Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

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Construction and Building Materials

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Recycling of agricultural irrigation canal sludge and mirror factory residue

in green brick production
Serdar Korpayev a, *, Meretdurdy Bayramov a, Nurmurat Kandymov b, Serdar Durdyev c
a
Economic Society “Dowletli-Dowran”, Lebap Velayat, Khalach district, Turkmenistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Paragon International University, Phnom Penh 12510, Cambodia
c
Department of Engineering and Architectural Studies, Ara Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Owing to the high demand for construction materials, the construction sector plays an important role in assessing
Irrigation canal sludge different types of agricultural and mirror industry residues. Consequently, for the first time, a study has been
Mirror factory residue conducted in which residues from the agricultural and mirror industry are used together to contribute to the
Green brick production
production of a more environmentally friendly brick. Agricultural irrigation canal (AIC) sludge could not be used
Recycling
Plasticity improvement
alone in brick making because of its low plasticity. Improvement of the plasticity of AIC sludge for the extrusion
was achieved with another highly plastic mirror or glass factory residue (MFR) from sand washing process. The
two residues as raw materials were mixed at various mass ratios of 90/10, 85/15, 80/20 and 75/25 wt%,
extruded with proper moisture content, dried at 110 ◦ C and fired at 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C, respectively. An
increasing amount of MFR in formulations improved both plasticity and compressive strength of bricks. For raw
materials, the mineralogical analysis by X-ray diffraction (XRD); chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX); morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and ther­
mogravimetric analysis were performed. Plasticities, Bigot’s curves and dilatometry analysis of all mixtures were
evaluated. Firing shrinkage, apparent density, apparent porosity, water absorption, freeze–thaw resistance,
bending strength and compressive strength were determined for fired bricks. These final brick products were also
characterised using SEM and XRD. In this study, bricks from AIC sludge and MFR mixtures were showed with a
compressive strength in the range of 10–45 MPa. It was found that the bricks made with AIC sludge-MFR 75/25
mixture fired at 1050 ◦ C had superior freeze–thaw and mechanical features. The outcomes demonstrated that
these two raw materials have adequate characteristics for ceramic brick production.

1. Introduction
With a global production of over 1,391 billion units each year, the
construction sector is crucial to the economic growth of developing
nations [1,2]. China and India are the largest brick-producing countries
and each fabricate more than a billion tons of bricks per year [3]. Of the
two types of bricks, clay and cement, clay is usually preferred by man­
ufacturers because of its cheaper cost, higher fire resistance, longer
service life and lower production energy compared with cement [4–6].
An increase in the production of clay bricks leads to the deficiency of this
non-renewable raw material. Thus, some countries have already started
to limit the use of clay for brick production to protect clay resources [7].
Hence, it is essential to source green materials to reduce the usage of clay
for brick production.
Besides depletion of fertile soil or clay in the brick industry, landfill
scarcity for residues of certain industries is an additional environmental
problem for a green world. Researchers must study the utilisation of
alternative materials to reduce the usage of clay and soil. Many mate­
rials have been studied, including fly ash, construction waste, slag,
cotton, paper production residue, cigarette butts, waste tea, rice husk
ash, crumb rubber, sugarcane and waste glass [1,8–20].
This study aimed to evaluate the use of two residue materials,
namely agricultural irrigation canal (AIC) sludge and mirror factory
residue (MFR) in the production of clay-based bricks. El-Din et al. [21]
suggested that using a water treatment plant sludge instead of clay is
possibly done because of the similarity in chemical composition.
Moreover, dredged sludge from canals and rivers is difficult to recycle
and requires a landfill or offshore site for disposal, which has an adverse

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: serdarkorpe@gmail.com (S. Korpayev).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128474
Received 27 October 2021; Received in revised form 30 June 2022; Accepted 11 July 2022
Available online 20 July 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Korpayev et al.
Fig. 1. a) Irrigation sludge collected on the side of the canal b) MFR obtained after sand washing c) powder form of AIC sludge and d) MFR.
environmental impact [22–24]. Therefore, the use of sludge in the
construction industry presents an environmentally friendly and
economically superior option [25].
The AIC sludge used in this research was obtained from the Halach
canal (Turkmenistan) functioning as an irrigation source in the region.
Sludge is piled around the canal every time it is cleaned, and much of the
sludge requires a landfill site for disposal. This sludge is used to replace
the fertile clay in brick production; however, it contains a high sand
ratio, which might reduce the plasticity of a specimen. Consequently, it
is necessary to increase the plasticity by mixing it with high plasticity
clay (Fig. S1). For this purpose, AIC sludge is mixed with MFR residue
from the Turkmen glass and mirror factory (Turkmenistan). Sand is used
for glass production and high clay ratio residue is left from the raw
material. The iron and aluminium percentages in the sand should be
below 1 %. For this, the percentage of iron and aluminium is reduced by
washing the sands in pools. As a result of the washing processes, water is
removed from the environment and clay-rich residues are obtained. In
this way, approximately 7500 tons of factory clay residue are obtained
from these raw materials. This residue accumulates unless it is used, and
the residues should be evaluated, which is the focus of this study.
The research process employed in this study is innovative because
the use of residue clay from glass and mirror factory has not previously
been studied as a raw material for the production of fired bricks. The
influence of the MFR ratios on the chemical, physical, mechanical and
industrial features of the AIC sludge brick samples was studied. The
shrinkage (S), water absorption (WA), bulk density (BD), apparent
porosity (AP), apparent specific gravity (ASG), compressive strength,
microstructure by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy disper­
sive X-ray analysis (EDX), mineralogical and freeze–thaw analysis of
fired bricks were evaluated. In addition, the applicability of the selected
mixture in industrial conditions was also tested. The investigation rep­
resents promising and significant work and presents new insights into
the evaluation of AIC sludge and MFR. The amount of clay used for
bricks was reduced; therefore not only was natural resources depletion
prevented but also the amount of residue produced by the mirror in­
dustry was reduced. Further, the sludge accumulated after digging and
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Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
cleaning the canals was evaluated and transformed into a useful and
functional product.
2. Experimental method
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Raw materials (agricultural irrigation canal sludge and mirror
factory residue)
The AIC sludge used in this research was collected from Halach canal
(Turkmenistan), an artificial river-level waterway that is an important
source of irrigation water for the region (Fig. 1a). When the canal is
cleaned regularly, the sludge is piled around the canal, from where it
was collected for our study. The sludge taken from the water treatment
plant was sun-dried for a few days and milled. The clay residue utilised
was supplied by the local glass industry. The clay is left as a residue from
raw material after the sand is washed for glass production (Fig. 1b) The
clay residue obtained after this sand washing was dried under the sun to
remove moisture and conduct chemical and physical analysis. The
powdered form of AIC sludge and MFR are shown in Fig. 1c and d,
respectively.
2.2. Physical and chemical analyses of agricultural irrigation canal sludge
and mirror factory residue as raw materials
To determine the particle size distribution of the AIC sludge and MFR
samples, both the hydrometer method [26] and laser diffraction analysis
by Mastersizer Hydro 3000E (Malvern, UK) were employed. Plasticity
was evaluated using Pfferkorn, and the consistency of extruded speci­
mens was determined using pocket penetrometer ST 207 (kg/cm2)
(Ceramic instruments, Italy). The mineralogical and chemical compo­
sition (oxides) analyses of AIC sludge and MFR samples were conducted
using energy dispersive X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) with the Bruker
D8 Advance device and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with the Bruker S4
Pioneer, respectively. For XRF analysis, samples were prepared as
pressed powder pellets. Using a hydraulic press machine, pressed
S. Korpayev et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

