Power System

Circuit Breakers and Substations

Lecture No. 2
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Lahore

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 1

Short Circuit Currents

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 2

Short Circuit Currents
• Characteristics
• Because of its magnitude and the severity of its effects, a short circuit current,
undoubtedly, represents the most important type of current transient that can appear in
any electrical system.
• The main factors that determine the magnitude, and other important characteristics of a
short circuit current are:
• the energy capacity of the source of current,
• the impedance of the power source,
• the characteristics of the portion of the circuit that is located between the source and the point of
the fault, and
• the characteristics of the rotating machines that are connected to the system at the time of the
short circuit.
• The combination of these factors and the instantaneous current conditions,
prevailing at the time of initiation of the fault will determine the asymmetry of the
fault current as well as the duration of the transient condition for this current.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 3

Short Circuit Currents
• Transient Direct Current Component
• Short-circuit current transients produced by a direct current (dc) source are less
complex than those produced by an alternating current (ac) source.
• The transients occurring in the dc circuit, while either energizing or discharging a
magnetic field, or a capacitor through a resistor, are fully defined by a simple exponential
function.
• In ac circuits, the short-circuit current transient is equal to the algebraic sum of a
transient direct current component, which can be expressed in terms of a simple
exponential function and of a steady-state alternating current component that is equal to
the final steady-state value of the alternating current, which can be described by a
trigonometric function.
• The alternating current component is created by the external ac source that
sustains the short circuit current.
• The dc component, on the other hand, does not need an external source and is produced
by the electromagnetic energy stored in the circuit inductance.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 4

 Short Circuit Currents
• In this figure, the direct current
component is shown as I_dc, the
ac steady-state component is
shown as I_sym and the re-
sulting transient asymmetrical
current as I_Total.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 5

Short Circuit Currents
• Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Currents
• A short circuit current will be considered to be symmetrical when the
peak values of each half cycle are equal to each other when
measured in reference to its normal axis.
• An asymmetrical current is one that is displaced in either direction
from its normal axis and in which the peak value will be different for
each half cycle with respect to the normal axis.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 6

Short Circuit Currents
Total Current

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 7

 Short Circuit Currents
• Volt-Time Area Concept
• Example - 1
• When the fault is initiated at the precise
instant when the voltage is zero.
• In the figure it can be seen that the current
is totally shifted above the axis and that the
current peak is twice the magnitude of the
steady-state current.
• The reason for this is that, in the purely
inductive circuit, there is an electrical 90
degrees phase difference between the
current and the voltage.
• Therefore, the instantaneous current
should have its peak when the voltage is
zero.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 8

Short Circuit Currents
• Furthermore, the value of the direct current component is equal and
opposite to the alternating current at the same instant of time.
• At time t_1 , the current reaches its peak at the same moment as the
voltage reaches a zero value.
• This instant corresponds with the point where the area under the voltage
curve reverses.
• At time t_2, both the current and the voltage reach an instantaneous value
of zero.
• This instant corresponds with the time when the area A2 under the voltage
curve begins its phase reversal.
• The two areas, A, and A2, being equal and opposite, yield a net area value
equal to zero, which in turn is also the current value at that instant.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 9

 Short Circuit Currents
• Second Example
• The second example illustrates
the condition when the
short circuit current is initiated at
the instant when the voltage is at
its peak value.
• At time t_2, it is observed that
the area under the voltage curve
becomes negative and therefore
the current is seen to reverse
until time t3,when the current
becomes zero since the areas AI
and A2 are equal and opposite, as
seen in the corresponding figure.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 10

Short Circuit Currents
• The first example describes the worst fault condition, when the short circuit
current is fully displaced from its axis and the maximum current magnitude is
attained.
• The second example represents the opposite, that is, the most humble form of
the short circuit conditions. The current is symmetrical about its axis since there
is no direct current contribution and the magnitude of the short circuit is the
lowest obtainable for all other faults when the voltage and the circuit impedance
are the same.
• Third Example
• A short circuit is initiated somewhere between the voltage zero and the voltage
maximum.
• One significant characteristic that takes place is the existence of a major and a
minor loop of current about the axis.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 11

 Short Circuit Currents
• In this figure, the
proportionality of the current
and the volt-time curve is
observed.
• It should be noted that the
major current loop is the result
of the summation of areas A1,
and A2, and the minor loop
corresponds to the summation
of A3 and A4.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 12

Short Circuit Currents
• By examining the corresponding figures, the following facts become
evident:
• Peak current always occurs at voltage zero.
• Current zero always occurs when the net of the volt-time areas are zero.
• The current magnitude is always proportional to the volt-time area.
• At all points on the current wave, the slope of the current is proportional
to the voltage at that time.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 13

