all$have$only$one$consonant$
sound,$and$that$one$sound$is$the$one$representing$the$digit$of$the$
number5$
The$word,$yMAy$will$always$mean$#35$Here$I$suggest$that$you$
always$picture$your$own$mother5$
The$word,$yRYEy$will$always$represent$the$number$45$
You$can$picture$either$a$bottle$of$Rye$whiskey$or$a$loaf$of$rye$
bread5$Once$you$decide$on$a$particular$mind$picture$for$this,$or$
for$any$of$the$pegs,$use$that$particular$picture$always5$You$can$
see$how$I$arrive$at$these$words5$They$all$have$only$one$consonant$
sound,$and$that$one$sound$is$the$one$representing$the$digit$of$the$
number5$
The$word,$yLAWy$will$always$represent$#55$The$word$ylawy$itself,$
cannot$be$pictured;$I$suggest$that$you$picture$any$policeman,$in$
uniform,$because$they$represent$the$law5$
Number$6$is$the$word$ySHOE5y$Number$7$is$the$word$yCOW5y$
Number$8$is$the$word,$yIVY5y$For$this$one,$you$can$picture$either$
Poison$Ivy,$or$ivy$growing$all$over$the$
sides$of$a$house5$Number$9$is$the$word,$yBEE5y$Number$10$has$two$
digits,$the$digit$1$and$a$zero5$The$peg$word$for$#10$therefore$must$
be$made$up$of$a$t$or$d$sound$and$an$s$or$z$sound,$in$that$order5$
Wexll$use$the$word,$yTOESy$ picture$your$own$toes5$
Ordinarily$it$would$be$a$little$difficult$to$remember$ten$
completely$unassociated$words$as$I$have$just$given$you5$Since$the$
peg$word$for$any$number$must$contain$certain$sounds$only,$
youxll$find$that$it$is$easy5$As$a$matter$of$fact,$if$you$have$read$the$
ten$words$once,$with$a$little$concentra-$tion,$you$probably$
already$know$them5$Try$itp$
When$you$say$the$number$to$yourself,$think$of$its$sound$first,$
then$try$to$remember$the$peg$word5$Test$yourself$in$and$out$of$
order5$You$should$know$that$#$3$is$yma,y$with-$out$repeating,$
ytie,y$yNoah,y$map$
To$show$you$how$fantastic$your$memory$can$be$with$my$little$
memory$aids,$you$can$do$this$until$the$words$become$second$
nature$to$you;$If$you$come$to$a$number,$and$you$think$you$canxt$
sides$of$a$house5$Number$9$is$the$word,$yBEE5y$Number$10$has$two$
digits,$the$digit$1$and$a$zero5$The$peg$word$for$#10$therefore$must$
be$made$up$of$a$t$or$d$sound$and$an$s$or$z$sound,$in$that$order5$
Wexll$use$the$word,$yTOESy$ picture$your$own$toes5$
Ordinarily$it$would$be$a$little$difficult$to$remember$ten$
completely$unassociated$words$as$I$have$just$given$you5$Since$the$
peg$word$for$any$number$must$contain$certain$sounds$only,$
youxll$find$that$it$is$easy5$As$a$matter$of$fact,$if$you$have$read$the$
ten$words$once,$with$a$little$concentra-$tion,$you$probably$
already$know$them5$Try$itp$
When$you$say$the$number$to$yourself,$think$of$its$sound$first,$
then$try$to$remember$the$peg$word5$Test$yourself$in$and$out$of$
order5$You$should$know$that$#$3$is$yma,y$with-$out$repeating,$
ytie,y$yNoah,y$map$
To$show$you$how$fantastic$your$memory$can$be$with$my$little$
memory$aids,$you$can$do$this$until$the$words$become$second$
nature$to$you;$If$you$come$to$a$number,$and$you$think$you$canxt$
remember$its$peg think$of$the$sound$for$
that$number,$and$say$any$words$that$come$to$your$mind,$
starting$with,$and$containing$that$particular$consonant$sound$
only5$When$you$say$the$right$one,$it$will$sort$of$yring$a$belly$in$
your$mind,$and$youxll$know$that$thatxs$the$
right$one5$For$instance,$if$you$couldnxt$think$of$the$peg$word$for$
#1,$you$might$say$to$yourself,$ytoy,$tow,$tea,$tiey;$as$soon$as$you$
say$ytie,y$youxll$know$that$that$is$the$correct$word5$
You$can$see,$now,$what$Ixve$done5$I$have$built$you$up$slowly$with$
each$item5$First$I$gave$you$an$aid$to$remember$the$phonetic$
sounds,$now$those$sounds$are$your$aid$to$remember$the$very$
important$peg$words;$and$the$peg$words$will$help$you$to$
remember$anything$where$numbers$are$involved,$so$make$sure$
you$know$them$well5$
starting$with,$and$containing$that$particular$consonant$sound$
only5$When$you$say$the$right$one,$it$will$sort$of$yring$a$belly$in$
your$mind,$and$youxll$know$that$thatxs$the$
right$one5$For$instance,$if$you$couldnxt$think$of$the$peg$word$for$
#1,$you$might$say$to$yourself,$ytoy,$tow,$tea,$tiey;$as$soon$as$you$
say$ytie,y$youxll$know$that$that$is$the$correct$word5$
You$can$see,$now,$what$Ixve$done5$I$have$built$you$up$slowly$with$
each$item5$First$I$gave$you$an$aid$to$remember$the$phonetic$
sounds,$now$those$sounds$are$your$aid$to$remember$the$very$
important$peg$words;$and$the$peg$words$will$help$you$to$
remember$anything$where$numbers$are$involved,$so$make$sure$
you$know$them$well5$
15$tie
25$Noah$35$ma$45$rye$55$law$
65$shoe$75$cow$85$ivy$95$bee$
105$toes$
Now,$if$you5$feel$that$you$know$the$first$ten$peg$words$
thoroughly,$Ixll$show$you$how$to$use$them$for$remembering$objects$
in$and$out$of$order5$Ixll$give$you$ten$objects,$out$of$sequence,$and$
prove$to$you$that$you$can$remember$them$after$reading$them$
only$oncep$
9$ $purse$5$ $typewriter$
6$ $cigarette$2$ $TV$set$
4$ $ashtray$8$ $wrist$watch$
7$ $salt-shaker$1$ $fountain$pen$3$ $lamp$10$ $
telephone$
The$first$one$listed$is$#9 purse5$All$you$have$to$do$is$to$make$a$
ridiculous$and/or$illogical$association$of$the$peg$word$for$#9,$
which$is$ybee,y$and$purse5$If$you$have$realized$the$importance$of$
actually$yseeingy$these$ridiculous$asso-$ciations$in$your$mind,$
youxll$have$no$trouble5$For$this$first$one,$you$might$see$yourself$
opening$a$purse$and$a$swarm$of$bees$Aly$out$of$it,$stinging$you5$
Just$yseey$the$picture$for$a$moment,$then$go$to$the$next$one5$
#6>shoe@ cigarette5$You$can$see$yourself$smoking$a$shoe$instead$of$
a$cigarette,$see$millions$of$cigarettes$falling$out$of$a$shoe,$or$you$
can$see$yourself$wearing$gigantic$cigarettes$instead$of$shoes5$
#4>rye@ ashtray5$You$might$see$yourself$dropping$ashes$into$a$
scooped$out$loaf$of$rye$bread$instead$of$an$ashtray,$or,$youxre$
buttering$an$ashtray$instead$of$a$slice$of$rye$bread5$
I$am$giving$you$one$or$more$ways$that$each$object$can$be$
associated$ridiculously$with$its$peg$word5$You$are$to$use$
only$one$of$these$pictures$for$each$one5$Use$one$that$I$give,$or$one$
that$you$think$of$yourself5$The$first$illogical$picture$that$comes$to$
mind$is$usually$the$best$one$to$use,$because$that$is$the$one$that$
will$come$to$mind$later$on5$Ixll$help$you$with$all$ten$of$them,$since$
it$is$the$first$time$you$are$attempting$this$method;$but$after$this$
you$should$be$able$to$do$it$without$my$help5$
#7>cow@-salt-shaker5$Picture$yourself$milking$a$cow,$but$the$cow$
has$salt-shakers$instead$of$udders5$Or,$see$saltshakers$coming$out$
instead$of$milk5$
#3>ma@$-lamp5$You$can$picture$your$mother$wearing$a$gigantic$
lamp$for$a$hat5$See$the$lamp$going$on$and$off5$>Action-$Rule$#25@$
#5$>law@$-typewriter5$You$might$yseey$a$policeman$putting$
handcuffs$on$a$typewriter,$or$you$can$see$a$typewriter$walking$
the$beat,$swinging$a$club,$like$a$cop5$
#a$>Noah@$-Television$set5$You$might$picture$Noah$sailing$on$a$
television$set$instead$of$an$ark5$
#8>ivy@-wrist$watch5$You$can$see$millions$of$wrist$watches$growing$
all$over$the$side$of$your$house,$instead$of$
$
ivy;$or,$you$can$see$yourself$wearing$ivy$on$your$wrist$instead$of$
a$watch5$
#$1$>tie@-fountain$pen5$Picture$yourself$wearing$a$gigantic$
fountain$pen$instead$of$a$tie,$or$you$might$see$yourself$writing$
with$your$tie,$instead$of$a$fountain$pen5$
#$10$>toes@$-telephone5$See$yourself$dialing$with$your$toes,$or,$you$
pick$up$the$telephone,$but$it$turns$out$that$youxre$holding$your$
toes5$>Probably$talking$to$a$heel5@$
Now-take$a$piece$of$paper,$number$it$from$one$to$ten,$and$try$to$
fill$in$the$objects$in$order,$without$looking$at$the$book5$When$you$
come$to$#1,$just$picture$your$peg$word,$tie,$and$the$ridiculous$
picture$of$you$wearing$a$fountain$pen$instead$of$a$tie$will$come$
back$to$you$immediately5$So$you$know$that$#$1$is$fountain$pen5$
When$you$picture$Noah,$you$will$see$him$on$a$television$set$
instead$of$an$ark;$so$you$know$that$#$2$is$television$set5$
You$will$remember$them$all$quite$easily5$The$wonderful$part$
about$it,$is$that$you$also$know$them$out$of$sequence5$You$can$see,$
of$course,$that$it$makes$no$difference5$You$can$also$call$them$off$
backwards-just$think$of$the$peg$word$for$#$10$>toes@$and$work$up$
to$ytie5y$
You$should$now$be$thoroughly$amazed$at$your$own$ability5$But$
waitp$Why$not$memorize$twenty-five$objects$instead$of$only$ten?$
Well,$at$the$end$of$this$chapter$you$will$find$the$peg$words$for$
numbers$11$through$to$255$Please$learn$those$just$as$you$learned$
the$first$ten5$When$you$know$them$perfectly,$try$this$on$your$
friends5$Have$them$number$a$sheet$of$paper$from$one$to$twenty$or$
twenty-five,$or$as$many$as$you$wish$to$showoff$with5$Then$have$
him$call$out$any$of$those$numbers,$haphazardly,$and$then$name$
