PART A

1. The infinitive (types and constructions)

- Base form of the verb

Active present – to call

Active perfect – to have called

Active present continuous – to be calling

Active perfect continuous – to have been calling

Passive present – to be called

Passive perfect – to have been called

Passive present continuous – to be being called

Passive perfect continuous – to have been being called

plain infinitive = bare infinitive = inf. without to = go, work, sit, …

full infinitive = infinitive with to = to go, to work, to sit, …
progressive infinitive = used to form the future progressive tense (will be working) and other verb
combinations (hope to be sitting) that refer to sth in progress, and therefore uncompleted, at a time-
point such as this time next week
passive infinitive = (to) be booked, (to) be done, …
perfect infinitive = relates to time before that of the introductory verb (e.g. expected); may be in plain,
full or progressive form: have killed, to have killed, (to) have been killing, …
passive progressive infinitive (rarely used) = (to) be being built, (to) be being done, …
Plain infinitive follow these verbs:
- Modal: can/could, may/might, will would, shall/should. Must
- Modal idioms: would rather, would sooner, had better
- Marginal modal auxiliaries: dare,need
- Why? – (why waste money)
Special cases
- Dare
- Need
- Help
- Know
- Let and make – (let go, make do)
 2. The -ing forms (gerunds and participles and their construction)
Active present – calling
Active perfect – having called
Passive present – being called
Passive perfect – having being called

Gerund is the -ing form of verb that function as a noun.

Difference between gerund and participle is that the present participle cannot be preceded by a
possessive (yours, his..)

Gerund: It is a duty of the police to stop shooting Presidents.

Noun: It is a duty of the police to stop the shooting of presidents.
Present participle: The kids were shooting arrows at a target.
True nouns cannot take an object and require a preposition to relate them to another noun.
Gerund is also used after phrases such as: it’s no use.. (calling her)

3. The subjunctive (3 types – mandative s., were-subjunctive, formulaic s.)

Mandative subjunctive – used after verbs like: command, recommend, suggest, order + that clause
= e.g. it is recommended that you’ll be here on time
Were subjunctive – only possible to be created from the verb TO BE
= If I were you..
Formulaic – fixed expressions: come the summer, truth be told, long live the queen..

English subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form that expresses something desired or
imagined
We use subjunctive mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. We use
subjunctive when talking about events that somebody: wants to happen, anticipates or imagines
happening.

4. Clauses of result and cause (reason)

Adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts and disjuncts, unlike adverbial phrases that can function
as adjuncts, subjuncts, conjuncts, and disjuncts.

RESULT

LINKS: and (so), and (therefore), and (consequently), so (so that), so.. that, such.. that.

ADVERBS: so, therefore, consequently

- Links so, so that -> comma

So can be connector adverb = conjunct as well as a link = conjunction

e.g. I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage.

CLAUSE

Links: as, because, since, for..

As, since and because can act as links either at the beginning, or in the middle of the sentences.

- As/because/since I’m a confirmed optimist, I thought I could drive to work.

5. Clauses of purpose

LINKS: to (so as to/in order to), so as NOT to, so that, in case

ADVERBS: then, otherwise

- So that – without comma

- followed by can/could, will/would
-can begin a sentence

- With identical subjects usually infinitival introduced by in order to and so as to:

e.g. Students should take their notes so as to make revision easier.

- with different subject most frequently used so that:

e.g. The school closes earlier so that the children can get home before dark.
 6. Clauses of concession

LINKS: but, (and) yet, although/though, even though, much as, as/though

ADVERBS: but, yet, though, all the same, even so, however, nevertheless

- Links for concession indicate that situation in the matrix is contrary to what one might expect in
view of the situation in the concessive clauses.
e.g. No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game
It was an exciting game, although no goals were scored.

Links though/although occur in sentences which express contradiction, often with an element of
surprise.

Though he is mean, she loves him = link -> conjunction -> subordinator

He is mean. She loves him, though = connector adverb -> conjunct

7. Clauses of time

Clauses of time
(Subordinators such as after, as, once, since, until, when, while, once, till, whenever)
Examples: Wait until you are called. Complete your work as soon as possible.

An adverbial clause of time relates the time of the situation in its clause to the time of the situation in
the matrix clause. The time of the matrix clause may be previous to that of the adverbial clause (e.g.
until), simultaneous with it (e.g. while), or subsequent to it (e.g. after). The time relationship may also
convey duration (e.g. as long as), recurrence (e.g. whenever), and relative proximity (e.g. just after).