Table 1
Specimen mixtures from AIC sludge and MFR.
%CaCO3 = %CO2 × 2.273 (2)

Sample AIC sludge% MFR% Total% Added water %

2.3. Preparations of fired brick samples
M1 90 10 100 16.5
M2 85 15 100 17
The AIC sludge and MFR collected were air dried for 72 h, then
M3 80 20 100 17.5
M4 75 25 100 18 further dried in an oven (110 ◦ C) for 24 h and then ground in a hammer
mill in the laboratory. The AIC sludge and MFR mixture was prepared
and mixed in a mechanical mixer for 30 min to obtain a uniform con­
powder pellets were moulded using 5 g of sample and 1 g of wax in an Al sistency before adding the correct amount of water for the wet mixing
ring (32 mm internal diameter, 8 mm height) with 300 kgf cm− 2. For process (Table 1). Proportions of the clay brick mixes are given in Fig. 2
XRD analysis, the crushed and subsequent pressed disks were sieved at and Table 1, which provides a flowchart of the sample preparation.
50 µm and examined with a powder diffractometer under standard cir­ Prepared plastic mixtures were kept overnight for the aging process and
cumstances (Cu Kα radiation 1.54056 Å, 40 kV and 30 mA, 3–80◦ 2θ, step homogeneous distribution of the moisture. After shaping the brick
size 0.015◦ , time per step 0.1 s with divergence slit 0.5◦ ). The thermal samples via extrusion at a speed of 18 units/min in a vacuum (760 mm
behaviours of the AIC sludge and clay residue were performed by Hg) extruder (Verdes, Spain), resulting in bricks of ~ 118 × 28 × 18
thermogravimetric (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) mm3, the bricks were dried in an oven with gradually increasing heat
analysis (Mettler Toledo DSC 1, Switzerland), respectively. Microstruc­ (30 ◦ C to 110 ◦ C) for 24 h. The dry samples (n = 4) were fired in a
tural characterisation of the raw materials was performed by scanning laboratory-type electrical furnace (Siemens, Germany) at a rate of 10
electron microscopy (SEM) at an operating voltage of 20 kV and a ◦
C/min until obtaining 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C, for a cycle of 26 h to achieve
working distance of 10 mm. Raw materials and fired brick samples were strength.
dried and coated with platinum in a vacuum to enhance the conductivity
of specimens before SEM analysis. Dilatometer (Dil 402, Classic, 2.4. Testing methods
Netzsch, Germany) analyses were conducted to study linear shrinkage
and/or expansion of the samples. Percentage of CaCO3 content was After keeping the plastic mixtures overnight for the aging process,
calculated using a Pizzareli calcimeter (Ceramic instruments, Italy), and the mixture was tested for moisture content and plasticity. By inserting
the following calculations were made (Eqs. (1) and (2)) [27]: 0.01 g of a sample into an MA 50R moisture analyser, the moisture
VCO2 (L) content% of samples was calculated (Radwag, Radom, Poland). Bigot’s
%CO2 = 53621 × ◦K
(1) curve, penetrometer and dilatometric curve were applied to obtain
characterisation of the mixture [28]. The coefficient of sensitivity to
drying by Bigot’s curve (CSB) values from the Bigot’s curve were

Fig. 2. Flow chart of unfired and fired bricks manufacturing.