any$tangible$object5$Ask$him$to$write$that$object$alongside$the$
number$called5$Have$him$do$that$until$every$number$has$an$object$
next$to$it5$Now$call$them$right$back$to$him$from$#$1$right$down$
to$the$last$one5$Then$have$
$
him$call$any$number,$and$you$immediately$give$him$the$object,$
or$have$him$call$any$object$and$you$tell$him$what$number$it$ispp$
Donxt$let$that$last$part$throw$you,$there$is$nothing$to$it5$If$I$was$
to$ask$you$now$what$number$salt-shaker$was,$you$would$yseey$
the$ridiculous$picture$of$a$cow$with$salt-$shakers$instead$of$
udders5$Since$ycowy$is$the$peg$for$#7,$then$you$know$that$salt-
shaker$was$#75$
Watch$the$look$of$astonishment$on$your$palxs$face$when$youxre$
him$call$any$number,$and$you$immediately$give$him$the$object,$
or$have$him$call$any$object$and$you$tell$him$what$number$it$ispp$
Donxt$let$that$last$part$throw$you,$there$is$nothing$to$it5$If$I$was$
to$ask$you$now$what$number$salt-shaker$was,$you$would$yseey$
the$ridiculous$picture$of$a$cow$with$salt-$shakers$instead$of$
udders5$Since$ycowy$is$the$peg$for$#7,$then$you$know$that$salt-
shaker$was$#75$
Watch$the$look$of$astonishment$on$your$palxs$face$when$youxre$
throughp$
-$Please$do$not$go$on$to$the$next$chapter$until$you$are$sure$that$
you$know$all$the$peg$words$from$1$to$255$
115$tot$125$tin$135$tomb$145$tire$
155$towel$165$dish$175$tack$185$dove$
195$tub$205$nose$215$net$225$nun$
235$name$245$Nero$255$nail$
For$ytot,y$it$is$best$to$picture$a$child$that$you$know5$For$#12,$you$
can$see$the$object$called,$made$out$of$ytin5y$For$ytomb,y$picture$a$
gravestone5$For$#20,$you$can$see$the$object$called,$on$your$face$in$
place$of$your$ynose5y$For$ynet,y$you$can$use$either$a$fishing$net,$a$
hair$net,$or$a$tennis$net5$
For$#23,$you$can$see$the$object$you$wish$to$remember$forming$
your$yname5y$For$instance,$if$the$object$were$cigar-$
ette,$you$would$picture$your$own$name$printed$out$very$large$
with$cigarettes5$If$you$donxt$care$for$that$idea,$you$might$picture$
one$of$your$business$cards$for$yname,y$or$any$other$possession$that$
has$your$name$on$it5$Whatever$you$decide$on,$you$must$use$it$all$
the$time5$For$yNero,y$I$always$picture$a$man$playing$a$fiddle5$
Remember,$please,$that$once$you$decide$on$a$particular$picture$for$
any$of$the$peg$words,$you$are$to$use$that$picture$all$the$time5$
If$you$know$the$pegs$from$1$to$25$thoroughly,$>and$I$
suggest$that$you$go$no$further$until$you$do@,$and$if$you$feel$
confident,$>or$even$if$you$donxt@$why$not$take$test$#2$in$Chapter$
#3$once$again5$Try$it,$and$then$compare$your$present$score$with$
the$original$onep$
Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$
New$patientN$yDoctor,$I$donxt$know$what$to$do5$Youxve$got$to$help$
me;$I$just$canxt$remember$a$thing5$Ixve$no$memory$at$all5$I$hear$
something$one$minute,$and$the$next$minute,$I$forget$itp$Tell$me,$
what$should$I$do?y$
doctorN$yPay$in$advancepy$
I$canxt$blame$the$doctor$for$wanting$his$fee$in$advance$in$the$
above$anecdote;$but$I$guess$that$most$of$us$who$forget$to$pay$bills,$
do$so$because$we$donxt$want$to$remem-$ber$them5$According$to$
Austin$OxMalley,$yA$habit$of$debt$is$very$injurious$to$the$
memory5y$Unfortunately,$we$are$usually$soon$reminded$of$debts5$
If$youxve$grasped$the$idea$behind$the$Link$and$the$Peg$systems$of$
memory,$you$have$learned$two$of$the$three$things$that$your$
trained$memory$will$be$based$upon5$The$third$is$
the$system$of$substitute$words$or$substitute$thoughts,$which$I$will$
discuss$in$later$chapters5$
You$can$start$applying$what$youxve$learned$immediately,$if$you$
want$to5$Not$particularly$for$remembering$debts,$which$Ixm$sure$
youxd$rather$forget,$but$perhaps$for$memo-$rizing$the$errands$that$
you$have$to$do$for$each$day5$If$you$usually$write$out$your$
shopping$list,$why$not$try$to$memo-$rize$it$with$the$help$of$the$
Link$system5$Simply$link$the$first$item$to$the$second$item,$the$
trained$memory$will$be$based$upon5$The$third$is$
the$system$of$substitute$words$or$substitute$thoughts,$which$I$will$
discuss$in$later$chapters5$
You$can$start$applying$what$youxve$learned$immediately,$if$you$
want$to5$Not$particularly$for$remembering$debts,$which$Ixm$sure$
youxd$rather$forget,$but$perhaps$for$memo-$rizing$the$errands$that$
you$have$to$do$for$each$day5$If$you$usually$write$out$your$
shopping$list,$why$not$try$to$memo-$rize$it$with$the$help$of$the$
Link$system5$Simply$link$the$first$item$to$the$second$item,$the$
second$to$the$third,$and$
60$
Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$61$
so$on,$down$the$list5$You$can$memorize$an$entirely$different$list$
the$next$time$you$go$shopping$without$fear$of$con-$
fusion5$The$beautiful$thing$about$the$Link$method$is$that$you$can$
forget$a$list$whenever$you$wish5$Actually,$when$you$memorize$
the$second$shopping$list,$the$first$one$fades$away5$You$can,$of$
course,$retain$as$many$lists$or$links$as$you$desire5$
The$mind$is$a$most$fantastic$machine;$it$can$be$compared$to$a$
filing$cabinet5$If$you$have$memorized$a$list$of$items$with$the$Link$
system,$which$you$want$to$retain you$can5$If$you$want$to$forget$
the$list you$can5$It$is$merely$a$ques-$tion$of$desire5$The$list$that$
you$want$to$remember$is$one$which$you$probably$intend$to$use,$
or$you$would$have$no$reason$to$retain$it5$The$use$of$the$list$itself$
will$tend$to$etch$it$into$your$memory5$If$it$happens$to$be$a$list$
that$you$do$not$intend$to$utilize$right$away,$but$which$you$feel$
you$want$to$retain$for$future$use you$can$do$that,$too5$You$
would$have$to$go$over$the$list$in$your$mind$the$day$
after$you$memorized$it5$Then$go$over$it$again$a$few$days$later5$
After$doing$this$a$few$times,$you$have$filed$the$list$away,$and$it$
will$be$ready$when$you$need$it5$
We$all$realize,$of$course,$that$it$is$sometimes$necessary$to$forgetp$
Benjamin$Disraeli,$when$asked$about$the$favor$shown$him$by$
royalty,$said,$y I$observe$a$simple$rule$of$conduct;$I$never$deny;$I$
that$you$do$not$intend$to$utilize$right$away,$but$which$you$feel$
you$want$to$retain$for$future$use you$can$do$that,$too5$You$
would$have$to$go$over$the$list$in$your$mind$the$day$
after$you$memorized$it5$Then$go$over$it$again$a$few$days$later5$
After$doing$this$a$few$times,$you$have$filed$the$list$away,$and$it$
will$be$ready$when$you$need$it5$
We$all$realize,$of$course,$that$it$is$sometimes$necessary$to$forgetp$
Benjamin$Disraeli,$when$asked$about$the$favor$shown$him$by$
royalty,$said,$y I$observe$a$simple$rule$of$conduct;$I$never$deny;$I$
never$contradict;$I$sometimes$forget5y$This,$however,$is$a$question$
of$diplomacy,$not$memory;$and$I$know$that$youxre$reading$this$
book$not$to$be$taught$how$to$forget,$but$how$to$remember5$I$will$
show$you$soon,$how$to$use$the$Link$system$to$remember$speeches,$
articles,$anecdotes,$etc5$
The$main$difference$between$the$Link$and$the$Peg$methods$is$that$
the$Link$is$used$to$remember$anything$in$sequence,$while$the$Peg$
is$for$memorizing$things$in$and$out$of$order5$You$may$feel$that$
you$have$no$need$for$the$Peg$
62$Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$
system$since$you$donxt$have$to$remember$anything$out$of$order5$
Believe$me$when$I$tell$you$that$you$definitely$should$learn$the$
Peg$system$thoroughly5$It$will$be$extremely$useful$for$
remembering$telephone$numbers,$style$numbers,$long$digit$
numbers,$addresses as$a$matter$of$fact,$the$Peg$sys-$tem$will$aid$
you$in$remembering$anything$that$has$to$do$with$numbers$in$
any$way5$Besides,$it$will$enable$you$to$do$some$fantastic$memory$
stunts$for$your$friends5$
Although$I$intend$to$go$deeper$into$memorizing$sched-$ules$or$
appointments$for$the$week,$day$or$month,$in$later$chapters I$can$
show$you$how$to$apply$what$you$have$already$learned$to$this$
problem,$right$now5$You$can$use$either$the$Peg$or$Link$methods,$
or$one,$in$conjunction$with$the$other5$
Letxs$assume$that$you$have$the$following$errands$to$do$on$one$
particular$dayN$You$have$to$have$your$car$washed$>now$we$know$
that$it$must$rain$today@;$make$a$deposit$at$the$bank;$mail$a$letter;$
see$your$dentist;$pick$up$the$umbrella$that$you$forgot$at$a$friendxs$
house$>you$hadnxt$
read$the$chapter$on$absent-mindedness,$as$yet@;$buy$some$perfume$
for$your$wife;,$call$or$see$the$television$repairman;$stop$at$the$
hardware$store$for$bulbs,$a$hammer,$a$picture$frame,$an$extension$
cord$and$an$ironing$board$cover;$go$to$
the$bookstore$to$buy$a$copy$of$this$book$for$a$forgetful$friend;$
have$your$watch$repaired;$and$finally,$bring$home$one$dozen$eggs5$
>My,$but$youxve$got$a$busy$dayp@$
Now,$as$Ixve$said,$you$can$use$the$Link$or$Peg$systems$to$enable$
you$to$remember$to$do$each$of$the$above$errands5$Using$the$Link$
methodN$Simply$make$a$ridiculous$picture$between$car$and$bank