- An adverbial clause of time relates to the time of the situation in its clause to the time of the
situation in the matrix clause.
- The time of the matrix clause can be previous to that of the adverbial clause (e.g until)
simultaneous (e.g. while), or subsequent (e.g. after)

- The time relationship may also convey duration (e.g. as long as), recurrence ( e.g. whenever),
and relative proximity (e.g. just after)

e.g., Wait until you are called.

Complete your work as soon as possible.
Immediately she saw..
 8. Relative clauses
Subordinate clauses that are used for giving more info about a noun.

Defining clauses
- Sentence wouldn’t make sense without it.
- Cannot be left out -> there are no commas

That, what, who/whom, which/of which, when, where

Non-defining clauses
- Additional information -> can be omitted -> commas
- Sentence have clear meaning without it
- THAT -> not used in non-defining cl.
- Example: My father, who just came back from vacation, is 40.
Who/whose, which/of which, when, where

9. Restrictive and non-restrictive modification

Restrictive modifiers and clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence; without them, the
meaning would be different
Non-restrictive modifiers supply additional information; without them, the same.

The distinction when choosing between that and which:

In AE – that -> with restrictive relative clause

which -> with non-restrictive relative clause

Only non-restrictive modifiers are separated by commas from the noun phrase they modify.

Types of modification
- Relative pronoun (the girl he spoke to, the reason he is here)
- Prepositional phrases (man of the year, ticket to London)
- Relative clauses (a man who wants wife, a ticket that cost fortune)
- Non-finite clauses
o Infinitive clauses (the next train to arrive is from NY)
o Participle clauses, both -inf and -ed (the man observed near the scene of the crime)
o Minor types are by adverb phrases, postponed adjectives, postposed “mode” qualifiers:
the road back (which leads back)

10. Apposition, premodification, discontinuous modification

Apposition
- Placing side-by-side coordinate elements (noun phrases)
, the second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first
- Two or more noun phrases are in apposition when they have identity of reference
Example: John, the singer, died a few years ago.
Premodification
- Modifier placed before the head
- Types of premodifying item:
o Adjective (his delightful cottage)
o Participle (his completed cottage)
o -s genitive (his fisherman’s cottage)
o Noun (his country cottage)
o Adverbial (his far-away cottage)
o Sentence (his pop-down-for-the-weekend cottage)
o Multiple premodification
 With single head: his last brilliant book
 With multiple head: the new table and chairs
 Modified modifier: his really quite unbelievable delightful cottage

Discontinuous modification
- A term that denotes modifier being split by either the head of the phrase or by a clause element
- We also talk about discontinuous modification when a postmodifier is separated from its head
by another clause element.
e.g. I was so thrilled by the present that I forgot to thank you.
The time had come to decorate the house for Christmas.

11. Multiword verbs (3 groups). Adjective complementation

grammatical patterns that follow a verb or adjective and complete the specification of a meaning
relationship which that word implies

multi-word verbs:

1. phrasal verbs (e.g. to find out, put off, break down)

2. prepositional verbs (e.g. to look at, care for, cope with)
3. phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. to put up with, look forward to, do away with)

Phrasal verbs
- Intransitive phrasal verbs (a verb + an adverb particle)
o When will they give in? - the meaning of idiomatic combinations cannot be predicted
from the meaning of the individual parts
o The sun came out. - with free combinations, where the adverb has an intensifying (e.g.
to chatter away) or aspectual force (e.g. to drink up), the meaning can be predicted,
moreover, substitution (walk past x walk by, in, through, over), fronting of the adverb
(Out came the sun.) and separation (Go straight on.) are possible.
- transitive phrasal verbs (a verb +an adverb particle + an object)
o They turned on the light. Or They turned the light on.
but with pronouns only:They turned it on.
Prepositional verbs

type I prepositional verbs

- These verbs consist of a lexical verb followed by a preposition with which it is semantically an/or
syntactically associated, e.g. : Look at these paintings
-
Can you cope with the work? - prepositional object
the distinction between prepositional verbs and free combinations:¨
-
We called on the dean. We called after lunch.
The dean was called on. O (no passive)
John called on her. John called from the office.
- Who(m) did John call on? - Where did John call from?
the distinction between prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs:
She called on her friends. She called up her friends./She called her friends up.
She called on them. She called them up.
She called angrily on her friends. O
the friends on whom she called O
Which friends did she CALL on? Which friends did she call UP?

type II prepositional verbs

May I remind you of our agreement? - ditransitive verbs, followed by two NPs, normally separated by
the preposition (prepositional object)
Note:
There are two minor groups in which the direct object is part of the idiomatic combination:
(1) make a mess of, make allowance for, take care of, pay attention to, take advantage of: (e.g. two
passive structures possible: A terrible mess has been made of the house. or The house has been made a
terrible mess of.)