3
S. Korpayev et al.
Table 2
Physical properties of raw materials using laser diffraction particle size analysis.
Type AIC sludge MFR
D10 (µm) 0.134 0.204
D50 (µm) 0.241 6.35
D90 (µm) 5.88 36.9
Specific surface area (m2/kg) 18,360 5988
Clay 30.58 78.25
Silt 63.29 21.25
Sand 6.13 0.5
Soil texture Silty clay loam Clay
classified as insensitive (<1), medium sensitive (1.0–1.5), sensitive
(1.5–2.0) and highly sensitive (>2.0). The loss on ignition (LOI) of
mixtures was calculated as the mass loss between 110 ◦ C and fıred
temperatures (850 ◦ C, 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C) [29]. Physical properties of
the obtained brick samples were characterised after the firing process.
SEM and EDX analyses were conducted to investigate the microstructure
of the fired brick samples. For the mineralogical analysis of the fired
brick, the sample was first broken with a Mignos-S press device (Ceramic
instruments, Italy), then reduced to 20 µm below in a Fritsch Pulveri­
sette mill (Germany) with zirconia balls and performed with an XRD
instrument. For the reference colours, the colour of the resulting bricks
after firing was compared to the Munsell soil colour charts. Hue Value/
Chroma parameters from Munsell soil colour charts were given to
indicate the colours. Mechanical strengths of fired brick samples (n = 4)
were measured by obtaining bending and compressive strengths using a
mechanical test instrument (Ibertest, Spain). Three-point bending in a
mechanical testing machine with a loading rate of 0.5 kN/s until failure
at Fmax (N) was used to determine the bending strength of the unfired
and fired samples. A constant rate of loading was applied to brick
samples. The compressive test was performed on unfired and fired bricks
(internal layer thickness of ~ 18 mm) using a 3000 kN hydraulic press
with a loading rate of 0.5 kN/s. The freeze–thaw test was performed by
following the ASTM C67/C67M-18 using DFR/60 (Ceramic Instruments,
Italy) [30]. After impregnating the bricks with deionised water, the
brick specimens were frozen and thawed for 100 cycles at temperatures
ranging from − 5 to + 5 ◦ C. For thawing purposes, each cycle was
maintained for 15 min below zero and for 15 min submerged in water at
a temperature above + 5 ◦ C. Daily inspections for cracks and other
damage were performed on the brick samples. Finally, the specimens
were weighed to determine the percentage of mass loss after 100 cycles,
and the result was expressed as a mass loss%. Apparent porosity,
apparent specific gravity, bulk density and water absorption tests were
Fig. 3. Soil texture analysis of a) AIC sludge and b) MFR.
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Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
conducted according to the ASTM C20 standard [31]. Four brick sam­
ples for each physical performance were tested and the data were
averaged. Below are the formulas (Eqs. (3) to (6)) for calculating water
absorption, apparent porosity, bulk density and apparent specific grav­
ity of bricks:
Wsaturated − Wdry
Water absorption, % = x100 (3)
Wdry
Open pore volume
Apparent porosity, % = x 100
total volume
Wsaturated − Wdry
= x100 (4)
Wsaturated − Wsuspended
Bulk density, g/cm3 =
Wdry
x 100 (5)
Wsaturated − Wsuspended
Wdry
Apparent specific gravity, g/cm3 = x 100 (6)
Wdry − Wsuspended
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Properties of the raw materials
The particle size of raw materials plays a critical role in plasticity
[32]. Clay particle size percentage, which is a good indicator of plas­
ticity and workability [33], for the MFR and AIC sludge was 78.25 % and
30.58 %, respectively (Table 2). In contrast, the silt particle size per­
centage was vice-versa. That is, the AIC sludge percentage was higher
compared with that of the MFR, with 21.25 % for MFR and 63.29 % for
AIC sludge (Table 2). The sand content of the AIC sludge was 6.13 %,
while for MFR it was less abundant at only 0.5 %. The average particle
size (D10, D50 and D90) for both raw materials is also given in Table 2.
Soil texture and particle size distribution are provided in Fig. 3 and 4,
respectively. According to the analysis conducted using a hydrometer
method, the AIC sludge and MFR fall in the silty clay loam and clay regions
of the soil texture triangle diagram, respectively (Fig. 3a, b). The clay, silt
and sand percentages of AIC sludge and MFR were found to be similar
using both methods (hydrometer and laser diffraction). Fig. S2 provides a
Folk diagram of grain size classification of raw materials from agriculture
and industry. In the diagram, AIC sludge and MFR fall in the regions of clay
and mud, respectively [34]. According to this result, the addition of a
temper (sand and silt) was necessary to improve the processing of clay-rich
MFR samples. This was achieved with AIC sludge, which is rich in silt and
sand content. By using these two residues together, our study is innovative
in the literature to report producing ceramic bricks.
S. Korpayev et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

Particle size distribution analysis of the raw materials using laser

diffraction is depicted in Fig. 4. As illustrated in the Fig. 4, particle sizes
of all MFR and 95 % of AIC sludge were under 100 µm, which is an
indication of obtaining reactions under high firing temperature. Indeed,
96 % of MFR particles were<10 µm (Fig. 4).
Fig. 5 also shows the SEM images of AIC sludge and MFR as raw
materials with 500 X-magnification. MFR particles were considerably
finer than AIC sludge, and both were generally in the form of coarse
molten particles. As shown in Fig. 5, it is evident that both AIC sludge
and MFR have irregularly shaped particles, which was also found in a
previous study [35]. The elements detected by EDX analysis of AIC
sludge and MFR were shown in Fig. 5. Accordingly, while the Silicon (Si)
content of MFR was higher than that of AIC sludge, the opposite was
found for Aluminum (Al) content. The calcite contents of AIC sludge and
MFR were 9.8 % and 2.04 %, respectively, which is lower than the
threshold value (15 %) (Table 3) [36]. The high amount of calcite in the
raw materials increases the porosity and water absorption of the brick to
be formed, and together with other alkalis (Na+, K+, calcium sulfates), it
can create efflorescence on the brick surface [37,38].
Fig. 4. Particle size distributions of AIC sludge and MFR. The mineralogical characterisation of the AIC sludge and MRF is
provided in Table 3. Fig. S4 illustrates the XRD outcomes – that is, both
raw materials were rich in quartz (Qz, > 30 %). MFR contained a
considerable amount of K-feldspar (Kfs,> 20 %) and kaolinite (Kln, > 20
%), while the AIC sludge contained a smaller amount. Kaolinite is
generally utilised for fine ceramics and for its whitish colour

Fig. 5. SEM images and EDX analysis of AIC sludge and MFR in powder form.