you$might$see$yourself$driving$into$the$bank$in$your$recently$
washed$car;$youxre$depositing$letters$instead$of$money;$now$
the$bookstore$to$buy$a$copy$of$this$book$for$a$forgetful$friend;$
have$your$watch$repaired;$and$finally,$bring$home$one$dozen$eggs5$
>My,$but$youxve$got$a$busy$dayp@$
Now,$as$Ixve$said,$you$can$use$the$Link$or$Peg$systems$to$enable$
you$to$remember$to$do$each$of$the$above$errands5$Using$the$Link$
methodN$Simply$make$a$ridiculous$picture$between$car$and$bank
you$might$see$yourself$driving$into$the$bank$in$your$recently$
washed$car;$youxre$depositing$letters$instead$of$money;$now$
picture$your$dentist$pulling$letters$out$of$your$mouth$instead$of$
teeth or,$hexs$using$a$letter$instead$of$a$drill5$To$remember$the$
errand$concern-$
Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$63$
ing$the$umbrella picture$your$dentist$working$over$you$while$
hexs$holding$an$umbrella$over$his$head;$make$a$ridiculous$picture$
between$umbrella$and$perfume,$now,$per-$fume$to$television;$
television$to$hardware;$hardware$to$book;$book$to$watch;$and$
finally,$watch$to$eggs5$
Ixve$given$you$examples$with$the$first$few$errands$only,$because$I$
want$you$to$use$your$own$imagination$for$form-$ing$ridiculous$
mental$links5$You$simply$do$the$same$as$if$you$were$linking$a$list$
of$objects5$Actually$it$is$the$same$thing when$you$come$to$the$
watch$repairing$and$the$pur-$chase$of$the$dozen$eggs,$it$isnxt$
necessary$to$get$the$repair-$ing$or$amount$of$eggs$into$the$
picture5$Just$use$watch$and$egg$for$your$ridiculous$pictureN$i5e5$
Youxre$breaking$an$egg,$and$a$wrist$watch$falls$out;$or,$youxre$
wearing$an$egg$instead$of$a$wrist$watch5$The$one$item$will$bring$
the$entire$errand$to$mind,$of$course5$These$are$just$memory$aids$
or$reminders;$you$already$have$remembered$that$you$must$repair$
the$watch$or$that$it$is$a$dozen$eggs$that$you$need5$Thinking$of,$or$
being$reminded$of$watch$and$egg$is$all$that$is$necessary$to$start$
you$off$on$your$errand5$
When$you$get$to$the$hardware$store,$you$have$to$buy$
five$items5$Make$a$separate$link$of$these$fiveN you$can$start$by$
yseeingy$a$large$bulb$as$the$proprietor$of$the$store;$
you$break$him$with$a$hammer;$you$frame$a$hammer$and$hang$it$
on$your$wall,$and$so$on,$to$ironing$board$cover5
After$you$have$linked$all$your$errands$for$the$day,$all$
you$have$to$do,$is$complete$one,$and$that$will$remind$you$of$the$
next,$and$so$on5$However,$you$neednxt$do$all$these$errands$in$
sequence$just$because$you$used$the$Link$method$to$remember$
them5$That$might$make$it$a$little$incon-$venient,$unless$youxve$
arranged$your$errands$accordingly5$No,$you$can$do$them$in$any$
you$break$him$with$a$hammer;$you$frame$a$hammer$and$hang$it$
on$your$wall,$and$so$on,$to$ironing$board$cover5
After$you$have$linked$all$your$errands$for$the$day,$all$
you$have$to$do,$is$complete$one,$and$that$will$remind$you$of$the$
next,$and$so$on5$However,$you$neednxt$do$all$these$errands$in$
sequence$just$because$you$used$the$Link$method$to$remember$
them5$That$might$make$it$a$little$incon-$venient,$unless$youxve$
arranged$your$errands$accordingly5$No,$you$can$do$them$in$any$
order$you$like5$Each$time$you$complete$an$errand,$go$over$the$
link$in$your$mind,$in$order$to$remind$yourself$if$there$is$one$that$
is$convenient$to$take$
64$Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$
care$of$at$that$moment,$considering$the$time$and$place5$When$
you$think$you$have$attended$to$all$your$duties$for$the$day,$go$
over$the$Link,$and$if$there$is$one$youxve$missed,$youxll$know$it$
immediately5$
You$can$utilize$the$Peg$system,$of$course,$for$the$same$thing5$Just$
associate$washing$the$car$with$your$peg$word$for$#1$>tie@5$You$
might$picture$yourself$wearing$a$car$instead$of$a$tie5$Now,$
associate$
bank$to$Noah$>#2@$letter$to$ma$>#3@$dentist$to$rye$>#4@$umbrella$to$
law$>#5@$perfume$to$shoe$>#6@$television$to$cow$>#7@$hardware$to$
ivy$>#8@$book$to$bee$>#9@$watch$to$toes$>#10@$eggs$to$tot$>#11@$
Use$the$link$to$remember$the$different$items$you$want$
at$the$hardware$store5$You$could$even$use$the$Peg$for$this$by$
making$another$set$of$associations5$i5e5$bulb$to$tie;$ham-$mer$to$
Noah,$etc5$They$wouldnxt$conAlict$at$all,$but$it$is$
easier$to$use$the$Link5$
Now,$again,$when$youxre$ready$to$start$the$day,$think$of$your$peg$
for$#1$>tie@5$This$will$remind$you$that$you$have$to$get$the$car$
washed5$When$thatxs$done,$think$of$your$peg$for$#2$>Noah@$and$
that$will$remind$you$to$go$to$the$bank,$etc5$You$donxt$have$to$do$
these$in$order,$either;$simply$keep$going$over$the$pegs,$and$if$
making$another$set$of$associations5$i5e5$bulb$to$tie;$ham-$mer$to$
Noah,$etc5$They$wouldnxt$conAlict$at$all,$but$it$is$
easier$to$use$the$Link5$
Now,$again,$when$youxre$ready$to$start$the$day,$think$of$your$peg$
for$#1$>tie@5$This$will$remind$you$that$you$have$to$get$the$car$
washed5$When$thatxs$done,$think$of$your$peg$for$#2$>Noah@$and$
that$will$remind$you$to$go$to$the$bank,$etc5$You$donxt$have$to$do$
these$in$order,$either;$simply$keep$going$over$the$pegs,$and$if$
youxve$for-$gotten$something,$itxll$stand$out$like$an$eagle$in$a$
canary$cage5$
There$you$have$itp$No$more$excuses$to$the$wife$that$you$forgot$to$
wash$the$car,$or$that$you$forgot$to$buy$the$eggs5$As$I$mentioned$
before,$wexll$go$further$into$methods$for$
Uses$of$the$Peg$and$Link$Systems$6sdv
remembering$schedules$and$appointments$in$another$chap-$ter;$
wherein$you$will$learn$to$remember$appointments$for$definite$
times$and$days5$For$the$time$being$what$youxve$learned$in$this$
chapter$will$suffice$for$simple$errands5$Before$going$to$bed$each$
night,$list$your$errands$and$appointments$for$the$following$day5$
Memorize$them$as$explained,$then$go$over$them$in$the$morning$
just$to$make$sure5$Thatxs$all$there$is$to$it5$
Before$completing$this$chapter,$please$learn$the$pegs$for$#26$
through$to$#505$These,$of$course,$follow$the$rules$of$the$phonetic$
alphabet,$as$do$all$the$pegs5$
265$notch$275$neck$285$knife$295$knob$305$mice$315$mat$
325$moon$335$mummy$345$mower$355$mule$365$match$375$mug$
385$movie$395$mop$405$rose$415$rod$425$rain$435$ram$
445$rower$455$roll$465$roach$475$rock$485$roof$495$rope$
505$lace$
If$the$item$to$be$associated$with$#26$were$cigarette,$you$could$see$
a$gigantic$cigarette$with$a$ynotchy$in$it5$For$
ymower,y$picture$a$lawn-mower5$For$ymug,y$picture$a$beer$mug5$
You$can$use$either$a$fishing$rod$or$a$curtain$rod$for$#415$In$
associating$the$word$for$#42,$yrain,y$I$usually$
picture$it$raining$the$particular$item$that$I$want$to$recall5$For$
yroll,y$you$might$use$a$breakfast$roll5$
Be$sure$that$you$know$all$the$words$from$one$through$fifty,$
thoroughly,$before$reading$any$further5$You$should$know$the$
higher$numbered$words$as$well$as$the$lower$ones5$A$good$way$to$
practice$this$would$be$to$remember$a$list$of$twenty-five$objects,$in$
and$out$of$sequence,$using$the$peg$words$from$26$to$50$to$do$it5$
Just$number$the$paper$from$26$to$50$instead$of$1$to$255$After$a$day$
or$so,$if$you$feel$ambitious,$you$can$try$a$list$of$fifty$items5$If$you$
make$sure$that$you$use$strong,$ridiculous$associations,$you$
shouldnxt$have$any$trouble$remembering$all$of$them5$
How$to$Train$Your$Observation$
have$you$looked$at$the$phrase$in$the$box$on$top$of$this$
page?$If$you$have,$read$it$again$to$make$sure$that$you$know$what$
it$says5$Now$turn$your$head$away$from$the$book$and$repeat$the$
phrase5$Check$it$again$to$see$if$you$have$it$rightp$Some$of$you$will$
probably$think$itxs$a$bit$silly$for$me$to$ask$you$to$keep$making$
sure$of$a$simple$phrase$like$that,$but$itxs$important$for$you$to$be$
absolutely$aware$of$what$it$says5$
Now if$youxve$looked$at$it$closely$at$least$three$times;$what$does$
it$sayp?$Does$it$say,$yParis$in$the$springy?$I$
66$
How$to$Train$Your$Observation$67$
guess$that$most$of$you$are$nodding,$yYes,$of$course,$thatxs$what$it$
says5y$Well,$at$the$risk$of$being$repetitious,$check$it$again,$will$
you?$
Have$you$looked$at$it$again?$If$you$still$think$it$reads,$yParis$in$
the$spring,y$your$observation$is$not$as$keen$as$it$should$be5$If$you$
will$check$it$once$more,$and$this$time$point$to$each$word$as$you$
read$the$phrase,$you$will$be$amazed$to$discover$that$it$reads,$
yParis$in$the$the$springyp$There$is$one$ythey$too$many$in$the$
phrasep$
Now$you$see$why$I$asked$you$to$look$at$it$repeatedly5$I$wanted$to$
prove$that$you$could$look$at$it$any$number$of$times$and$still$not$
notice$the$extra$ythe5y$If$you$did$notice$it$right$away,$donxt$feel$
too$elated5$I$honestly$didnxt$know$whether$this$little$stunt$would$
be$as$effective$when$it$appeared$on$top$of$a$page$of$print,$as$
when$used$by$itself5$You$see,$Ixve$tested$hundreds$of$people$with$