(2) catch sight of, keep pace with, give way to, lose touch with, cross swords with, keep tabs on, give rise
to (e.g. only the prepositional object can become the subject of the passive structure: The lifeboat was
suddenly caught sight of.)

3. phrasal-prepositional verbs:

type I verbs have only a prepositional object

e.g.., He thinks he can get away with everything.

type II verbs are ditransitive, i.e. require two objects:

We put our success down to hard work.

Adjective complementation
adjectives often form a lexical unit with a following preposition, for some adjectives the
complementation being obligatory: e.g. averse to, bent on, conscious of, fond of.
adjective complementation by a finite clause
that-clause following an adjective may have an indicative verb, a subjunctive verb, or putative should,
e.g. We were certain that Peter was still alive.
I am anxious that Peter be/should be permitted to leave.

adjective complementation by a to-infinitive clause

a/ the subject of the main clause is also the subject of the infinitive clause:
e.g. Jane is slow to react. Jane is sorry to hear it.
b/ the subject of the infinitive clause is unspecified, although the context often makes clear which
subject is intended:
e.g. Jane is hard to convince. The food is ready to eat.

adjective complementation by an -ing participle clause

e.g. We are used to having a car. I am hopeless at washing up.

12. Verb complementation (intransitive, copular, and especially transitive verbs: Monotransitive,
ditransitive and complex transitive)

Intransitive verbs
- No complementation is required (e.g John has arrived)
- Some verbs can be either intransitive or transitive with a slightly different meaning (e.g. John
drinks x John drinks alcohol.)

Copular verbs
- A subject complement or predication adjunct is required
- According to whether the subject is complement has the role of current attribute or resulting
attribute two main classes are distinguished:
o Current copulas: appear, be, feel, look, smell (A), sound, taste (A)
o Resulting copulas: become, get (A), grow (A). prove, turn
o The girl seemed/became very restless. (A=followed by an adjective phrase)

Transitive verbs
- Monotransitive
o Require an object, which can be expressed by several ways
o A noun phrase:
 As direct object (especially with verbs such as to believe, bring, call, close, do
enjoy, feel, find, get, hear, help, keep, know, lose, make, need, receive,
remember, see, take, use, win)
 Prepositional object (all type I verbs)
 The passive is possible except for middle verbs such as to have, fit, suit,
resemble, equal, mean, contain, hold, comprise, lack (e.g. They have a large
house.)
o A finite clause:
 there are four categories of verbs complemented by a that-clause:
 factual verbs
  public factual verbs (introducing indirect statements) such as admit,
announce, complain, explain, insist, mention, predict, report, say, state,
warn.
 private factual verbs (expressing intelectual states) such as
believe, doubt, fear, feel, hope, know, recognize, remember, see,
suppose, understand.
 suasive verbs followed by a that-clause with putative should or with the
subjunctive, e.g. agree, ask, command, demand, intend, order, recommend,
reques.
 emotive verbs (the indicative or putative should), e.g. annoy, concern, marvel,
rejoice, surprise, wonder, worry (I regret that she worries/should worry about it.)
 hypothesis verbs (the hypothetical past or were-subjunctive), e.g. wish
(e.g.I wish she were here.), suppose (in the imperative), the modal idiom would
rather/’d rather;

o a nonfinite clause
 there are five types of nonfinite clauses that function as direct object in
monotransitive complementation

(a) wh-infinitive clause (e.g. He knew how to get there.)

(b) subjectless infinitive clause (e.g. I prefer to buy a new version.)
(c) subjectless -ing participle clause (e.g. They like talking about their hobbies.)
(d) to-infinitive clause with subject (e.g. I want you to help me.)
(e) -ing participle clause with subject (e.g. I hate their/them coming late.)

Notes on complex-transitive verbs:

1. in the clausal pattern SVOC, the object complement is an AdjP (=A) or a NP (=N) (e.g. The long walk
made us all hungry.) - verbs such as to appoint (N), believe, call, choose (N), consider, declare, elect (N),
find, get (A), like (A), make, name (N), prefer (A), think, want (A).
2. in the clausal pattern SVOA, the verb is complemented by a direct object followed by a predication
adjunct, usually a PP of direction (e.g. Take your hands out of your pockets. They talked me into it.)

Some other examples of complex-transitive complementation:

1. direct object and to-infinitive clause 2. direct object and bare infinitive clause
3. direct object and -ing participle clause 4. direct object and -ed clause

1. direct object and to-infinitive clause

e.g. The police reported the traffic to be heavy.
some verbs: to believe, consider, expect, feel, find, know, suppose;

2. direct object and bare infinitive clause

e.g. I saw Mary open the window.
The passive normally requires a to-infinitive, e.g. Mary was seen to open the window.