5
S. Korpayev et al.
Table 3
Mineralogical analysis of AIC sludge and MFR.
Constituents AIC MFR
Sludge
Quartz (Qz, SiO2) +++++ +++++
K-Feldspar (Kfs, KAlSi3O8) +++ ++++
Kaolinite (Kln, Al₂Si₂O₅(OH)₄) + +++
Calcite (Cal, CaCO3) ++ + MgO (%)
Illite (Ilt, (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)] +++ + TiO2 (%)
Plagioclase (Pl, NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) + –
Dolomite (Dol, CaMg(CO3)2) + +
Chlorite (Chl, (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2⋅(Mg,Fe)3(OH)6 + +
Smectite (Sme, + –
(Ca2+, Mg2+)3(Si3.67Al0.33)4O10(OH)2
Amphibole (Amp, (Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe+2,Fe+3,Al)5Si6(Si, + –
Al)2O22(OH)2
Legends: + + + + + (˃30 %), + + + + (˃20 %), + ++ (˃10 %), ++ (˃5%), +
(<5%), “ – not present”.
characteristic and high melting point after firing [39]. AIC sludge con­
tained a high amount of illite (Ilt, ~10 %) and MFR contained a low
amount. Illite as a fluxing material causes the formation of a liquid phase
at a lower temperature and supports the sintering step, thus contributing
to an increase in density [40]. The high quartz content of these two
residues has two main effects: (1) it speeds up the drying process by
reducing drying shrinkage, and (2) it contributes to the formation of a
glassy phase during the firing step and thus diminishes the porosity of
the fired bricks [41,42]. Feldspars (Fsp) with their crystalline minerals
are utilised as fluxes that consist of aluminium silicate combined with
either potassium, barium, sodium or calcium [43]. Fsp facilitate the
formation of molten glass that causes solid clay particles to bind
together: the glass solidifies, giving strength and hardness to the ceramic
bricks and aids in vitrification [44]. Traces of amphibole (Amp),
plagioclase (Pl), chlorite (chl) and smectite (Sme, < 5 %) were found in
the AIC sludge, but not seen at all in MFR. AIC sludge and MFR as raw
materials showed presence of calcite with values of ~ 10 % and<5 %,
respectively and both samples contain dolomite (Dol, < 5 %) (Table 3
and Fig. S3). According to various researchers, the presence of calcite
and dolomite in a raw material has a significant impact on fire behaviour
and cause the reaction with silicates as well as the development of the
microstructure during firing [45–48].
Table 4 summarizes the major components of the raw materials
based on the chemical composition characterisation with XRF. Under
chemical viewpoint MFR is the richer than AIC sludge in SiO2, K2O and
MnO, while AIC sludge was rich in other oxides (Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO,
MgO). The high LOI values, 11.85 % and 11.15 %, for AIC sludge and
MFR, respectively, could be an indication of the presence of carbonate,
organic matter and phyllosilicate dehydroxylation.
The suitability test graph plotted from the chemical contents in­
dicates that both the raw materials are suitable for building-brick pro­
duction (Fig. S3). Additionally, the AIC sludge can also be used for
ceramic tiles, while MFR is suitable for clinker brick and ceramic tile, as
shown in Fig. S3. The TGA curves of AIC sludge and MFR are given in
Fig. 6(a), where it is evident that the TGA curve of residues showing the
weight loss was around 11.64 % and 9.68 % for 1050 ◦ C, respectively.
The initial mass loss percentage of residues was observed between 25 ◦ C
and 150 ◦ C attributed to free water. Mass loss between 150 ◦ C and 600
◦
C occurred because of the loss of molecular water of sludge and residue
materials (aluminosilicate hydrates and calcium-silicate hydrates). Be­
tween 480 ◦ C and 700 ◦ C, AIC sludge exhibited a single step, whereas
MFR exhibited a two-step degradation. First, the mass loss% was
observed due to the thermal decomposition of kaolinite to metakaolin in
MFR at 570 ◦ C [49]. Second, decomposition of carbonates mainly
occurred at around 600–850 ◦ C in both raw materials. The mass losses%
at these temperature ranges due to carbonates were approximately
10.21 % and 5.95 %, respectively. These values were found to be
extremely close to the carbonate percentages obtained with the
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Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
Table 4
Chemical composition (oxides%) of AIC sludge and MFR.
Constituents AIC Sludge MFR
SiO2 (%) 50.20 63.79
Al2O3 (%) 14.70 12.79
Fe2O3 (%) 2.80 0.89
CaO (%) 12.70 5.27
2.70 1.82
– 0.13
P2O5 (%) – 0.28
MnO (%) 0.19 0.6
Na2O (%) 0.41 0.22
K2O (%) 2.05 3.36
LOI 11.85 11.15
Total 100 100
CaCO3 (%) 9.8 2.04
carbonate tester. As expected, AIC sludge showed a higher mass loss%
because of its higher content of carbonates. After firing until 1000 ◦ C,
the total mass losses% of AIC sludge and MFR were 11.63 % and 9.32 %,
respectively. The TGA analysis of these two samples provided insights
into LOI values and the presence of carbonates. Some endothermic peaks
were also noted on the DSC curves for both raw materials (Fig. 6b). The
initial endothermic peak, which can be attributed to the evaporation of
free water, occurred at 30–105 ◦ C, as shown in Fig. 6b(1). Further, the
phenomenon of the dehydration of free water from the structure of the
clays was related to the endothermic peaks associated with mass loss of
about 130 ◦ C to 150 ◦ C (Fig. 6b(2)). In addition, the dehydroxylation of
the kaolinite and illite caused the third peak (3) at around 498 ◦ C owing
to the higher content of kaolinite in the MFR sample [50]. Subsequently,
the decarbonation of CaCO3 caused endothermic peaks at 700–800 ◦ C in
both raw materials [51] (Fig. 6b(4)). Finally, anorthite production
processes began at temperatures of approximately 1000 ◦ C, as illustrated
in Fig. 6b(5), and progressed with temperature increase and synthesis
duration in MFR [49]. Gehlenite was formed at temperatures between
933 and 970 ◦ C, and anorthite is formed at temperatures between 954
and 981 ◦ C, as Traore et al. demonstrated in their study [52]. Probably,
the formed anorthite was formed as a result of the reaction between
calcite, quartz and K-feldspar minerals found in MFR.
3.2. Characterisation of the mixture
3.2.1. Moisture content
The moisture content of AIC sludge and MFR upon arrival to labo­
ratory was 0.8 % and 1.4 %, respectively. As the amount of MFR in the
mixtures obtained from these two residues increased by 5 %, the water
requirement used to prepare the mud pastes increased by 0.5 %. The
amount of water added to AIC sludge/MFR 90/10, 85/15, 80/20 and
75/25 was 16.5 %, 17.0 %, 17.5 % and 18.0 %, respectively (Table 1).
The amount of water that should be added to the mixtures for better
extrusion was determined by pocket penetrometer. The percentage of
water that should be added to the mixture was found by adjusting the
Penetration values between 1.8 and 2.5 kg/cm2. Further, the ideal
moisture content for workability was tested by plasticity analysis using
the Pfefferkorn method [53].
3.2.2. Bigot’s curve
Shrinkage during drying is a critical factor for the quality of mixtures
[54]. Linear drying shrinkage as a function of water content is exhibited
in Fig. 7. The drying capacities of the AIC sludge/MFR 80/20 studied
were explored under laboratory conditions by air drying for 24 h [55].
The mixture showed shrinkage of 3.63 % which is slightly less than a
range of 4–8 % indicated by earlier works [56–58]. A critical point in
Bigot’s curve separates the constant drying rate period (CDRP) from the
falling drying rate period (FDRP); mass loss during drying in the air at a
critical point was 6.9 %, as shown in Fig. 7 [54]. Moreover, absolute
moisture content (mixing water) (WL) value was 15.08 %. The CSB value
S. Korpayev et al.
Fig. 6. (a) TGA and (b) DSC analysis of AIC sludge and MFR.
of the selected brick sample was 0.552, and, according to this classifi­
cation, the mixture specimen falls into the insensitive class.
3.2.3. Plasticity
The Pfefferkon’s plasticity index (PPI) value was obtained from the
Pfefferkorn straight lines of moisture content% versus height ratio of the
specimen [59,60]. The PPI results for all four AIC sludge/MFR mixtures
are shown in Fig. 8 and Table 5. PPI values ranged between 26.15 and
28.35, with a proportionally increasing trend of MFR content. The
lowest PPI index of 26.15 occurred in the mixture containing the least
MFR, where the highest plasticity is seen in the 25 % MFR-containing
mixture as shown in Table 5. Next, plasticity and consistency were
evaluated using a pocket soil penetrometer ST207 (kg/cm2) based on
penetration by following BS 1377 (1990) to determine the water content
and penetration resistance of all mixture specimens [59]. The pene­
trometer values ranged between 2.1 and 2.3 kg/cm2, which confirms the
preferred range of consistency, 1.8–3.0 kg/cm2 [61].
Fig. 7. Bigot’s drying curve of 80/20 AIC sludge/MFR mixture.
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Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
3.2.4. Dilatometric curve
Dilatometric testing is a beneficial technique for predicting dimen­
sional alterations in samples as a function of temperature and deter­
mining the firing program [62]. Further, this analysis helps elucidate the
firing temperatures of samples. Dilatometry outcomes of four specimens
with different ratios are presented in Fig. 9. All samples demonstrated
mini volume expansion (0.13 %) at low temperature (<150 ◦ C) owing to
evaporation of free water. The curve demonstrated a larger change and a
marked hysteresis between 573 ◦ C and 650 ◦ C because of the poly­
morphic α–β transition of quartz at 573 ◦ C. The highest expansion was
observed in AIC sludge/MFR 90/10 with a value of 3.05 % and the
lowest expansion was in AIC sludge/MFR 75/25 with a value of 2.3 %.
Beyond 1100 ◦ C, expansion was followed by rapid shrinkage in all
samples because of vitrification. The smaller shrinkage of AIC sludge/
MFR 90/10 was related to the higher content of illite and quartz than
others (M2, M3 and M4). Owing to the usage of the same raw materials
for different formulations, dilatometry studies did not reveal any sig­
nificant differences between the combinations.
S. Korpayev et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

