ELSEVIER J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech.

, 54 (1994) 285-302

Extensional effects in flows through contractions with

abrupt or rounded corners *
A. Baloch, P. Townsend *, M.F Webster
University of Wales Institute of non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, Department of Computer Science,
University College of Wales, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK

Received 25 February 1994

Abstract

Much of the available literature on the flow of non-Newtonian fluids through abrupt
contractions concentrates on the use of differential or integral models of viscoelastic
behaviour in order to attempt to predict the flow pattern, and in particular, the effect of
elasticity on the development of vortices upstream of the contraction. However, in such flows
the dominant influence on the fluid is undoubtedly the rapid extension experienced in passing
through the contraction. In such circumstances, memory effects are likely to be less
important than strain-thickening. In this paper, we investigate the merits of a simple
constitutive model which isolates extensional effects, and shows that essential features
observed experimentally can be predicted by such a model for two quite different polymer
solutions. The sharpness of the re-entrant corner is shown to be a determining factor. For an
abrupt corner, a vortex pattern forms upstream of the contraction as the flowrate is
increased. This does not appear until higher flowrates, if the corner is rounded. The presence
or otherwise of inertia also has a significant infiuence on the way in which the vortices
develop, giving rise in some cases to a so-called lip-vortex mechanism and in others to a
corner-vortex mechanism.

Keywords: Abrupt comers; Contractions; Extensional effects; Rounded corners

* Corresponding author.
* Dedicated to Professor Ken Walters FRS on the occasion of his 60th birthday.

0377-0257/94/$07.00 0 1994 - Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

X%)Z0377-0257(94)01310-E
286 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

1. Introduction

The flow of non-Newtonian materials through abrupt contractions is one that

often occurs in the processing industry. The stability of flow upstream of the
contraction is of interest in connection with phenomena such as melt fracture and
sharkskin during. for example, extrusion of polymers through dyes. Experimentally,
it is observed that the onset of an instability in the upstream flow is preceded by a
rapid growth in vortex size and strength in the upstream flow region.
The study of such contraction flows is thus of some significance and has attracted
a great deal of attention in the literature, both from an experimental and a
theoretical viewpoint. A variety of contraction ratios have been considered, in both
planar and axisymmetric geometries. We do not attempt to list here the very large
number of references, but for further study the reader is referred to Refs. [l] -[3],
which represent some of the more recent work, both experimental and theoretical.
Much of this work has centred around the development of numerical techniques
capable of dealing with the extremely sharp stress gradients in this flow. Early
attempts to solve the problem using relatively simple techniques failed for all but
quite modest Weissenberg numbers. This limitation has now been largely overcome
through the use of more sophisticated methods of solving the relevant differential
equations. However, there remains some ambiguity as to the exact nature of the
development of recirculation areas in this flow, and in particular. to the presence or
otherwise of so-called lip vortices.
In a recent paper [14], consideration was given to the flow of Oldroyd and
Phan-Thien/Tanner fluids through a planar four to one contraction. It was shown
that the representation adopted for the extensional viscosity of the fluid had a
major influence on the ability of the numerical method used to reach high values of
Weissenberg number in the simulations. In particular, the Oldroyd extensional
viscosity, which becomes infinite at finite extension rate, gives rise to numerical
difficulties which are largely overcome by the more general Phan-Thien/Tanner
model, when it is parameterised to control the growth of the extensional viscosity.
The influence of strain-thickening on the vortex pattern in the flow was partly
observed as a side product of results for two sets of Phan-Thien/Tanner parameters.
In this case it seemed that a viscosity that increased sharply with extension rate
showed signs of a lip-vortex mechanism, whereas vortices grow from the salient
corner for a fluid which strain-thickens at a much slower rate. The interaction
between inertia and extensional behaviour would seem to be crucial in this flow, as
removal of inertia terms from the equations also removed the lip vortex, giving flow
patterns identical with creeping flow calculations published elsewhere [3].
The problem with the Phan-Thien/Tanner simulations is that, in addition to
strain-thickening, has elastic (memory) and shear-thinning behaviour occur, so that
it is difficult to isolate the dominant effect. In the present paper, we adopt a very
simple model which treats the viscosity as a function of extension rate alone. Such
a model has already been used in a similar context by Debbaut and Crochet [7], and
by Debbaut [lo]. We revisit the question of the lip-vortex mechanism and look at
how different forms for this function, compatible with the behaviour of different
 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 281

types of polymer molecule, give rise to completely different vortex patterns. We also
investigate how the sharpness, or otherwise, of the re-entrant corner affects the
flow. Where appropriate, the simulations are compared with available experimental
visualisations.