3. direct object and -ing participle clause

e.g. I saw him lying on the beach. The passive: He was seen lying on the beach.
4. direct object and -ed clause
e.g. She had the car cleaned. Three groups of verbs: a/ perceptual verbs (to see, hear, feel, watch); b/
volitional verbs (to like, need, want); c/ causative verbs (to get, have)
Notes on ditransitive verbs:
They require in their basic form two objects: an indirect, usually animate, object and a direct, usually
inanimate, object (e.g. He gave the girl a doll.)
Most ditransitive verbs can be also monotransitive, with a few verbs (to teach, show, ask, pay, tell,)
either object can be omitted. (e.g. She taught us. x She taught physics.)

Some other examples of ditransitive complementation:

1. object and prepositional object (e.g. She reminded him of the agreement.)
only the first passive is possible: He was reminded of the agreement.
some verbs: to accuse of, advise about, congratulate on, inform of, interest in, introduce to, prevent
from, protect from, punish for, sentence to, thank for, treat to;
2. indirect object and that-clause object (She convinced him (that) she was well.)
only the first passive is possible: He was convinced (by her) that she was well.
some verbs: to advise, bet, convince, inform, persuade, promise, remind, show, teach, tell, warn, write,
ask, beg, command, instruct, order;
3. prepositional object and that-clause object (e.g. Peter recommended (to me) that I buy some malt
whisky.) both passives are possible: I was recommended ….. as well as That I buy some malt whisky was
recommended (to me) by Peter., more acceptably with extraposition: It was recommended (by Peter)
that I buy some malt whisky.
some verbs: to admit, announce, complain, confess, explain, mention, point out, prove, remark, report,
say, write, ask, propose, recommend, suggest;
4. indirect object and wh-clause object (e.g. Mary asked me when I would return.)
5. indirect object and to-infinitive clause object (e.g. I persuaded him to leave.)
Some verbs: to advice, ask, beg, command, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade;
 PART B

1. Syndetic, asyndetic, and polysyndetic coordination (coordinators,

correlatives).

- syndetic, units are linked by coordinating conjunctions (by coordinators)

- asyndetic, coordinators are not present (but could be inserted)
- polysyndetic coordination - coordinator is repeated between each pair of units
-
Examples:
He tried hard, but he failed.
He tried hard, (and) yet he failed.
The weather was nice and the sun was shining and the water was marvelous.

Linkers:
coordinators (coordinating conjunctions) - syndetic coordination
conjuncts (adverbials) - asyndetic coordination
subordinators (subordinating conjunctions) - syndetic subordination

1. coordination (units are on the same syntactic level)

2. subordination (one of the units is a constituent of a superordinate unit)

Examples:
1. He tried hard, but he failed.
2. Although he tried hard, he failed.

Coordinators:
three central coordinators: and, or, but
somewhere between ‘pure’ coordinators and ‘pure’ subordinators: for, so that (in the meaning “with
the result that”)

1. unlike e.g. conjuncts, coordinators are restricted to the initial position in the second clause, e.g. John
plays the banjo, and his sister plays the violin. x John plays the banjo; his sister, moreover, plays the
violin.);
2. coordinated clauses (with and, or, and but) are sequentially fixed in relation to the previous clause
(not true for most subordinators Although she cried, he gave it away.);
3. coordinators (all) are not preceded by a conjunction;
4. they can link clause constituents (the same applies to conjuncts yet, so, time adverb then) e.g. You
may come tomorrow or may phone today.
5. they can link subordinate clauses, e.g. I wonder whether I should stay or whether I should leave
immediately.
6. they (and, or) can link more than two clauses - multiple coordination.
Correlatives (endorsing item and a coordinator):
three main pairs:
either … or (emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or),
both … and (emphasizes the additive meaning of and and
singles out the segregatory meaning of and rather than combinatory meaning),
neither … nor (negative counterpart of both … and, emphasizes
that the negation applies to both units);
one marginal pair: not (only) … but (also)
Examples: Either you or your sister can stay.
Both David and Jane got divorced. (not from each other)
Mary is neither happy nor sad.
He came not to help us, but to talk to us.
Not Henry, but his wife is the owner.
Not only was he late, but he also forgot his glasses.
Notes:
1. According to prescriptive tradition, the use of correlatives is unacceptable when there are three or
more conjoins.
2. Correlatives should introduce parallel units, i.e. units of equivalent function.

2. SIMPLE and COMPLEX coordination and their types – gapping, appended c.

Simple coordination – a single clause or clause constituent is linked to others that are parallel in
meaning, in function, and (generally) in form = the coordination of single grammatical constituents such
as clauses, predications, phrases or words.