Fig. 8. Typical chart of Pfefferkorn for AIC Sludge and MFR.

Table 5
Technological features of the unfired brick specimens.
Type AIC sludge/ AIC sludge/ AIC sludge/ AIC sludge/
MFR 90/10 MFR 85/15 MFR 80/20 MFR 75/25

Moisture content% 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0

Penetrometer 2.1 ± 0.081 2.13 ± 2.24 ± 2.3 ± 0.081
consistency (kg/ 0.057 0.051
cm2)
Plasticity (PPI) 26.15 ± 27.17 ± 27.67 ± 28.35 ±
0.82 0.76 1.32 1.51
Readsorption (%) 2.96 ± 3.07 ± 3.12 ± 3.15 ±
0.030 0.025 0.025 0.040
Compressive 11.3 ± 0.6 13.4 ± 0.8 15.1 ± 1 14.9 ± 0.8
strength (MPa)
Drying Shrinkage % 2.91 ± 3.28 ± 3.57 ± 3.65 ± 0.11
0.0065 0.077 0.058
LOI (%) at 1000 ◦ C 11.65 11.34 11.13 10.95

3.3. Properties of the fired brick samples
3.3.1. Colour change
Brick colour is an important parameter for aesthetics. Thus, the
colour of fired clay bricks is of huge significance. The colours of AIC
sludge and MFR mixtures fired at 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C differed (Table 6
and Fig. S5). While bricks fired at 950 ◦ C produced a pink (7.5YR8/3)
colour, the sample fired at 1050 ◦ C was pinkish white (7.5YR8/2) in
colour. In general, the colour of brick samples is related to the concen­
tration of oxides such as iron oxide (Fe2O3) total and CaO [63] and
mineral contents such as kaolinite in raw materials. The colour of bricks
in this study was lighter because of a higher amount of CaO and lower
amount of Fe2O3 in the two residues, as observed in a previous study
[64]. Further, the kaolinite mineral, which produces a whitish colour,
was also dominant in the structure of MFR. The white color became
more pronounced in bricks fired at higher temperatures (1050 ◦ C).
3.3.2. Shrinkage test
Brick quality can be attributed to the degree of firing shrinkage.
Benlalla et al. [65] and Weng et al. [66] stated that a good quality brick
exhibits shrinkage below 8 %, while Wolff et al. [67] found the
shrinkage to be 6 %. Shrinkage values obtained in bricks were all below
Fig. 9. Dilatometric analysis (DA). Change in length vs temperature. Legend: a)
AIC sludge/MFR 90/10; b) AIC sludge/MFR 85/15; c) AIC sludge/MFR 80/20;
d) AIC sludge/MFR 75/25.
4 %, as shown in Table 6. There was a significant increase in shrinkage
percentage when the MFR proportion increased from 10 to 15 in the
mixture. In contrast, the increment of MFR to 20–25 in a mixture pro­
portion caused a very slight change in shrinkage value. Firing temper­
ature is another factor that affects shrinkage. In all AIC sludge and MFR
mixture proportions, shrinkage percentage increased when the firing
temperature changed from 950 ◦ C to 1050 ◦ C. AIC sludge – MFR pro­
portions in mixture and firing temperature were two key parameters
affecting the degree of shrinkage.
3.3.3. Apparent porosity
Apparent porosity values of the bricks produced are given in Table 6.
These varied between 37.49 % and 31.33 %. The highest porosity was
obtained in the 75/25 AIC sludge – MFR mixture at 950 ◦ C and the
lowest porosity was also seen in the same mixture at 1050 ◦ C. The in­
fluence of temperature can be seen since porosity values decreased in all
four groups when the temperature increased from 950 ◦ C to 1050 ◦ C.