2. Theory

We consider the isothermal flow of a non-Newtonian material whose viscosity is

a function of the rate of extension of the material. In simple shear the viscosity is
assumed constant, as would be the case with so-called Boger fluids. Also, the fluid
is assumed to exhibit no memory effects. The relevant equations for the flow of such
a material are given by
v.v=o, (1)

p; = v. {2p(i)D} - pu . vu - vp.

Here u is the velocity vector, p is the isotropic pressure, p is the fluid density and
D is the rate of deformation tensor. To proceed further it is necessary to specify the
form of the dependence of the viscosity (p) on the extension rate (c). Currently,
there are many different research teams attempting to measure such a dependence
for real materials, but such measurements are particularly difficult for polymer
solutions. Therefore, unlike shear dependence, it is not possible to feed into the
simulations real experimental data characterising a specific material. What one can
say is that for the materials of interest here it is appropriate to consider the viscosity
to be a monotonically increasing function of the extension rate, and to simulate
such behaviour we make use of the form given by Debbaut and Crochet [7] as
follows:
/J(C) = pLgcosh(mG), (3)
where p,, is a constant viscosity, m is a material constant, and 2 is a constant with
the dimensions of time.
For an axisymmetric flow we may write the extension rate as
i = 31,/I, (4)
where Z2(=$trace(D’)) and Z,(= + det(D)) are the second and third invariants of
the rate of deformation tensor. It is worth pointing out that for planar flows, Z3is
identically zero, making this simple model unsuitable for general flow situations.
Here, for an asymmetric contraction flow, this model provides a simple means of
isolating extensional viscosity effects from those due to shear or fluid memory.
A schematic diagram of the flow under considertion is given in Fig. 1. In practice,
the lengths of the inlet and outlet tubes are taken to be very much greater, in
particular 30R and 50R, respectively, where R is the radius of the smaller tube. This
allows one to specify a known Poiseuille flow profile on entry and fully developed
288 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

no slip

known
Poiseuille

fully
developed
conditions
symmetry
Fig. 1. Boundary conditions.

Mesh Ml
(713 elements, 3499 degrees of freedom)

Mesh DA2
(2852 elements, 13412 degrees of freedom)

Fig. 2. Finite element meshes used in the computations.

conditions on exit. On the solid wall, no slip conditions are imposed, and symmetry
conditions are assumed on the geometry axes. The figure shows the re-entrant
corner as an abrupt corner. In some of the predictions, to compare with experimen-
tal data, the corner is rounded, and in particular, a quadrant of a circle, radius 0.72
of the narrow tube radius, is fitted to the corner. The nature of this rounding is
shown in Fig. 2. One would expect the fluid to experience a more rapid extension
near the abrupt corner compared with the rounded corner.
 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 289