 Short Circuit Currents
• Transient Alternating Current Components
The ac current is simply defined by a sinusoidal
function.
• Under certain conditions, however, the transient
ac current may have an additional ac transient
component which is the result of
changes produced by the short circuit current in
the inductance of the circuit.
• It is the condition where the short circuit, at the
terminals of the generator, is initiated at the time
when the generated voltage passes through its
peak.
• Whenever this happens, the short circuit current
rises very rapidly. Its rise is limited only by the
leakage reactance of the generator stator, or by
its sub-transient reactance.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 14

Short Circuit Currents
• This current creates a magnetic field that tends to cancel the flux at the air
gap, but to oppose these changes an electromotive force (emf) is induced
in the generator winding and eddy currents are induced in the pole faces.
• The net result is that the ac component is not constant in relation to time,
but instead it decreases from an initial high value to a constant or steady-
state value.
• The rate of decrease divides the curve into segments and uses a different
exponential function to define each segment.
• The "subtransient" reactance is associated with the first, very rapid
decrease period; the "transient" reactance, with the second, less rapid
decrease period; and the "synchronous" reactance which is
associated with the steady-state condition, after all the transients have
subsided.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 15

 Short Circuit Currents
• Asymmetry of Three Phase Short
Circuit Currents
• Examining Figure, for a fault
initiated at point 1, the
instantaneous value for the current
in phase A is at its peak. The dc off-
set current will also be at its
maximum.
• The steady-state value for the
currents in phases B and C at that
same instant are one-half that of
the peak value of A and
their dc offset is also one-half of A.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 16

Short Circuit Currents
• For a fault that starts at instant 2, there is no offset on phase B since
current B is zero at that instant. The offset on phase A at that instant
3 3
is equal to − , while the offset on phase C is equal to + .
2 2
• When the short circuit is initiated at time 3, we get a condition that is
similar to that obtained when the starting point for the fault was at
instant 1, except that the maximum offset is now observed on phase
C instead of phase A.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 17

Transient Recovery Voltage

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 18

 Transient Recovery Voltage
• All types of circuit interrupting
devices can be considered as a link
that joins two electrical networks.
• As in Figure, on one side of the
device is the electrical network that
delivers power and can be identified
as the source-side network.
• On the other side is an electrical
network that consumes power and
consequently it can be identified as
the load side network.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 19
Transient Recovery Voltage
• Whenever the interrupting device is opened, the two networks are
disconnected and each of the networks redistribute its trapped
energy.
• As a result of this energy redistribution, each network develops a
voltage that appears simultaneously at the respective terminals of the
interrupter, shown as El and E2 in Figure.
• The algebraic sum of these two voltages represents the transient
recovery voltage, is which normally referred to as TRV.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 20

Transient Recovery Voltage
• Basic Assumptions for TRV Calculations
• The following assumptions are generally made when calculating the
transient recovery voltage of a transmission or a distribution high-
voltage power system.
• Only three phase, symmetrical, ungrounded terminal faults need to be
considered. This is because the most severe TRV appears across the first
pole that clears an ungrounded three phase fault occurring at the terminals of
the circuit breaker.
• It is assumed that the fault is fed through a transformer, which in turn is
being fed by an infinite source. This implies that a fault at the load side
terminals of a circuit breaker allow the full short circuit current to flow
through the circuit breaker.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 21

Transient Recovery Voltage
• The current flowing in the circuit is a totally reactive symmetrical cur-
rent. This means that at the instant when the current reaches zero, the
system voltage will be at its peak.
• As the current approaches zero, the voltage across the circuit breaker
contacts is equal to the arc voltage of the device. This voltage is assumed to
be negligible during the TRV calculation because when dealing with high
voltage circuit breakers, the arc voltage represents only a small fraction of the
system voltage.
• The recovery voltage rate represents the inherent TRV of the circuit and it
does not include any of the effects that the circuit breaker itself may have
upon the recovery voltage.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 22

 Methods of Calculations of TRV
a. Current Injection Technique
b. Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 23

Current Injection Technique
• A current equal and opposite to the short circuit current, is flowing at the
precise instant of the current zero when the interruption of the short
circuit current takes place.
• Since the currents at any time are equal and opposite, it is rather obvious
that the resultant value of the sum of these two currents is zero.
• Consequently the most basic condition required for current interruption is
not being violated.
• Furthermore, it is possible to assume that the recovery voltage exists only
as a consequence of this current, which is acting upon the impedance of
the system when viewed from the terminals of the circuit breaker.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 24