this,$and$only$one$or$two$spotted$it$quickly5$Prove$it$to$yourself$
by$print-$ing$it$just$exactly$as$I$have$it,$on$a$3x5$index$card,$or$on$
a$piece$of$paper$of$similar$size5$The$little$x$under$the$word,$
yspringy$is$just$misdirection5$It$tends$to$draw$the$readersx$eyes$
down$to$it,$and$their$minds$jump$ahead$on$the$phrase$itself,$
read$the$phrase,$you$will$be$amazed$to$discover$that$it$reads,$
yParis$in$the$the$springyp$There$is$one$ythey$too$many$in$the$
phrasep$
Now$you$see$why$I$asked$you$to$look$at$it$repeatedly5$I$wanted$to$
prove$that$you$could$look$at$it$any$number$of$times$and$still$not$
notice$the$extra$ythe5y$If$you$did$notice$it$right$away,$donxt$feel$
too$elated5$I$honestly$didnxt$know$whether$this$little$stunt$would$
be$as$effective$when$it$appeared$on$top$of$a$page$of$print,$as$
when$used$by$itself5$You$see,$Ixve$tested$hundreds$of$people$with$
this,$and$only$one$or$two$spotted$it$quickly5$Prove$it$to$yourself$
by$print-$ing$it$just$exactly$as$I$have$it,$on$a$3x5$index$card,$or$on$
a$piece$of$paper$of$similar$size5$The$little$x$under$the$word,$
yspringy$is$just$misdirection5$It$tends$to$draw$the$readersx$eyes$
down$to$it,$and$their$minds$jump$ahead$on$the$phrase$itself,$
because$it$is$such$a$familiar$one5$Make$one$and$try$it$with$your$
friends5$Ixve$had$people$look$at$it$as$many$as$ten$or$fifteen$times,$
and$they$were$willing$to$bet$anything$that$they$knew$just$what$
it$said5$You$can$ask$them$to$read$out$loud$directly$from$the$card,$
and$they$still$say,$yParis$in$the$springyp$
I$am$discussing$this$only$to$show$that$the$sense$of$observation$
could$stand$a$little$sharpening,$for$most$of$us5$As$I$said$earlier$in$
the$book,$although$my$systems$actually$force$you$to$observe$if$
you$apply$them your$sense$of$observation$can$be$strengthened$
with$a$little$practice5$If$youxre$interested$in$helping$your$memory,$
donxt$sell$observa-$tion$short5$You$just$canxt$remember$anything$
that$you$do$
68$How$to$Train$Your$Observation$
not$observe$to$begin$with5$Educator$Eustace$H5$Miles$said$about$
the$same$thing,$yWhat$one$has$never$properly$realized,$one$
cannot$properly$be$said$to$remember$either5y$If$you$havenxt$
observed,$then$you$havenxt$realized,$and$what$you$havenxt$
realized$you$canxt$forget,$since$you$never$really$remembered$it$in$
the$first$place5$
If$you$want$to$take$the$time,$it$is$a$simple$matter$to$strengthen$
your$sense$of$observation5$You$can$start$right$nowp$Youxre$
probably$reading$this$at$home,$sitting$in$a$room$that$should$be$
thoroughly$familiar$to$you5$Take$a$piece$of$paper,$and$without$
looking$around$you,$list$every-$thing$in$the$room5$Donxt$leave$out$
anything$you$can$think$of,$and$try$to$describe$the$entire$room$in$
detail5$List$every$ashtray,$every$piece$of$furniture,$pictures,$
doodads,$etc5$Now,$look$around$the$room$and$check$your$list5$
Notice$all$the$things$you$did$not$put$down$on$your$list,$or$never$
really$observed,$although$you$have$seen$them$countless$
times5$Observe$them$nowp$Step$out$of$the$room$and$test$yourself$
once$more5$Your$list$should$be$longer$this$time5$You$might$try$the$
same$thing$with$other$rooms$in$your$home5$If$you$keep$at$this,$
your$observation$will$be$keener$
no$matter$where$you$happen$to$be5$
Youxve$all$heard,$Ixm$sure,$of$the$little$experiment$that$a$college$
professor$tried$with$his$students5$He$had$a$violent$murder$scene$
enacted$in$front$of$them,$without$letting$them$know$that$it$was$
just$an$act5$All$of$the$students$were$told$
that$they$must$act$as$witnesses,$and$were$told$to$describe,$in$
detail,$what$they$saw5$Of$course,$all$the$descriptions$varied,$even$
down$to$what$the$murderer$looked$like5$All$the$students$in$the$
class$had$seen$the$same$thing,$but$their$observation$and$their$
memories$were$faulty5$
This$was$proven$again$quite$recently$by$popular$enter-$tainer,$
Steve$Allen,$on$his$TV$show,$yTonight5y$Some$
professor$tried$with$his$students5$He$had$a$violent$murder$scene$
enacted$in$front$of$them,$without$letting$them$know$that$it$was$
just$an$act5$All$of$the$students$were$told$
that$they$must$act$as$witnesses,$and$were$told$to$describe,$in$
detail,$what$they$saw5$Of$course,$all$the$descriptions$varied,$even$
down$to$what$the$murderer$looked$like5$All$the$students$in$the$
class$had$seen$the$same$thing,$but$their$observation$and$their$
memories$were$faulty5$
This$was$proven$again$quite$recently$by$popular$enter-$tainer,$
Steve$Allen,$on$his$TV$show,$yTonight5y$Some$
members$of$his$cast$suddenly$burst$in$front$of$the$cameras,$
enacting$a$wild,$violent$scene5$Some$shots$were$fired$>blanks,$of$
course@,$clothes$were$torn,$and$so$on5$The$whole$thing$lasted$
perhaps$a$minute5$Then$Mr5$Allen$had$three$members$of$the$
audience$come$up$to$attempt$to$answer$some$pertinent$questions$
about$the$scene5$He$asked$how$many$shots$were$fired,$who$was$
shooting$at$whom,$color$of$clothing,$etc5$All$the$answers$varied$
and$nobody$seemed$quite$sure$of$anything5$As$a$matter$of$fact,$
when$Steve$asked$Skitch$Henderson$>who$had$fired$the$shots@$how$
many$shots$he$had$fired Skitch$wasnxt$too$sure$himself5$
Of$course,$you$canxt$go$around$looking$for$violent$scenes$to$
observe but,$you$can$practice$in$this$wayN Think$of$someone$
whom$you$know$very$well5$Try$to$picture$his$or$her$face;$now$see$
if$you$can$describe$the$face$on$paper5$List$everything$you$can$
possibly$remember5$Go$into$detail$ list$color$of$hair$and$eyes,$
complexion,$any$or$all$out-$standing$features,$whether$or$not$they$
wear$glasses,$what$type$of$glasses,$type$of$nose,$ears,$eyes,$mouth,$
forehead,$
approximate$height$and$weight,$hairline,$on$which$side$is$the$hair$
parted,$is$it$parted$at$all,$etc5,$etc5$The$next$time$you$see$this$
person,$check$yourself5$Note$the$things$you$didnxt$observe$and$
those$you$observed$incorrectly5$Then$try$it$againp$You$will$
improve$rapidly5$
complexion,$any$or$all$out-$standing$features,$whether$or$not$they$
wear$glasses,$what$type$of$glasses,$type$of$nose,$ears,$eyes,$mouth,$
forehead,$
approximate$height$and$weight,$hairline,$on$which$side$is$the$hair$
parted,$is$it$parted$at$all,$etc5,$etc5$The$next$time$you$see$this$
person,$check$yourself5$Note$the$things$you$didnxt$observe$and$
those$you$observed$incorrectly5$Then$try$it$againp$You$will$
improve$rapidly5$
A$good$way$to$practice$this$is$in$a$subway$or$bus,$or$any$public$
conveyance5$Look$at$one$person$for$a$moment,$close$your$eyes$and$
try$to$mentally$describe$every$detail$of$this$personxs$face5$Pretend$
that$you$are$a$witness$at$a$criminal$investigation,$and$your$
description$is$of$utmost$importance5$Then$look$at$the$person$
again$>donxt$stare,$or$you$will$be$in$a$criminal$investigation@$and$
check$yourself5$Youxll$find$your$observation$getting$finer$each$
time$you$try$it5$
70$How$to$Train$Your$Observation$
One$last$suggestion$as$to$a$form$of$practice5$Look$at$any$shop$
window$display5$Try$to$observe$everything$in$it$>with-$out$using$
the$Peg$or$Link$systems@5$Then$list$all$the$items$without$looking$at$
the$display5$You$can$wait$until$youxre$home$to$do$this;$then$go$
back$to$check,$when$you$can5$Note$the$items$you$left$out$and$try$
it$again5$When$you$think$youxve$become$proficient$at$it,$try$
remembering$the$prices$of$the$items$also5$
Each$time$you$do$any$of$these$exercises,$your$sense$of$observation$
will$become$noticeably$sharper5$Although$all$this$is$not$absolutely$
necessary$for$the$acquiring$of$a$trained$memory,$it$is$a$simple$
matter$to$strengthen$your$observa-$tion5$If$you$take$the$little$time$
to$practice,$you$will$soon$begin$to$observe$better,$automatically5$
Before$reading$any$further,$I$would$suggest$that$you$memorize$
the$Peg$Words$from$51$to$755$I$might$also$sug-$gest$that$for$the$
time$being,$you$use$the$words$that$I$give$you5$You$could,$of$
course,$make$up$your$own$words,$as$long$as$they$stay$in$the$
phonetic$alphabet$system5$These$would$probably$serve$you$just$as$
necessary$for$the$acquiring$of$a$trained$memory,$it$is$a$simple$
matter$to$strengthen$your$observa-$tion5$If$you$take$the$little$time$
to$practice,$you$will$soon$begin$to$observe$better,$automatically5$
Before$reading$any$further,$I$would$suggest$that$you$memorize$
the$Peg$Words$from$51$to$755$I$might$also$sug-$gest$that$for$the$
time$being,$you$use$the$words$that$I$give$you5$You$could,$of$
course,$make$up$your$own$words,$as$long$as$they$stay$in$the$
phonetic$alphabet$system5$These$would$probably$serve$you$just$as$
well,$but$you$might$pick$some$words$that$would$conAlict$with$
some$of$the$words$that$you$will$eventually$learn$for$other$
purposes5$So,$wait$until$
youxve$finished$the$book,$and$then$change$words$to$your$heartxs$
content5$
515$lot$525$lion$535$loom$545$lure$555$lily$56$leech$