8
S. Korpayev et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

Table 6
Outcomes of the technological parameters according to the fired temperatures (950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C) of AIC sludge/MFR waste mixtures (90/10, 85/15, 80/20 and 75/
25 %).
Type AIC sludge/MFR 90/10 AIC sludge/MFR 85/15 AIC sludge/MFR 80/20 AIC sludge/MFR 75/25

T (◦ C) 950 1050 950 1050 950 1050 950 1050

Brick Colour 7.5YR8/3 7.5YR8/2(Pinkish 7.5YR8/3 7.5YR8/2(Pinkish 7.5YR8/3 7.5YR8/2(Pinkish 7.5YR8/3 7.5YR8/2(Pinkish
(Pink) white) (Pink) white) (Pink) white) (Pink) white)
Bulk density 1.63 1.69 1.68 1.74 1.73 1.8 1.78 1.87
Apparent Specific 2.34 2.28 2.36 2.35 2.34 2.29 2.35 2.29
Gravity
Apparent porosity % 34.25 32.45 33.63 31.58 33.96 32.51 37.49 31.33
Shrinkage after firing 2.74 ± 0.04 2.98 ± 0.06 3.36 ± 0.05 3.6 ± 0.17 3.7 ± 0.086 3.77 ± 0.095 3.76 ± 3.9 ± 0.1
(%) 0.057
Water absorption (%) 18.22 ± 18.13 ± 0.35 18.08 ± 17.45 ± 0.13 18.16 ± 18.06 ± 0.1 19.84 ± 0.6 17.7 ± 0.8
0.60 0.25 0.21
Bending strength 7.55 ± 0.11 10.11 ± 0.82 11.31 ± 12.57 ± 0.34 10.09 ± 11.11 ± 0.74 11.76 ± 12.95 ± 0.65
(MPa) 3.46 0.30 1.48

Compressive strength 11 ± 1 25 ± 2 12 ± 2 34 ± 3 18 ± 3 37.33 ± 1.5 22 ± 3 45 ± 4

(MPa)
LOI% 11.44 ± 11.69 ± 0.04 11.63 ± 11.88 ± 0.35 11.36 ± 11.59 ± 0.12 11.49 ± 11.58 ± 0.60
0.02 0.024 0.052 0.042

When there was a slight decrease in all mixture groups with the increase
in temperature, this decrease was 16 % in the AIC sludge/MFR 75/25
and was found to be significant. This relationship is consistent with
those found in previous similar studies, and it is associated with the
densification of bricks with increased firing temperature [13,14,68,69].
Although a 9 % increase in porosity was found when MFR increased
from 10 % to 25 % (from M1 to M4 groups), there was no clear indi­
cation of the relationship between porosity and MFR amount. The
porosity percentage fluctuated in other mixture groups, despite an in­
crease in the MFR content. Apparent porosity is a vital parameter
affecting other many parameters. As shown in Table 6, an increase in
porosity increased the water absorption while decreasing the bulk
density and compressive strength of fired bricks. The porosity values
obtained were found to be compatible with a study in the literature that
used samples containing high carbonate percentages [38].
3.3.4. Apparent specific gravity
Apparent specific gravity values of fired bricks are shown in Table 6.
There was no significant change in apparent specific gravity parameters
for different AIC sludge – MFR proportions. The value varied between
2.34 and 2.36 at a of temperature 950 ◦ C for all given groups, indicating
that MFR proportion does not influence specific gravity parameters.
Table 6 also shows that bricks fired at 950 ◦ C were close in value to the
specimens fired at 1050 ◦ C. The highest apparent specific gravity value
among the specimens was brick with 15 % MFR at 950 ◦ C and the lowest
was the sample with 10 % MFR at 1050 ◦ C.
3.3.5. Bulk density
Bulk density is one of the most important parameters that can affect
the physical, mechanical and thermal properties of mixtures [2]. An
increase in the water absorption and porosity of a sample causes a
decrease in the bulk density [70]. Bulk density measurements for four
different AIC sludge – MFR proportions fired at two different tempera­
tures are provided in Table 6. All values varied between 1.63 and 1.87 g/
cm3, confirming the recommendation of BS EN 206-1 [71] for oven-dry
density of between 0.8 and 2 g/cm3. Table 6 shows a clear linear rela­
tionship between bulk density and MFR content. When the MFR content
increased from 10 % to 25 %, the change in bulk density was 9–10 % at
both temperatures. In contrast, the impact of temperature on bulk
density was negligible. Despite the fact that there was an increase in
density with temperature change, it was just in a range of 3.6–4.9 %.
3.3.6. Loss on ignition percentage
LOI values in bricks fired at 950 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C are provided in
Table 6. All values were around 11 %, which meets the criterion
approximately 15 % for normal bricks [72]. Temperature increase
affected the drying mass loss with a 2 % increment, and this relationship
is consistent with findings from other studies [65,66]. Unlike tempera­
ture, MFR proportion had no effect and LOI values fluctuated with an
increase in MFR proportion. In addition, the LOI values of brick groups
obtained as a result of firing were compatible with the values found by
TGA analysis.
3.3.7. Water absorption
The durability of bricks is governed by water absorption [73]. The
less water infiltrates bricks, the more durable and resistant to weath­
ering they are [74]. Water absorption parameters for all samples are
given in Table 6. The lowest water absorption value was obtained in the
25 % MFR proportion specimen (at 1050 ◦ C), which had the lowest
apparent porosity and the highest bulk density. The highest water ab­
sorption was obtained again in the same specimen at 950 ◦ C, which also
had the highest apparent porosity. Evidently, a close relationship exists
between water absorption, bulk density and porosity. This relationship
shows a reduction in water absorption, given the overall decrease in
apparent porosity. All values of water absorption varied between 17 and
20 %, which is within the second-class category according to ASTM
C373-88 [75]. The standard categorises bricks with 5–20 wt% fired at
950 ◦ C and 5–25 wt% fired at 1050 ◦ C within the second class. Ac­
cording to Brazilian standard NBR 6480 [2], the water absorption value
should not be>22 %, while water absorption is considered acceptable
within the range of 20–30% in many parts of the world [21,76,77]. The
effect of firing temperature on water absorption value is provided in
Table 6. Water absorption value decreased with an increase in firing
temperature, which is also an indication of an increase in resistance. The
effect of the residue proportion in the water absorption parameter was
also interesting. The value was around 18 % with marginal changes in
10–15–20 % MFR proportion specimens, while an increment of MFR
proportion from 20 % to 25 % increased water absorption value by 10 %
at 950 ◦ C firing temperature.
3.3.8. Microstructure and phase analysis (scanning electron microscopy
and X-ray powder diffraction)
Fig. 10 depicts 2500 X-magnification SEM images of the fresh-cut
surface of four different AIC sludge – MFR proportions at 950 ◦ C and
1050 ◦ C temperatures. Firing temperature increases caused densifica­
tion of the bricks, as shown in Fig. 10. Further, the cross-section of the
microstructure reveals a vast number of non-interconnected and irreg­
ular pores. Particles were irregularly shaped and pore dimensions were