Types of simple coordination:

c. of clauses
c. of predicates and predication (the most reduced form being preferred)
c. of nouns phrases and their constituents
 Combinatory c.
o John and Mary make a nice couple.
 Segregatory c.
o John and Mary know the answer.

Complex coordination
- coordination in which the conjoins are combinations of units rather than single units, usually
requiring a strong parallelism between the conjoins, therefore tending to be used in written
style of English, two types:
-
1. each conjoin consists of contiguous elements and the conjoins are combined in final position, e.g. He
gave me a book on stamps and Mary a book on painting. Oi + Od
2. conjoins are not in final position, e.g. John admires, but Mary hates, modern music.


Gapping
is a type of complex coordination in which a second or subsequent conjoin contains a medial ellipsis, so
that the elements in these conjoins are not contiguous, e.g. One girl has written a poem, and the other O
a short story. S + O
Appended coordination
characteristic of informal speech, occurs when an elliptical clause (involving one element or contiguous
elements) is appended to a previous clause:
e.g. My mother plays badminton, and sometimes even tennis.

3. The difference between simple and complex coordination. Pseudo-

coordination. Quasi-coordination.

Simple coordination = coordination of a single grammatical units -> conjoints -> result is conjoint
Complex coordination = coordination in which conjoins are combinations of units rather than single
units, requires strong parallelism

Pseudo-coordination
mostly found in informal speech; several types:
 the c. of two verbs that has an idiomatic function similar to that of a catenative construction
(e.g. I’ll try and come.)
 the c. of two adjectives of which the first functions as an intensifier of the second (e.g. His
speech was nice and short.)
 the c. of identical comparative forms of adjectives, adverbs, and determiners that expresses a
continuing increase in degree (e.g. She felt more and more angry.)
 the c. of two or more identical forms of verbs and adverbs that expresses continuation or
repetition (e.g. He talked and talked and talked.)
 the c. of two identical nouns to indicate different kinds (e.g. You can find doctors and doctors.)
 the c. of three or more identical nouns to indicate a large number or quantity (e.g. We saw dogs
and dogs and dogs all over the place.)
Quasi-coordination
most of the quasi-coordinators are related to comparative forms: as well as, as much as, rather than,
more than. They sometimes resemble coordinators in that they link a variety of constituents.
Examples:
John, as well as his brothers, was responsible for the loss.
I am going to forget the whole affair, rather than cause trouble.

4. The complex sentence (subordination and its indicators, matrix clause,

superordinate and subordinate clauses).
A complex sentence consists of only one main/matrix clause and one or more subordinate/dependent
clauses functioning as an element of the sentence.
Unlike a simple sentence, in which all sentence elements are expressed by phrases, a complex
sentence comprises at least one sentence element expressed by a clause.
Compare: He came here yesterday. x He came here after he finished all his work.
Unlike a compound sentence, which comprises at least two matrix clauses (and any number of
subordinate clauses), a complex sentence consists of only one matrix clause and any number of
subordinate clauses (at least one).
The matrix clause is the superordinate clause minus its subordinate clause.
Example: I’ll give you some money if you help me.
subordination x coordination
Example: He came here to help me. x He came here and helped me.
Note: A subordinate clause may function as a constituent of a phrase, e.g. a relative clause as a
postmodifier in a noun phrase. The result is not a complex sentence, since the subordinate clause does
not function as a constituent of the sentence.
Example: The boy we met yesterday is my best friend’s son.

Formal indicators of subordination

subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinating clause:
subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)
(1) single-word subordinators (e.g. before, after, because, although, as, since, for, if, though, lest, till,
once, that, until, unless, when, where, whenever, whereas, while)
(2) multiword subordinators (e.g. (a) ending with that: in order that, in the event that; (b) ending with
as: as far as, as soon as, as long as; others: as if/though, in case)
(3) correlative subordinators, combining two markers of subordination (e.g. so/that … that, the … the,
whether/if … or, as … so, less/more (/-er) … than, if … then, even if … yet, although … nevertheless,
because … therefore)

marginal subordinators (three types of borderline cases)

(1) a subordinator and a following/preceding adverb: e.g. even if, if only;
(2) temporal noun phrases: e.g. the moment (that), every time (that);
(3) prepositional phrases: e.g. because of the fact that, in spite of the fact that;

other indicators of subordination

(1) wh-elements in subordinate interrogative clauses and subordinate exclamative clauses, wh-elements
in wh-relative clauses, and in conditional-concesive clauses;
(2) the relative pronoun that in restrictive relative clauses;
(3) subject-operator inversion, especially in conditional clauses, typically in literary or elevated style;
operators permitting inversion being had, were, should, sometimes could and might, e.g. Were she here,
she would help us.
(4) the absence of a finite verb since nonfinite and verbless clauses are generally subordinate;

There are three types of subordinate clauses that have no clear indicator of subordination:
(1) nominal that-clauses, e.g. I suppose (that) he can use your phone.
(2) zero relative clauses, e.g. I’ve lost the book you sent me.
(3) comment clauses have no overt marker of subordination, but they lack an obligatory
complementation of the verb, e.g. He has no money, I suppose.