Current Injection Technique
• Additionally, since the frequency of the TRV wave is much higher than
that of the power frequency, the injected current can be represented
by a linear current ramp as:
𝑖 = 2 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝜔 × 𝑡
Where: 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = rms value of the short circuit current.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 25

Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• One important characteristic of transmission lines is that since their
resistance is generally neglected, they can be represented as a
combination of distributed inductive and capacitive elements.
• The inductive elements are all connected in series, and the
capacitive elements are distributed along the line in parallel.
• If a voltage is applied to the end of the line, the first capacitor will be
charged immediately, and the charging of the capacitors located
downstream from the point where the voltage was initially applied
will be sequentially delayed as a consequence of the inductances that
are connected in series between the capacitors.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 26

Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram

• The observed delay will be proportionally longer at each point down the
line.
• If the applied voltage is in the form of a surge signal that starts at zero and
returns to zero in a short time, then it is reasonable to expect that the
voltage across the capacitors will reach a maximum value before returning
to zero.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 27
Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• As this pattern is repeated at each capacitor junction point along the line,
the process serves as a vehicle to propagate the applied surge in the
form of a wave that moves along the line.
• During the propagation of the wave, the original characteristics of the
surge signal remain basically unchanged in terms of their amplitude and
waveform.
• In order to charge the capacitors at each connection point along the line, a
current must flow through the inductances that are connecting the
capacitors.
• Then, at any point along the line, the instantaneous value of the voltage
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑍𝑖(𝑡) where surge impedance 𝑍 = 𝐿 𝐶.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 28

Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• Surge impedance, resistive in nature, cannot dissipate energy like a normal resistive
element.
• The surge impedance of a line is independent of the length of such line. This is because,
any point at any distant location in a circuit does not experience a voltage that has been
applied somewhere in the line until a traveling wave reaches that point.
• Traveling waves will propagate at the speed of light, which is 300 meters per
microsecond.
• As the wave passes from a line that has an impedance equal to Z1 , into another circuit
element, possibly but not necessarily another line which has an impedance equal to Z2,
new waves will propagate from the junction point and travel back into Z1, and through
the junction into Z2.
• The new waves are shaped identically to the incident wave but their amplitude and
possibly their signs are changed.
• The coefficients used to obtain the new voltage waves are:

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 29

Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• Reflection (from Z2 back into Z1)
𝑍2 − 𝑍1
𝐾𝑅 =
𝑍2 + 𝑍1
• Refraction (from Z1 into Z2)
2𝑍2
𝐾𝑇 =
𝑍2 + 𝑍1
• If the line termination is a short circuit, then Z2= 0 and the above
equation becomes: 𝐾𝑅 = −1, 𝐾𝑇 = 0
• If the line end is an open circuit, then Z2= ∞ and the expressions
are:𝐾𝑅 = +1, 𝐾𝑇 = +2.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 30
Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• The back- and forward-moving waves will
pass each other undisturbed along the
line.
• The potential at any point along such a
line is obtained by adding the potentials
of all the waves passing through the
point in either direction.
• With the aid of a lattice diagram, it is
possible to keep track of all waves
passing through a given point at a given
moment.
• The next step is to determine the relative
amplitudes of successive reflections.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 31
Traveling Waves and the Lattice Diagram
• The amplitude of each successive wave is expressed in terms of these
coefficients.
• These coefficients can be substituted by the corresponding numerical
values defined below and the values can then be used to obtain the
actual amplitude of the wave.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 32

Switching Over-Voltages

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 33

Switching Over-Voltages
• Switching over-voltages can be produced by:
• closing an unloaded line,
• by opening an isolating switch or
• by interrupting low currents in inductive or capacitive circuits where the possibility of
restrikes exists.
• Switching over-voltages are probabilistic in nature and their appearance in a
system depend mainly upon the number of faults that must be cleared on a line
and on how frequently routine switching operations are performed on a
particular system.
• Over-voltages in transmission and distribution systems cannot be totally avoided,
but their effects can be minimized.
• Generally, the occurrence and the magnitude of the overvoltage can be limited by
the use of appropriate measures such as series or parallel compensation, closing
resistors, surge suppressors, metal oxide varistors or snubbers containing
combinations of resistors and capacitors.
Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 34
Switching Over-Voltages
• Any voltage that disappears within less than five cycles is deemed to
be a transient overvoltage. While those lasting significantly longer
than five cycles are considered to be temporary over-voltages.

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 35

Thank You

Engr. Raheel Muzzammel 36