9
S. Korpayev et al. Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474

Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of AIC sludge/MFR 90/10, AIC sludge/MFR 85/15, AIC sludge/MFR 80/20 and AIC sludge/MFR 75/25. Red circles show pores and blue
arrows demonstrate vitrification. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

smaller than 10 µm. The obvious vitrification regions can be observed in
the samples fired at 1050 ◦ C compared with those fired at 950 ◦ C.
Specimens fired at 950 ◦ C were more porous and demonstrated a higher
water absorption rate. According to SEM analysis, the most prominent
vitrification among the groups was seen in AIC sludge/MFR 75/25. In
other groups (M1, M2 and M3) fired at 1050 ◦ C, the partial vitrification
was observed in certain regions. Moreover, the sample containing the
pores densified as the temperature rose and the pores moderately
reduced.
Results of XRD analysis for mineralogical investigation of the fired
brick sample with an 80/20 % proportion of AIC sludge/MFR,
respectively, are provided in Fig. 11. In the diffractrogram of bricks fired
at 1050 ◦ C, the concentrations of kaolinite, calcite and the illite dis­
appeared with respect to the raw materials (Fig. S4), and also new
mineral phases began to develop. The analysis shows predominant peaks
of anorthite (An), gehlenite (Gh), quartz and hematite (Hm). A diopside
(Di) peak was also observed because the dolomite and quartz crystallised
into diopside in the temperature range of 900–1050 ◦ C [45]. The new
main minerals generally started by forming reactions between silicates
and carbonates such as gehlenite forming at 800–850 ◦ C and anorthite
over 950 ◦ C. It has been reported in other studies that the newly formed
minerals or silicates in carbonate-rich clay samples fired at 1050 ◦ C are

Fig. 11. XRD patterns of bricks with AIC sludge/MFR 80/20 % proportion fired at 1050 ◦ C.