575$log$585$lava$595$lip
605$cheese$615$sheet$625$chain$
635$chum
645$cherry
655$jail
665$choo$choo$675$chalk$
655$chef$
695$ship$705$case$715$cot$725$coin$735$comb$745$car$
755$coal$
For$ylot,y$picture$an$empty$lot5$For$yloom,y$you$might$find$it$easier$
to$picture$a$spinning$wheel5$yLurey$is$bait$for$fishing;$you$might$
picture$a$worm5$For$ychum,y$you$
can$picture$a$particularly$close$friend;$if$you$do,$use$the$same$
friend$each$time5$yChoo$chooy$is$a$train,$of$course5$For$ychef,y$
picture$a$chefxs$hat5$For$ycase,y$see$a$large$wooden$packing$crate,$
or$a$suitcase5$
It$Pays$to$Remember$Speeches,$Articles,$Scripts$and$
Anecdotes$
The$confused$and$nervous$speaker$was$introduced$after$dinner5$He$
approached$the$microphone$and$murmured$haltinglyN$
yMy$f-f-friends,$wh-when$I$arrived$here$this$evening$only$God$and$
I$knew$what$I$was$going$to$say$to$you5$And$now,$only$God$
knowspy$
I$guess$that$one$of$the$most$embarrassing$things$that$can$happen$
to$a$person$is$to$forget$a$speech$while$in$front$of$his$audience5$
Next$to$forgetting$the$speech,$is$the$embar-$rassment$of$faltering$
along$as$if$youxre$not$sure$of$what$you$have$to$say5$Actually,$it$
seems$to$me$that$anyone$who$is$asked$to$give$a$talk$on$any$
particular$subject,$must$know$
that$subject$pretty$well;$otherwise$why$would$he$be$asked$to$talk$
about$it5$No;$speakers$who$falter$or$hesitate$during$their$speeches,$
do$so,$I$think,$because$they$have$forgotten$
the$next$word or$because$they$are$fearful$that$they$will$forget$
the$next$word5$
There,$in$my$opinion,$lies$the$problem5$If$a$speech$is$memorized$
word$for$word,$and$then$a$word,$here$and$there,$is$forgotten;$it$
surely$will$not$be$delivered$as$it$should$be5$
Why$should$you$have$to$grope$for$one$particular$word?$If$you$
canxt$think$of$it;$why,$use$any$other$word$that$serves$
72$
There,$in$my$opinion,$lies$the$problem5$If$a$speech$is$memorized$
word$for$word,$and$then$a$word,$here$and$there,$is$forgotten;$it$
surely$will$not$be$delivered$as$it$should$be5$
Why$should$you$have$to$grope$for$one$particular$word?$If$you$
canxt$think$of$it;$why,$use$any$other$word$that$serves$
72$
Speeches,$Articles,$Scripts$and$Anecdotes$73$
the$same$purpose5$Isnxt$that$much$better$than$hemming$and$
hawing$until$you$remember$the$exact$phrasing$just$the$way$you$
memorized$it?$
The$people$who$realized$this,$felt$that$the$next$best$thing$would$be$
to$simply$read$the$speech5$This$solves$the$prob-$lem$of$forgetting$
words,$until$you$lose$your$place$on$the$paper,$and$forget$what$
youxre$talking$about$altogether5$Besides,$it$seems$to$me$that$there$
is$a$subtle$annoyance$evident$in$an$audience$that$is$listening$to$
someone$reading$a$speech$word$for$word5$I$know$I$feel$that$wayN$
he$might$just$as$well$have$given$me$a$printed$copy$of$the$speech$
to$read$at$my$own$leisure5$
So,$the$next$step$seems$to$be$not$to$prepare$at$all5$Well,$not$quite5$
Even$if$you$are$well$versed$in$your$subject,$you$may$forget$some$
of$the$facts$you$want$to$speak$about5$As$in$the$case$of$the$
itinerant$preacher$who$always$complained$
that$he$made$his$best$speeches$on$the$way$home5$All$that$he$had$
forgotten$to$tell$his$listeners$came$to$mind$then,$and$his$horse$
usually$got$the$best$part$of$the$speech5$
I$believe$that$the$best$way$to$prepare$a$speech$is$to$lay$
it$out$thought$for$thought5$Many$of$our$better$speakers$do$just$
that5$They$simply$make$a$list$of$each$idea$or$thought$that$they$
want$to$talk$about,$and$use$this$list$in$lieu$of$notes5$In$this$way,$
you$canxt$forget$words,$since$yon$havenxt$memorized$any5$You$can$
hardly$lose$your$place;$one$glance$
at$your$list$will$show$you$the$next$thought$to$put$into$words5$
But,$for$those$of$you$who$would$rather$not$rely$on$pieces$of$paper
the$Link$method$can$help$you$easily5$If$you$wish$to$memorize$
your$speech$thought$for$thought,$from$the$beginning$to$the$end,$
you$would$be$forming$a$sequence5$Thatxs$why$you$would$use$the$
Link$method$def$memorize$it5$
I$would$suggest$that$you$go$about$it$something$like$
74$Speeches,$Articles,$Scripts$and$Anecdotes$
thisN First,$write$out$or$read$the$entire$speech5$When$youxre$
satisfied$with$it,$read$it$over$once$or$twice$more$to$get$the$ygisty$
of$it5$Now,$get$yourself$a$piece$of$paper$and$start$to$list$your$KEY$
WORDS5$
Read$the$first$thought$of$the$speech5$This$might$be$con-$tained$in$
one,$two$or$more$sentences;$it$doesnxt$matter5$Now$select$one$
word$or$phrase$from$these$sentences$which$you$think$will$bring$
the$entire$thought$to$mindp$That$is$not$at$all$difficult5$In$every$
sentence$or$paragraph$there$must$be$one$word$or$phrase$which$
will$remind$you$of$the$entire$thought5$That$one$word$or$phrase$is$
your$Key$Word5$
After$you$have$found$the$Key$Word$for$the$first$thought,$find$one$
for$the$next$thought,$and$so$on5$When$youxre$through$with$the$
whole$speech,$youxll$have$a$list$of$Keys$to$remind$you$of$each$
thing$you$want$to$say5$Actually,$if$you$were$to$keep$this$list$in$
front$of$you$as$you$made$the$speech,$it$would$serve$the$purpose5$
But,$if$youxve$mastered$the$Link$system,$you$know$that$it$is$just$
as$easy$to$make$a$link$of$these$Key$Words,$and$then$throw$away$
the$paper5$
You$might,$for$example,$be$giving$a$talk$on$your$local$school$
sentence$or$paragraph$there$must$be$one$word$or$phrase$which$
will$remind$you$of$the$entire$thought5$That$one$word$or$phrase$is$
your$Key$Word5$
After$you$have$found$the$Key$Word$for$the$first$thought,$find$one$
for$the$next$thought,$and$so$on5$When$youxre$through$with$the$
whole$speech,$youxll$have$a$list$of$Keys$to$remind$you$of$each$
thing$you$want$to$say5$Actually,$if$you$were$to$keep$this$list$in$
front$of$you$as$you$made$the$speech,$it$would$serve$the$purpose5$
But,$if$youxve$mastered$the$Link$system,$you$know$that$it$is$just$
as$easy$to$make$a$link$of$these$Key$Words,$and$then$throw$away$
the$paper5$
You$might,$for$example,$be$giving$a$talk$on$your$local$school$
problems$at$a$Parent-Teacher$Association$meeting5$Your$list$of$
Key$Words$might$look$something$like$thisN $
crowds,$teachers,$fire,$furniture,$subjects,$playground,$etc5$In$other$
words,$you$wish$to$start$your$speech$with$a$refer-$
ence$to$the$crowded$conditions$in$the$class$rooms5$Then$you$want$
to$talk$about$the$teachers;$perhaps$about$methods$and$salaries,$
etc5$Now,$you$express$your$thoughts$on$fire$drills$and$fire$
precautions,$which$leads$you$into$your$dis-$cussion$on$the$state$
of$the$schoolxs$furniture;$the$desks,$chairs,$blackboards,$equipment,$
and$so$on5$Now,$you$would$talk$about$your$ideas$on$the$subjects$
taught,$and$finally,$the$recreation$>playground@$facilities$of$the$
school5$
You$can$see$that$if$you$make$a$linkN$crowd$associated$to$teacher;$
teacher$to$fire;$fire$to$furniture,$etc5,$each$thought$
would$lead$you$to$the$next$one,$right$through$to$the$end$of$your$
speechp$
At$first,$you$may$have$to$list,$perhaps,$two$or$three$Key$Words$for$
some$thoughts5$List$as$many$of$them$as$you$need,$to$remember$the$
entire$speech5$As$you$use$this$idea,$the$amount$of$Keys$necessary$
will$be$less$and$less5$And,$most$important,$the$confidence$you$gain$
by$knowing,$that$you$remember$your$talk,$will$show$when$you$
deliver$it5$Just$keep$in$mind$that$you$must$take$care$of$the$
thoughts;$the$words$will$take$care$of$themselvesp$
If,$for$some$reason$or$other,$you$wish$to$memorize$a$speech$word$
for$word,$use$the$same$method5$Youxll$just$have$to$go$over$it$more$
often5$Remember$that$all$these$systems$arc$aids$to$your$true$
memory5$yIf$you$remember$the$main,$the$incidentals$will$fall$into$
place5y$You$actually$never$forget$anything$youxve$remembered,$
you$just$have$to$be$reminded$of$it;$the$system$in$this$book$will$do$
that$for$
you5$So,$if$you$remember$the$main$thoughts$of$your$speech,$the$
incidentals,$the$ifs,$ands$and$buts,$will$fall$into$place5$
The$same$ideas$are$used$to$memorize$any$article$you$read,$if$you$
desire5$First$read$the$article,$of$course,$to$get$
the$ygisty$of$it5$Then$pick$out$the$Key$Words$for$each$thought;$
then$make$a$link$to$remember$them,$and$youxve$got$it5$With$a$bit$
of$practice,$youxll$actually$be$able$to$do$this$as$you$read5$
Many$times$while$reading$for$enjoyment,$Ixll$come$across$
some$piece$of$information$that$Ixd$like$to$remember5$I$simply$make$
a$conscious$association$of$it,$while$Ixm$read-$ing5$This$idea$can,$if$
used$enough,$speed$up$your$reading$considerably5$I$think$that$
most$people$are$slow$readers$because$by$the$time$theyxve$reached$
the$third$paragraph,$theyxve$forgotten$what$was$in$the$first;$so$
they$have$to$jump$back5$
There$is$no$need$to$associate$everything;$just$the$points$
that$you$feel$are$necessary$to$remember5$Perhaps,$if$you$use$my$