5. The complex sentence (three main structural classes).

There are three main structural classes of clauses:
1. Finite clauses (with finite VP): I’ll come as soon as I finish my work.
2. Nonfinite clauses (with a nonfinite VP): I’ll come after finishing my work.)
 to- infinitive
 bare infinitive
 -ing participle
  -ed participle
3. Verbless clauses (with no VP): I’ll come as soon as possible.
 With verbless clauses it is usually possible to postulate a missing form of the verb be and
to recover the subject, when omitted, from the context.
 Whether right or wrong, she always comes off worst in argument.

Note: One structural type of clause may be embedded within another:

Too nervous to reply after other speakers had praised her devotion to duty, Margaret indicated that she
would speak later. (The matrix clause is underlined, the remaining clauses are subordinate.)

6. Direct and indirect speech. Free indirect speech and free direct speech.
Transferred negation.
Direct and indirect speech
Direct speech tries to present the exact words that someone utters/has uttered in speech or writing.
Indirect speech, on the other hand, conveys a report of what has been said or written, but does so in the
words of a subsequent reporter:
e.g., David said to me after the meeting, ‘In my opinion, the arguments in favour of radical changes in
the curriculum are not convincing.’
e.g., David said to me after the meeting that in his opinion the arguments in favour of radical changes in
the curriculum were not convincing.
David told me after the meeting that he remained opposed to any major changes in the curriculum.
Direct speech is usually signalled by being enclosed in quotation marks. The reporting clause may occur
before, within, or after the direct speech:
(John said) ‘I wonder,’ (John said/he said/said John) ‘whether I can borrow your car.’ When the reporting
clause is placed medially or finally, subject-operator inversion may occur if the verb (esp. say) is in the
simple present or simple past.

backshift in indirect speech

the sequence of tenses - the resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses
(see the example about David above);
the sequence of tenses is optional when the time-reference of the original utterance is valid at the time
of reporting: I didn’t know that our meeting is next Tuesday.
The reference to persons, time, and place in indirect speech must be appropriate to the situation at the
time of reporting. (now - then, here - there, yesterday - last Tuesday)

All the main discourse types can be converted into indirect speech:
(1) indirect statements (subordinate that-clauses), examples are above
(2) indirect questions (subordinate wh-clauses or if-clauses)
e.g. John asked whether I was ready yet. (yes/no question)
I wondered when the plane would leave. (wh-question)
I asked whether or not she was satisfied. (alternative question)
(3) indirect exclamations (subordinate wh-clauses)
‘What a brave boy you are!’ Margaret told him.
 Margaret told him what a brave boy he was.
(4) indirect directives (subordinate that-clauses or to-infinitive clauses)
‘Tidy up the room at once,’ I said to Tom.
I insisted that Tom tidy/should tidy up the room at once. (mandative subjunctive or putative
should);I told Tom to tidy up the room. (to-infinitive)

Free indirect speech - used to report the stream of thought, especially in fiction.
It is basically a form of indirect speech, but:
(1) the reported clause is usually omitted;
(2) the potentialities of direct-speech sentence structure are retained (the presence of e.g.
vocatives, tag questions, interjections, direct questions and exclamations);
(3) only the backshift of the verb, together with the equivalent shifts in personal pronouns,
demonstratives, and time and space references, signals the fact that the words are being reported,
rather than being in direct speech;
e.g. So that was their plan, was it? He well knew their tricks, and would show them a thing or two before
he was finished. Thank goodness he had been alerted, and that there were still a few honest people in
the world!
Free direct speech - used in fiction to represent a person’s stream of thought. It is basically a form of
direct speech, but it is merged with the narration without any overt indication by a reporting clause of a
switch to speech. It is distinguished from the past time-reference of the narration by its use of unshifted
forms.
e.g. I sat on the grass staring at the passers-by. Everybody seemed in a hurry. Why didn’t I stay at home?