10
S. Korpayev et al.
Fig. 12. Freeze-thaw results of specimens after 100 cycles at 950 and 1050 ◦ C.
gehlenite, anorthite and diopside [38,45,78]. The possible reactions for
forming gehlenite, anorthite and diopside owing to existing minerals in
the structures of two residues are given below [79]:
Illite
Calcite Gehlenite
2KAl2 (Si3 Al)O10 (OH)2 + 6CaCO3 →2Ca2 Al2 SiO7 + 3SiO2 + K2 O
+ 2H2 O + 6CO2
or
K− fel dspar Calcite Gehlenite
2KAlSi3 O8 + 2CaCO3 →Ca2 Al2 SiO7 + 5SiO2 + K2 O + 2CO2
Calcite Quartz K− fel dspar Anorthite
CaCO3 + 2SiO2 + 2KAlSi3 O8 →CaAl2 Si2 O8 + K2 O + 6SiO2 + CO2
Quartz Dolomite Diopside
2SiO2 + CaMg(CO3 )2 →CaMgSi2 O6 + 2CO
3.3.9. Freeze–thaw resistance
Clay-based bricks are mainly used for building materials, and their
interaction with climatic factors such as temperature change plays a
significant role in the freeze–thaw resistance of bricks [80]. Water dif­
fuses inside the pores of bricks during the freeze–thaw cycle, freezes at
− 5 ◦ C and leads to the expansion of brick specimens. Damage or
cracking can occur during this process if the volume of expanding water
is higher than the volume of pore in the brick [81]. Mass loss for all AIC
sludge/MFR proportions after 100 cycles is shown in Fig. 12. According
to ASTM C67 [82], bricks can be considered unacceptable if the weight
loss increases by 3 % during the freeze – thaw cycles. In this study, after
100 cycles, all specimens’ mass loss was below 3 %, except for one, the
AIC sludge/MFR 90/10 proportion. That specific specimen’s mass loss
was slightly>3 % at 950 ◦ C, which becomes admissible as 3 % after the
temperature increases to 1050 ◦ C. Improved freeze–thaw results at 1050
◦
C were due to the decrease in porosity and water absorption values
because of increased vitrification. As can be seen in Fig. 12, there was an
inverse proportion between mass loss and the amount of MFR in the
specimen. The higher the MFR content, the lower the mass loss in both
firing temperature specimens. The highest mass loss% occurred in the
lowest MFR proportion specimen, while the least loss was in the spec­
imen with the highest MFR proportion. These results were found
promising for freeze–thaw analysis of samples. Resistance to freeze­
–thaw can be explained by the pores being generally between 3 µm and
10 µm, as seen in the SEM analysis (Fig. 12). According to research
conducted by Stryszewska et al. [83], bricks without any sign of damage
are clearly characterised by the prevalence of pores with diameters in
the range of 3–10 µm, and pores with diameter < 0.1 µm do not affect
the resistance of brick to freeze–thaw cycles.
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
3.3.10. Bending and compressive strength
The mean values of fired brick bending strength at 950 ◦ C and 1050
◦
C are provided in Table 6. The values range between 7.55 MPa and
12.95 MPa. The highest and lowest bending strength values occurred on
75/25 and 90/10 AIC sludge/MFR mixtures, respectively. There was a
(7)
clear effect of firing temperature on specimens. Bending strength values
increased up to 33 % when the firing temperature incremented from
950 ◦ C to 1050 ◦ C.
It is indisputable that compressive strength is the most important
(8) characteristic of construction materials. Compressive strength test re­
sults of bricks made from AIC sludge/MFR mixtures are provided in
Table 6. The strengths range between 11 MPa and 45 MPa. The lowest
(9)
compressive strength was seen in the lowest MFR addition (10 %), and
the highest strength occurred in the highest MFR addition (25 %). With
(10) an increase in the amount of MFR in the mixture by 5 %, at least 10 %
improvement was observed in the compression test values of bricks.
Further, there was also a relationship between compressive strength and
firing temperature. An increment was noted of up to 50 % on the
specimen strengths when the firing temperature increased from 950 ◦ C
to 1050 ◦ C. The bricks’ physical and mechanical qualities were found to
be in general compliance with ASTM C62 building brick standards [84].
3.4. Semi-industrial test of AIC sludge/MFR 75/25
Based on the promising features exhibited by the two residues
studied, the firing behaviour of these two raw materials for industrial-
scale production was performed in the ceramic plant of Dowletli-
Dowran for mass brick production (Fig. 13a). The AIC sludge/MFR
75/25 sample was selected for semi-industrial testing owing to its
promising properties in laboratory conditions for brick production.
During the semi-industrial trial, a total of 100 tons from a mixture of AIC
sludge/MFR 75/25 were taken, the mud was prepared by adding 17 %
water, and feed the ceramic plant and approximately 40,000 unfired
hollow bricks (265 mm x125 mm × 70 mm) were obtained. Unfired
brick samples were characterised by the determination of drying
shrinkage. Fired products at 1050 ◦ C were measured utilising LOI, firing
shrinkage, mechanical strength and water absorption. In general, the
bricks should not contain distinguishable defects, such as deformations,
breaks and cracks after drying and firing. The fired bricks of AIC sludge/
MFR 75/25 exhibited promising aspects and technological features, an
admissible appearance and the absence of efflorescence and defects
(Fig. 13). The compressive strength of AIC sludge/MFR 75/25 was
evaluated after being fabricated in the Dowletli-Dowran ceramic plant
(Fig. 13b). The average compressive strength values obtained for AIC
11
S. Korpayev et al.
Fig. 13. a) Ceramic plant where brick production is carried out, b) Picture of an instrument in which the compressive test of industrial bricks is carried out, c) Hollow
bricks fabricated from AIC sludge/MFR 75/25 fired at 1050 ◦ C, d) Photo of hollow bricks.
Table 7
Technological features of AIC sludge/MFR 75/25 semi-industrial bricks fired at 1050 ◦ C.
Sample Added water% T (◦ C) Drying Shrinkage%
AIC sludge/MFR 75/25 17 1050 2.24 ± 0.17
sludge/MFR 75/25 were 21.97 ± 4.54 MPa and 647 ± 131 kN, which
were higher than the threshold value (10 MPa). The drying shrinkage,
LOI and water absorption values were 2.24 ± 0.17 %, 11.89 %, and
16.18 ± 0.17 % for the semi-industrial brick trials, respectively. Firing
shrinkage was found to be 0.94 ± 0.14 %, which is between 0.5 % and 3
% and therefore considered an acceptable value. The data relevant to
LOI%, as expected, indicated that the prepared sample for the semi-
industrial test was nearly identical to the sample prepared in the labo­
ratory. Compared with the outcomes of the laboratory-scale test, the
semi-industrial hollow bricks fired in the tunnel kiln of the factory
demonstrated higher LOI% and lower compressive strength, water ab­
sorption, drying and firing shrinkage. The differences in the results be­
tween these two tests can be attributed to, for example, different
extrusion, brick and kiln types. As shown in Fig. 13c,d, the colour of
semi-industrial bricks fired at 1050 ◦ C was yellowish (Munsell value:
5Y8/4). In brief, the technological features of the AIC sludge/MFR 75/
25 were promising to formulate bodies for hollow bricks for the ceramics
industry (Table 7).
4. Conclusion
The main focus of this study was to explore the use of residual raw
materials (Agricultural irrigation sludge and Mirror factory residue)
from the agricultural and mirror industry for the production of green
bricks in the local industry. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first
study of its kind. For this purpose, AIC sludge and MFR were mixed at
ratios of 90/10, 85/15, 80/20 and 75/25 wt% with proper moisture
Construction and Building Materials 346 (2022) 128474
Firing Shrinkage% LOI Water absorption% Compressive strength (MPa)
0.94 ± 0.14 11.89 16.18 ± 0.18 21.97 ± 4.54
content, and their drying and firing behaviour was analysed in detail.
Based on the work conducted, the following conclusions may be drawn:
• Tons of agricultural sludge are produced as a result of digging irri­
gation channels every year. However, the sludge cannot be used
directly in brick making because of its high sand content and low
plasticity. This problem has been corrected by the addition of MFR as
an innovative method.
• The plasticity of the AIC sludge was quite low, and plasticity
improvement was achieved by adding more MFR.
• The physical and mechanical properties of AIC sludge were improved
by increasing the addition of MFR. MFR is a highly suitable plastic
raw material to be incorporated into the sludge of AIC. The
compressive strength values of these mixtures were obtained be­
tween 11 and 45 MPa, which is higher than the threshold value (10
MPa). At 1050 ◦ C, the highest amount of MFR added to the formu­
lations has 80 % higher compressive strength compared to the lowest
amount of MFR.
• Total shrinkage and water absorption values of all samples with
different ratios were between 2.5 % and 4.0 % and 17 % and 20 %,
respectively within a threshold value recommended by the ASTM
standard.
• The freeze–thaw resistance of the bricks fired at 1050 ◦ C was found
to be below 3 %, as expected. In some of the bricks with different
ratios fired at 950 ◦ C, this value was found to be above 3 %.
• The best ratio of samples was AIC sludge/MFR 75/25, which
demonstrated the best performance of brick features.
12
S. Korpayev et al.
• To compare the results obtained from these two residues under
laboratory conditions on an industrial scale, the AIC sludge/MFR 75/
25 hollow bricks were produced at the ceramic factory of the
Dowletli-Dowran Economic Society. The resulting industrial bricks
fired at 1050 ◦ C were more encouraging, with a higher value of
compressive strength value of 21.97 ± 4.54 MPa.
• AIC sludge and MFR recycling in eco-friendly ceramic bricks
demonstrate promising outcomes in terms of raw material saving,
waste management and environmental protection.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Economic Society “Dowletli-
Dowran”.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128474.
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