systems,$you$will$fall$into$the$first$class$of$readers$in$American$
educator,$William$Lyon$Phelpsx$two$classes5$He$once$said,$yI$divide$
all$readers$into$two$classes;$those$who$read$to$remember$and$
those$who$read$to$forget5y$
The$same$system$of$linking$Key$Words$can$be$used$for$
remembering$lyrics$and$scripts5$Of$course,$in$this$case$it$is$
usually$necessary$to$memorize$them$word$for$word5$You$will$
have$to$go$over$them$more$often,$but$the$Key$Word$idea$will$
make$the$job$that$much$easier$for$you5$If$you$have$trouble$
memorizing$your$cues$in$a$play,$why$not$associate$the$last$word$
of$the$other$actorxs$line$to$the$first$word$of$your$line5$Even$if$
your$cue$tells$you$that$you$must$perform$an$action,$instead$of$
speaking$a$line,$you$can$still$associate$it5$If$the$last$word$of$the$
line$prior$to$your$action$happens$to$be,$say,$ywalky;$and$the$script$
calls$for$you$to$stoop$down$to$pick$up$a$cigarette$butt make$a$
picture$in$your$mind$of$yourself$walking$along$and$continually$
stoop-$ing$to$pick$up$cigarette$butts5$>In$this$way$you$will$never$
walk$on$another$actorxs$lines5@$
Ixll$mention$one$other$use$of$the$Key$Word$idea,$before$leaving$it$
entirely5$How$many$times$have$you$wanted$to$
tell$your$friends$some$jokes$or$anecdotes$that$you$recently$heard,$
only$to$find$that$youxve$forgotten$them$completely?$You$can$hear$
a$whole$batch$of$really$funny$stories$one$day,$and$have$them$all,$
or$most$of$them,$slip$your$mind$the$next5$Well,$according$to$Irvin$
S5$Cobb,$yA$good$storyteller$is$a$person$who$has$a$good$memory$
and$hopes$other$people$havenxt5y$
Your$memory$for$stories$and$anecdotes$will$improve$immediately$
walk$on$another$actorxs$lines5@$
Ixll$mention$one$other$use$of$the$Key$Word$idea,$before$leaving$it$
entirely5$How$many$times$have$you$wanted$to$
tell$your$friends$some$jokes$or$anecdotes$that$you$recently$heard,$
only$to$find$that$youxve$forgotten$them$completely?$You$can$hear$
a$whole$batch$of$really$funny$stories$one$day,$and$have$them$all,$
or$most$of$them,$slip$your$mind$the$next5$Well,$according$to$Irvin$
S5$Cobb,$yA$good$storyteller$is$a$person$who$has$a$good$memory$
and$hopes$other$people$havenxt5y$
Your$memory$for$stories$and$anecdotes$will$improve$immediately$
if$you$use$the$Key$Word$system5$Just$take$one$word$from$the$
story,$a$word$from$the$punch$line$is$usually$best,$that$will$bring$
the$entire$joke$to$mind5$When$you$get$your$Key$Words,$you$can$
either$link$them$to$each$other$
to$remember$all$the$stories$in$sequence,$or$use$the$Peg$sys-$tem$to$
remember$them$by$number5$
Perhaps$youxve$heard$the$gag$that$has$been$making$the$rounds$
recently$about$the$Flying$Saucer$that$landed$in$America5$Out$
stepped$a$creature$from$outer$space brushed$himself$off$with$one$
of$his$six$arms,$looked$around$with$the$one$large$eye$in$the$center$
of$his$forehead,$and$kept$his$antennae$alert$for$any$sounds5$
After$exploring$a$bit,$he$finally$approached$a$gas$station,$walked$
over$to$the$gasoline$pump,$saluted,$and$demanded,$yTake$me$to$
your$Presidentyp$
Well,$if$you$hadnxt$heard$this$before,$and$wanted$to$remember$it$
with$perhaps$ten$or$twelve$other$stories you$could$use$either,$
Alying$saucer,$creature$from$outer$space$or,$gasoline$pump$as$your$
Key$Word$for$this$story5$Any$one$of$these$would$surely$bring$the$
entire$story$to$mind,$if$you$liked$it$in$the$first$place5$
Although$Ixm$sure$that$many$of$you$will$find$some$prac-$tical$use$
for$it,$one$of$the$memory$stunts$I$sometimes$use$
in$my$shows$is$the$ymagazine$test5y$This$usually$causes$a$bit$of$
comment$because$it$seems$to$be$the$most$amazing$of$memory$
feats5$Actually$it$is$basic$and$simple5$
What$happens$is$thisN The$audience$is$given$some$copies$of$a$
current$magazine5$>I$usually$use$Tempo$Maga-$zine,$which$is$
published$by$the$Enterprise$Magazine$Man-$agement,$Inc5@$They$
are$then$asked$to$call$any$page$num-$ber,$and$I$immediately$tell$
them$the$highlights$of$that$particular$page5$
This$is$merely$another$use$of$the$Peg$system$of$memory5$In$some$
instances$the$Link$method$is$used$in$conjunction$with$the$Peg,$as$
will$be$explained$directly5$To$memorize$the$pages$of$any$picture$
magazine,$all$you$have$to$do$is$to$asso-$ciate$the$peg$word$that$
represents$the$page$number$to$the$highlight$of$that$page5$
For$exampleN $If$Page$#1$has$a$picture$of$an$airplane$on$it,$you$
would$make$a$ridiculous$association$between$yticy$>1@$and$airplane5$
Page$#2$might$be$an$advertisement$for$shoe$polish5$Associate$
yNoahy$to$shoe$polish5$
Page$#3$has$a$picture$of$a$horse$on$it5$Associate$ymay$to$horse5$
Page$#4$might$have$a$picture$of$a$circus$scene;$just$associate$yryey$
to$circus5$
Page$#5$is$an$advertisement$for$a$television$set5$Asso-$ciate$ylawy$
to$television$set5$
Page$#6$is$a$book$review5$Associate$yshoey$to$book5$
Thatxs$all$there$is$to$it5$If$you$go$over$the$magazine$and$your$
associations$two$or$three$times,$you$will$know$the$highlights$of$
every$page5$If$a$page$has$more$than$one$pic-$ture$on$it,$use$the$
Link$method$to$remember$them5$Assume$that$page$#14$is$a$
fashion$page,$and$it$has$a$picture$of$a$hat,$one$of$gloves$and$a$
third$of$a$dress5$
First$associate$ytirey$>14@$to$the$first$picture,$which$is$
of$a$hat5$Now,$link$hat$to$gloves,$and$then$gloves$to$dress5$When$
Page$#14$is$called,$the$peg$word$will$remind$you$of$hat;$hat$will$
tell$you$that$the$next$picture$is$of$gloves,$and$gloves$will$remind$
you$of$dress5$
If$you$have$seen$my$performance,$you$know$that$I$also$tell$the$
audience$on$what$part$of$the$page$the$picture$is$located;$whether$
it$is$on$the$lower$or$upper$left$part$of$the$page,$upper$or$lower$
right,$or$center,$etc5$Well,$you$can$do$this$too,$and$without$any$
Page$#14$is$called,$the$peg$word$will$remind$you$of$hat;$hat$will$
tell$you$that$the$next$picture$is$of$gloves,$and$gloves$will$remind$
you$of$dress5$
If$you$have$seen$my$performance,$you$know$that$I$also$tell$the$
audience$on$what$part$of$the$page$the$picture$is$located;$whether$
it$is$on$the$lower$or$upper$left$part$of$the$page,$upper$or$lower$
right,$or$center,$etc5$Well,$you$can$do$this$too,$and$without$any$
extra$effort5$
As$Ixve$already$mentioned,$your$normal$or$true$memory$does$
most$of$the$work$for$you;$these$systems$are$just$aids$that$make$it$
easier5$As$you$use$my$systems$youxll$find$your$true$memory$
getting$stronger5$The$best$example$of$this$is$in$memorizing$a$
magazine5$In$order$to$make$the$associa-$tions$in$the$first$place,$
you$must$really$see$and$observe$the$picture$on$the$page5$Because$
of$this,$when$any$page$number$is$called,$the$peg$word$for$that$
number$acts$as$an$aid$to$enable$you$to$almost$reproduce$the$
entire$page$in$your$mindxs$eye5$You$will$know$on$what$part$of$
the$page$the$pic-$ture$is$located5$You$can$only$prove$this$to$
yourself$by$try-$
ing$it5$
The$only$thing$you$will$not$be$able$to$do$as$yet,$is$to$
remember$the$names$of$any$people$pictured$on$the$pages5$This$
problem$will$be$solved$for$you$after$youxve$read$the$chapters$on$
remembering$names$and$faces,$and$how$to$utilize$substitute$
words$or$thoughts5$
Before$reading$any$further,$learn$the$last$of$the$one$hundred$peg$
words5$
765$cage$775$coke$785$cave$795$cob$805$fez$815$fit$
825$phone$835$foam$845$fur$855$file$865$fish$875$fog$
885$fife$895$fob$905$bus$915$bat$925$bone$935$bum$
945$bear$955$bell$965$beach$975$book$985$puff$995$pipe$
1005$thesis$or$disease$
For$ycob,y$picture$corn$on$the$cob5$For$yfit,y$you$can$picture$an$
epileptic$fit,$or$a$girdle$>tight$fit@5$For$yfile,y$you$can$use$cither$a$
filing$cabinet$or$a$nail$file5$yFoby$is$a$watch$fob5$For$ybat,y$picture$
a$baseball$bat5$For$ypuff,y$picture$a$ladiesx$powder$puff,$and$for$
ypipey$see$a$manxs$smoking$pipe5$
After$learning$these,$you$should$be$able$to$count$from$one$to$one$
hundred$quickly,$with$your$peg$words$only5$The$beauty$of$it$is$
that$you$donxt$have$to$take$time$out$to$practice$them5$If$youxre$
traveling$to$work,$or$doing$any-$thing$that$doesnxt$require$
thought you$can$go$over$all$the$pegs$in$your$mind5$If$you$go$
over$them$just$every$once$in$a$while,$theyxll$soon$be$as$familiar$to$
you$as$the$numbers$from$one$to$one$hundred5$
It$Pays$to$Remember$Playing$Cards$
yYes,$my$grandfather$was$a$gambler,$and$he$died$at$a$very$early$
age5y$
yGosh,$thatxs$too$bad5$How$did$it$happen?y$
yHe$died$of$five$Acespy$
since$I$want$yon$all$to$stay$healthy,$the$memory$feats$in$this$
lesson$utilize$a$regular$deck$of$cards;$not$with$five,$but$with$the$
usual$four$Aces5$Truthfully,$although$this$chapter$is$devoted$
entirely$to$remembering$playing$cards,$I$am$stressing$the$
demonstrations$you$can$do$with$a$deck$of$cards$and$your$trained$
memory5$The$systems,$however,$can$be$applied$to$many$card$