Transferred negation - typical of informal style, is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate
clause, where semantically it belongs, to the matrix clause:
I don’t think it’s a good idea. (instead of I think it isn’t a good idea.)
The matrix verbs that allow transferred negation convey notions of opinion (e.g. to believe, expect,
imagine, suppose, think) or perception (e.g. appear, seem, feel as if, look as if, sound as if) e.g. I don’t
believe I’ve met you before.
Note: When the subject of the main clause is I, the tag question corresponds with the subordinate
clause: I don’t imagine he cares, does he? (I imagine he doesn’t care, does he?)

7. Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses (nominal clauses).

nominal clauses
(Functioning as subject, object, complement, appositive, and prepositional complement) That we need a
new computer has become clear. (S)
Your criticism, that no information has been offered, is fully justified. (appos.)
Nominal clauses:
finite clauses
 That- clauses
 Wh- clauses
Non-finite clauses
 Infinitive clauses
 Ing clauses
Verbless clauses
Notes on some of the above types:

No. 1: That-clauses
When the that-clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed, the conjunction that is frequently
omitted, leaving a zero that-clause:
Example: It is a pity (that) you don’t know Spanish. (extraposition)
When the object or subject that-clause is fronted, that is not omitted:
Example: That she never said such a thing I simply don’t believe. (fronted object cl.)

No. 2: Exclamative clauses

generally function as extraposed subject, direct object, or prepositional complement
Example: How fast she can run! x It is incredible how fast she can run.

No. 3: Nominal relative clauses

resemble wh-interrogative clauses (e.g. I can’t imagine what they want.) in that they are also introduced
by a wh-element. They can be analysed as noun phrases modified by relative clauses, except that the
wh-element is merged with its antecedent:
Examples: I took what they offered me. (‘… the thing(s) that they offered me.’)
Macy’s is where I buy my clothes. (‘… the place where I buy my …’)

No. 4: Bare infinitive clauses

Examples: They made her pay for the damage. (object complement)
Turn off the tap was all I did. (subject)
No. 5: Verbless clauses
Example: A friend in need is a friend indeed. (proverb)
can be paraphrased To be a friend in need is to be a friend indeed.

8. Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses (adverbial clauses -

time, place; comment clauses).
Adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts and disjuncts, unlike adverbial phrases that can function
as adjuncts, subjuncts, conjuncts, and disjuncts.

Clauses of time
(subordinators such as after, as, once, since, until, when, while, once, till, whenever)
Examples: Wait until you are called. Complete your work as soon as possible.
An adverbial clause of time relates the time of the situation in its clause to the time of the situation in
the matrix clause. The time of the matrix clause may be previous to that of the adverbial clause (e.g.
until), simultaneous with it (e.g. while), or subsequent to it (e.g. after). The time relationship may also
convey duration (e.g. as long as), recurrence (e.g. whenever), and relative proximity (e.g. just after).

Clauses of place
introduced by where or wherever, indicating position or direction. The archaic forms whence (‘from
where’) and whither (‘to where’) are found in e.g. religious language.
Example: They went wherever they could find work. (direction)
Comment clauses
parenthetical disjuncts, occurring initially, finally, or medially, usually having a separate tone unit,
characteristic of spoken English. Six types can be distinguished:
(1) like the matrix of a main clause: There was no milk, I believe, in the fridge.
(2) an adverbial finite clause, introduced by as: I’m too busy this week, as you know.
(3) a nominal relative clause: What’s more important, we have enough money.
(4) to-infinitive clause as style disjunct: I don’t know, to be honest.
(5) -ing clause as style disjunct: I cannot specify it, speaking as a layman.
(6) -ed clause as style disjunct: Stated bluntly, he had no chance.

9. Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses (adverbial clauses -

condition [including types of condition], concession, and contrast).
Clauses of condition
overlapping with clauses of concession and contrast, if being used in all of them, whereas in the last two
types. All the three types tend to be used in initial position.
Conditional clauses convey a direct condition in that the situation in the matrix clause is directly
dependent on the situation in the conditional clause.
Example: If you put the baby down, she’ll scream.
subordinators if, unless are most frequent of all and occur in finite, nonfinite and verbless clauses; the
others are used only in finite clauses: given (that), on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that),
supposing (that).
Example: Unless otherwise instructed, you should leave by the back exit.

There are two major types of conditions (direct conditions):

open condition: it is not known whether the condition and the outcome are true or will happen:
If Colin is at home, I’ll tell him.
hypothetical condition: it is suggested that the condition will not happen, or is not true now, or did not
happen: If he changed his opinion, I’d be surprised.

There are two minor types of conditions:

rhetorical condition: while looking grammatically like an open condition, it is strongly assertive: If I win,
I’ll eat my hat. (‘I’m sure I won’t win.’)
indirect condition: in which the matrix clause does not actually follow as a consequence of the
condition: I think it’s a mistake, if you don’t mind my saying so.