3. Solution of the governing equations

Although it is not possible for the flow domain considered here to derive closed
form solutions for the system of Eqs. (1) -(4), numerical solutions are obtained
fairly readily. One is essentially attempting to simulate the behaviour of a viscoelas-
tic material, with the simple explicit constitutive model used here; however, one
does not expect to meet the difficulties commonly experienced in the solution of
implicitly coupled systems of partial differential equations used to represent fully
viscoelastic behaviour. Of the two sources of non-linearity, namely inertia and
variation in viscosity, the former is small but, however, not negligible. The latter
can be very significant, particularly for some polymer systems.
The numerical technique used here is a time-marching Taylor-Galerkimpressure
correction finite element algorithm, as first proposed in Townsend and Webster
[ 151, and Hawken et al. [ 161. This has already been presented in the literature on a
number of occasions, and therefore we provide here only a very brief outline.
Essentially a second-order, semi-implicit time discretisation of the governing equa-
tion is used prior to a Galerkin spatial discretisation. The algorithm comprises a
number of steps in which one first computes a non-divergence free velocity field
over two half-time steps, the latter ensuring second-order accuracy. A Poisson
equation is solved for the pressure difference over a time step, and this is then used
in a final step to determine a divergence-free velocity field. Apart from the Poisson
equation, which is solved directly using decomposition, all other equations which
emerge from the finite element formulation are solved iteratively. Because of the
nature of the systems involved, only very few iterations are necessary. In the
formulation of the equations, piecewise continuous shape functions over triangular
elements are used, of linear form to approximate the pressure, and of quadratic
order for the two components of the velocity vector.
One major advantage of this algorithm is that, unlike others in the literature, it
does not lead to the construction of very large Jacobian matrices. As such it lends
itself to application to geometrically complex problems, and in particular, three-di-
mensional problems. The algorithm is a time marching algorithm, although here we
are interested in steady solutions. For efficiency, therefore, use is made of simple
zero-order continuation in deriving solutions for a range of parameters. That is, the
solution for one parameter value is used as a starting solution for another higher
value of that parameter, with rest used as the original initial state.

4. Results

Calculations were performed for flow through two 4: 1 contraction geometries,

one with an abrupt re-entrant corner, and a second with a rounded corner as
described earlier. Two different meshes were used in each case, based on hierarchi-
cal h-refinement, to confirm the accuracy of the calculations. The meshes used
for the rounded case are shown in Fig. 2. Similar meshes were used for the abrupt
case.
290 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

Before solution, the relevant equations are transformed to a non-dimensional

form, giving rise to the following non-dimensional groups:
Re = pRV/p,,, We = AV/R. (5)
where V and R are, respectively, characteristic velocity and length, taken to be the
maximum, fully developed velocity in the smaller tube, and the radius of that tube.
We have chosen to follow the notation introduced by Debbaut and Crochet [7],
although, of course, the implication that We is a Weissenberg number is inappropri-
ate here, in the absence of memory effects. Through 1 it can be seen from Eq. (3)
that We is directly related to the degree of strain thickening present in the fluid
under given flow conditions.
In presenting the results, and particularly for comparison with experimental
results, we find it convenient to define a further non-dimensional parameter E given
by
E = WeIRe = J.po/pR2. (6)
E is independent of the velocity, depending only on material properties and
geometric dimensions. In an experiment, observations would be recorded for a
sequence of increasing values of the flowrate. In such circumstances, E is constant
and Re is directly proportional to the flowrate. Wherever comparison is made with
experimental observations, the values of Re and We used in a sequence of
calculations are varied in such a way that E is held constant.

4.1. The effect of rounding the corner

We concentrate initially on a sequence of simulations in which, for m = 5, the

elasticity value is held constant at E = 0.2 and the flowrate varied. The sequence is
shown in Fig. 3. On the left are shown the streamline projections for the abrupt
corner for different Reynolds numbers (or flowrates). It can be seen in Fig. 3(a)
that at the lowest flowrate the main recirculating region is a large salient corner
vortex, although one can just see evidence of the formation of a lip vortex. As the
flowrate is increased, this embryo lip vortex grows in size and strenghtens (Fig.
3(b)) to a point where in Fig. 3(c) it has totally engulfed the original salient corner
vortex, and all that remains is a large lip vortex. This now spreads across the
entire salient corner zone, right up to the lip of the contraction. Increasing the
flowrate merely strengthens this lip vortex. On the right of Fig. 3 is shown the
comparable streamlines for the rounded corner case. One would imagine that the
fluid travelling round the abrupt corner is treated more harshly, in terms of
extension, than for the rounded corner, with consequent differences in the elonga-
tional viscosity. However, one might not expect such dramatically different stream-
line patterns as shown on the two sides of Fig. 3. At the lower flowrates (Figs.
3(e)-3(g)) one sees, in the salient corner, a virtually stagnant region with no
apparent lip vortex. There appears to be very little activity, and for the range of
parameters given above the salient corner vortex is small and almost static. It is not
until the larger flowrates and Reynolds numbers are reached, as in Fig. 3(h), that
 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 291