games5$Please$donxt$think$that$after$youxve$mastered$these$you$
can$always$win$at$cards5$
Keep$in$mind$that$you$canxt$beat$a$man$at$his$own$game5$I$will$
leave$the$applications$of$the$systems$up$to$you;$I$use$them$for$
demonstration$purposes$only5$
The$late$Damon$Runvon$used$the$following$in$one$of$his$storiesN$y$
xSon,x$the$old$guy$says,$xno$matter$how$far$you$travel,$or$how$
smart$you$gel,$always$remember$thisN$Some-$day,$somewhere,$a$
guy$is$going$to$come$to$you$and$show
$do$you$are$going$to$get$an$ear$full$of$cider5x$y$
The$memory$stunts$you$will$do$with$cards$after$studying$these$
methods$will$seem$almost$as$amazing$to$your$friends5$Aside$from$
that,$they$are$also$wonderful$memory$exercises5$I$suggest$that$
you$read$and$learn$the$contents$of$this$chap-$ter$whether$or$not$
you$indulge$in$card$playing5$
Cards,$of$course,$are$difficult$to$picture,$just$as$numbers$were$
before$you$started$reading$this$book5$In$order$for$you$to$be$able$
to$remember$them,$Ixll$show$you$how$to$make$them$mean$
something;$something$that$you$can$picture$in$your$mind5$Some$
years$ago$I$read$an$article$in$a$popular$magazine$about$a$
professor$who$was$trying$some$sort$of$experiment5$He$was$
attempting$to$teach$people$how$to$memorize$the$order$of$a$
shufAled$deck$of$cards5$The$article$mentioned$the$fact$that$he$had$
accomplished$his$goal5$After$six$months$of$training,$his$students$
that,$they$are$also$wonderful$memory$exercises5$I$suggest$that$
you$read$and$learn$the$contents$of$this$chap-$ter$whether$or$not$
you$indulge$in$card$playing5$
Cards,$of$course,$are$difficult$to$picture,$just$as$numbers$were$
before$you$started$reading$this$book5$In$order$for$you$to$be$able$
to$remember$them,$Ixll$show$you$how$to$make$them$mean$
something;$something$that$you$can$picture$in$your$mind5$Some$
years$ago$I$read$an$article$in$a$popular$magazine$about$a$
professor$who$was$trying$some$sort$of$experiment5$He$was$
attempting$to$teach$people$how$to$memorize$the$order$of$a$
shufAled$deck$of$cards5$The$article$mentioned$the$fact$that$he$had$
accomplished$his$goal5$After$six$months$of$training,$his$students$
were$able$to$look$at$a$mixed$deck$for$twenty$minutes$or$more,$
and$then$call$off$the$cards5$I$donxt$know$the$exact$system$that$
was$used,$
but$I$do$know$that$it$had$something$to$do$with$seeing$the$cards$
actually$laid$out$in$order,$in$the$mind5$I$have$nothing$against$
this;$itxs$just$that$it$shouldnxt$take$you$more$than$a$day$or$two$at$
the$most$to$learn$my$system5$When$you$
have$mastered$it,$it$wonxt$take$twenty$minutes$to$memo-$rize$a$
shufAled$deck$of$cards5$It$might$take$about$ten$min-$utes$at$first,$
and$with$time$and$practice,$youxll$cut$it$down$to$five$minutesp$
There$are$actually$two$things$that$you$must$know$in$order$to$
remember$cards5$First,$is$a$list$of$at$least$fifty-two$peg$words$for$
the$numbers$1$to$52;$these$you$already$know5$You$also$have$to$
know$a$peg$word$for$every$card$in$a$deck$of$cards5$These$card$peg$
words$are$not$chosen$at$random5$As$with$the$number$pegs,$they$
are$selected$because$they$
Playing$Cards$83$
are$easy$to$picture,$and$because$they$follow$a$definite$sys-$tem5$
Here$it$is,$in$a$nutshellN $
Barring$a$few$exceptions$which$will$be$discussed$later,$every$card$
peg$word$will$begin$with$the$initial$letter$of$the$card$suit5$i5e5
All$the$words$for$the$Spade$suit$will$begin$with$the$letter,$ySy;$all$
are$easy$to$picture,$and$because$they$follow$a$definite$sys-$tem5$
Here$it$is,$in$a$nutshellN $
Barring$a$few$exceptions$which$will$be$discussed$later,$every$card$
peg$word$will$begin$with$the$initial$letter$of$the$card$suit5$i5e5
All$the$words$for$the$Spade$suit$will$begin$with$the$letter,$ySy;$all$
the$words$for$the$Diamond$suit$will$begin$with$the$letter,$yDy;$the$
Club$suit with$yC,y$and$the$Heart$suit$with$yH5y$Each$word$will$
end$with$a$con-$sonant$sound;$this$sound$will$represent$the$
numerical$value$of$the$card,$according$to$our$phonetic$alphabet5$
You$can$see$then,$that$the$word$you$use$must$represent$only$one$
particular$card5$The$first$letter$will$give$you$the$suit,$the$last$
sound$will$give$you$the$value5$Let$me$give$you$some$examplesN
the$peg$word$for$the$Two$of$Clubs$must$begin$with$the$letter,$yC,y$
and$must$end$with$the$N$sound,$which$represents$25$Of$course,$
there$are$many$words$that$would$fall$into$this$category;$cone,$
coin,$can,$cane,$etc5$Ixve$selected$the$word,$ycan5y$yCany$will$always$
represent$the$Two$of$Clubsp$Which$card$would$the$word,$yhogy$
stand$for?$Well,$it$could$represent$only$one$card5$It$begins$with$
yH,y$therefore$itxs$a$Heart;$it$ends$with$the$hard$ygy$sound,$which$
represents$#7 yhogy$is$the$peg$word$for$the$Seven$of$Hearts5$Can$
you$think$of$a$word$for$the$Six$of$Dia-$monds?$Well,$it$has$to$
begin$with$a$yDy$and$end$with$the$J$or$sh$sound wexll$use$the$
word,$ydashy$to$represent$the$Six$of$Diamonds5$
Here$are$all$fifty-two$card$peg$words5$Look$them$over$carefully,$
and$I$assure$you$that$you$can$know$and$retain$them$with$no$
more$than$perhaps$twenty$minutes$to$a$half$hour$of$study5$Look$
them$over$once,$then$read$on$for$the$explanation$of$the$
exceptions,$and$how$to$picture$some$of$the$words5$Towards$the$
end$of$this$chapter$Ixll$give$you$a$method$to$enable$you$to$learn$
these$words$thoroughly5$
The$exact$system$for$forming$the$card$pegs$has$been$used$for$the$
Aces$to$Tens$only5$The$reason$for$this$should$be$obvious$to$you5$If$
we$were$to$follow$the$same$system$for$the$court,$or$picture$cards,$
each$court$card$peg$word$would$have$to$contain$two$consonant$
sounds$aside$from$the$first$letter5$Thisystem5$So,$for$the$four$Jacks$I$
simply$use$
the$name$of$the$suit$itself$for$the$peg$word;$each$of$which$is$a$
word$that$is$easily$pictured5$The$King$of$Clubs$and$Queen$of$
Hearts$will$always$be$represented$by$the$words,$ykingy$and$yqueeny$
respectively5$For$the$remaining$court$cards$I$have$chosen$words$
that$begin$with$the$initial$suit$letter,$and$that$rhyme$as$closely$as$
possible$to$the$sound$of$the$card$itself,$i5e5$King$>Spades@ singN$
Queen$>Dia-$monds@ dream5$
Donxt$let$these$exceptions$throw$you,$theyxll$stick$in$your$mind$
because$of$the$fact$that$they$are$exceptions5$
If$you$have$looked$at$the$list$of$card$pegs,$you$have$un-$doubtedly$
recognized$some$of$them$as$being$the$same$as$your$number$words5$
This$will$not$create$any$confusion$
Playing$Cards$85$
since$the$duplications$only$occur$with$words$over$#52$in$your$
pegs5$Being$that$there$are$only$fifty-two$cards$in$a$deck,$the$
words$will$never$conAlict5$
You$are$to$do$the$same$with$the$card$words$as$you$did$with$the$
number$pegs5$Select$a$certain$mind$picture$for$each$word,$and$
use$that$picture$all$the$time5$For$the$word,$ycore,yyou$might$
picture$the$core$of$an$apple5$For,$ycuff,y$picture$a$pair$of$trousers,$
or$just$the$cuff$of$the$trousers5$For$the$King$of$Clubs,$picture$the$
item$to$be$associated$as$sit-$ting$on$a$throne,$being$the$yking5y$
The$same$goes$for$the$Queen$of$Hearts be$sure$that$in$your$
pictures$for$ykingy$and$yqueeny$you$have$something$to$distinguish$
one$from$the$other5$>Picturing$yqueeny$in$a$long$Alowing$gown,$
and$the$ykingy$in$knee$breeches$would$do$it5@$If$you$had$to$
remember$that$the$King$of$Clubs$was$the$19th$card;$you$could$
picture$a$ytuby$>19@$sitting$on$a$throne,$wearing$a$crown,$and$
being$a$yking5y$Another$idea,$of$course,$would$be$to$see$a$king$
wearing$a$tub$instead$of$a$crown5$Either$picture$is$a$good$one5$
For$the$word,$yhoof,y$itxs$best$to$picture$a$horseshoe;$
for$yhosey$you$can$see$cither$a$garden$hose,$or$ladiesx$hose;$for$
yhinge,y$picture$the$associated$item$being$hinged5$If$you$wanted$
to$remember$that$the$Two$of$Spades$was$the$29th$card,$you$might$
see$a$gigantic$door$yknoby$>29@$in-$stead$of$the$ysuny$>2S@$shining$
in$the$sky$with$a$tremen-$dous$brilliance5$For$ysum,y$picture$a$
sheet$of$paper$cov-$ered$with$numbers;$or,$an$addi$
ith$the$hedonistic$drinking$of$the$rich$and$the$squalid$
drunkenness$of$its$workers,$than$through$Prohibition?$Prohibition$
was$perceived$as$an$easy$solution$to$the$problems$of$the$urban$
poor,$and$its$language$of$hygiene$and$morality$blended$with$cri-$
tiques$of$class$and$castemeri$Gand$chat$galloook$up$Prohibition$as$
a$major$part$of$its$agenda532$Along$with$economic$analysis$and$
moral$opprobrium,$scientific$data$was$marshaled$in$support$of$
Prohibition5$Pamphlets$and$government$reports$heavily$cited$
medical$studies$and$chemical$analyses$that$confirmed$alcoholMs$
damage$to$the$body5$In$his$introduction$to$a$Congress$Party$
pamphlet$on$Prohibition,$Jawaharlal$Nehru$argued$that$if$
Prohibition$were$to$triumph$in$India,$it$would$do$so$not$on$
religious$grounds$but$because$of$the$we$