Clauses of concession
indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to what one might expect in view of the
situation in the concessive clauses; subordinators: although, though, while, whereas. Sometimes it is
possible to view each situation as unexpected in the light of the other:
Examples: No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game.
It was an exciting game, although no goals were scored.
Conditional-concessive clauses
the correlative sequence whether … or (whether) combines the conditional meaning of if with the
disjunctive meaning of either … or:
Example: He is getting married, whether or not he finds a job.
Clauses of contrast
with subordinators whereas, while, whilst and optional correlative antithetic conjuncts such as in
contrast, by contrast used for emphasis.
Example: While Jane teaches history, (in contrast) Mary teaches physics.

10. Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses (adverbial clauses -

exception, similarity and comparison, proportion, preference).

Clauses of exception
introduced by but that, only, both being used only after the matrix clause, save (that), except (that),
excepting (that):
Example: Nothing would satisfy the child but that I place her on my lap.

Clauses of similarity and comparison

The former are introduced by (just/exactly) as and like (AmE), the latter by as if, as though and like
(AmE). If the verb is dynamic, they are difficult to distinguish from manner. Examples: Please do (exactly)
as I said.
She looks as if she is better.
She treated me as though I was/were a stranger.

Clauses of proportion
a kind of comparison, a proportionality or equivalence of tendency or degree between two situations,
introduced by as and/without correlative so, or by the fronted correlative the … the followed by
comparative forms:
Examples: As he grew tired, (so) his work deteriorated. The sooner, the better.

Clauses of preference
usually nonfinite, may be introduced by the subordinators rather than and sooner than, with the bare
infinitive as the verb of the clause:
Examples: Rather than go/I should go there by air, I’d travel the whole day.
They’ll fight to the finish sooner than surrender.

11. Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses (comparative

clauses, sentential relative clauses). The subject of nonfinite and verbless
clauses.

Comparative clauses
In comparative clauses, a proposition expressed in the matrix clause is compared with a proposition
expressed in the subordinate clause. Words repeated in both clauses may be omitted in the subordinate
clause:
Examples: Jane is as happy as her sister (is). Jane is happier than her sister (is).

The comparison is with respect to some standard or comparison (happiness). The clause element that
specifies the standard is the comparative element: as happy and happier above. The basis of
comparison is Jane’s sister above.
Comparison includes comparisons of equivalence and nonequivalence (see above) or comparisons of
sufficiency and excess (see below):
Examples: Jane is sensitive enough to understand your problems.
Jane is too polite to say anything against it.
The comp-element of a comparative construction can be any of the clause elements, apart from the
verb:
Examples: She knows more history than most people. (direct object)
Jack is more relaxed than he used to be. (subject complement)
You have worked much harder than I (have)/me. (adverbial)

Sentential relative clauses

unlike adnominal relative clauses, which have a noun phrases as antecedent, they
refer back to the predicate or predication of a clause, or to a whole clause or sentence, or even to a
series of sentences:
Example: Everything has improved, which surprises me.

The subject of nonfinite (-ing, -ed) and verbless clauses

Nonfinite and verbless clauses that have an overt subject but are not introduced
by a subordinator are absolute clauses because they are not explicitly bound to
the matrix clause syntactically. They are very formal and infrequent.
Example: Lunch finished, the guests started their discussion.
Note: When a subject is not present in a nonfinite or verbless clause, the normal attachment rule for
identifying the subject is that it is assumed to be identical in reference to the subject of the
superordinate clause:
Driving home, I accidentally went through a red light. (‘While I was driving home’)

13.Words - phrases - clauses – sentences (their relationships). Two

conventional methods of representing the structure of sentences (tree
diagrams, bracketing).

SENTENCE
“A sentence is a grammatically complete unit (i.e. constructed according to a system of rules) which can
be used on its own without people feeling it to be incomplete.”
SENTENCE V. CLAUSE
In English a sentence is an independent unit, a clause is a unit within a sentence. In Czech we do not
make this distinction. (compare: sentence and clause v. věta)
The simple sentence consists of one clause. e.g. I was late for school.
The multiple sentence consists of two or more clauses. We distinguish two types:
a) compound sentence – two or more main, syntactically independent clauses which are
coordinated
e.g. I was late for school today but the teacher wasn’t angry with me.
b) complex sentence – one of the clauses is superordinate, the other (or others) is
/ are dependent, i.e. subordinate
In English grammar the sentence is described as having five levels with different units: sentences which
consist of one or more clauses, which consist of one or more phrases, which consist of one or more
words, which consist of one or more morphemes.