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ude$a$discussion$of$the$technologies$that$facilitate$the$distribution$of$

Although$the$term$ Bollywood $has$existed$for$decades,$its$use$as$a$

Although$the$term$ Bollywood $typically$denotes$the$Hindi$language$film$

Aishwarya$Rai$beckons$to$Amitabh$Bachchan$in$ Kajra$re $>Bunty$Aur$Babli$

The$term$ film$song $is$a$categ5$$ory$label$that$is$applied$to$any$song$

Although$I$use$the$term$ mediation $in$this$book$primarily$in$a$semi-$

analyzing$LataMs$classic$song$ Duniya$mein$hum$aaye$hain $> We$have$

Chapter$6$begins$with$an$analysis$of$the$song$ Kehna$hi$kya $> What$is$

The$song$ Dheere$dheere$aa$re$badal555mera$bulbul$so$raha$hai $> Oh,$

First,$films$of$the$nominally$ silent$film $era$were$never$actually$silent5$

Introduction$ $refrain$>svx2@$ $interlude$Verse$ $refrain$ $interlude

Music$ $mukhṛā$ $music

Mukhṛā$_ Awaaz$de `$Mukhṛā$_ awaaz$mein `$Mukhṛā$_ duniya$meri `$

Antarā$_ aaj$raat `$Antarā$_ chalne$ko `$Mukhṛā$_ kaise$tu `$

Antarā$_ kismat$chha `$Antarā$_ barbad$mein `$Mukhṛā$_ bedard `$

In$its$historical$and$contemporary$usage,$the$term$ music$director $refers$

When$I$recorded$my$first$song$for$MehboobMs$ Anmol$Ghadi, $he$asked$

Noorjehan$singing$ Awaz$de$kahan $>Anmol$Ghadi$_1946`@$as$she$looks$at$the$

Fig5$0535$The$newly$buizxvals$in$this$ secret $archive5$

This$book$argues$that$by$asking$ What$did$the$court$do? $in$a$

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