Re = 1.2

Re = 1.8

Re = 2.4

Re = 3

Fig. 3. Streamline projections for contractions with an abrupt corner (on the left) and a rounded corner
(on the right). E = 0.2 and m = 5.

one begins to see a streamline pattern reminiscent of the early stages of the abrupt
case (Fig. 3(b)). Indeed, if one now increases the flowrate still further, one obtains
a repeat of the sequence shown for the abrupt corner, with the flow eventually
dominated by a large lip vortex. Clearly, rounding the corner reduces the local
extension rate of the fluid, and thus delays the onset of the lip vortex until higher
flowrates. This is also confirmed in an alternative set of simulations for the rounded
292 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

case, in which a higher value of the elasticity is employed. In this case the lip vortex
mechanisms makes an appearance at lower levels of the flowrate.
It is clear that rounding the contraction corner, an apparently minor change in
the flow geometry, leads to significant changes in flow patterns. The fluid entering
the abrupt contraction experiences much more severe extension near the corner
than in the rounded case, and this leads to the formation of a lip vortex. For higher
flowrates or more strain-thickening materials, the damping effect of the smoothness
of the corner is eventually insufficient to prevent the formation of the lip vortex
observed earlier for the sharp corner.

4.2. Comparison with experimental data for the so-called A41 fluid

We referred earlier to the difficulty in characterising the extensional properties of

polymer solutions, and as such it is, at present, impossible to make precise
quantitative comparisons of experimental data and theoretical predictions. Indeed,
here we have used such a simple model, which neglects so many factors, that it is
unrealistic to expect a close comparison. It was something of a surprise, therefore,
when remarkably good agreement was obtained.
The data used was that of Boger [ 171, and some of which is also to be found in
Boger and Walters [ 181. The fluid used was a 0.244% solution of polyisobutylene in
a solvent consisting of 7% kerosene and 93% polybutene, commonly referred to as
Ml. This fluid has an essentially constant viscosity in simple shear. The geometry
used was a 4: 1 circular contraction, and streamlines were illuminated using a
conventional laser technique. The experiments were carried out at relatively low
flowrates, with Reynolds numbers ranging from 0.009 to 0.89. Both abrupt and
rounded corners were considered, but, for reasons explained later, only the abrupt
case is shown here, on the left of Fig. 4. The main feature observed was that, at the
lowest flowrate considered, a fairly weak salient corner vortex is present which, as
the flowrate is increased, grows in size and strength. The initially concave surface
of the vortex flattens. A further increase in flowrate leads to a reduction in size of
the vortex, which recovers its concave shape. This reduction continues, with the
recirculating region shrinking into the salient corner until eventually the vortex
virtually disappears altogether. The initial growth and subsequent decay is recorded
in Fig. 5, which plots the vortex cell size as a function of nj, where j is the
downstream wall shear rate. This figure also shows data for the rounded corner
case, where no growth is observed in the vortex. Here, as the flowrate is increased,
the vortex initially stays constant in size and then decays as in the abrupt case.
Figure 4 also shows the numerical predictions for the same conditions used in the
experiments. In the absence of experimental characterisation, it was necessary to
make some estimate of how the fluid would behave under extension. In shear, the
viscosity of Ml is constant, which conforms with assumptions made in the
theoretical predictions. Some experimental evidence, and also some intuitive reason-
ing, suggested that the fluid molecules for Ml in a quiescent state should be in a
coiled configuration, and as such capable of significant stretching. It would follow
that the extensional viscosity should be expected to be of a form similar to that
 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285302 293

Re = 0.07

Re = 0.15

Re s 0.89

Fig. 4. Comparison of an experimental flow visualisation for an Ml fluid with predicted streamlines,
E=O.S andm=S.
294 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

0.3
0 NeatOdar~
- Ml (abrupt entry)
v ~1 (2mm rounded entry)

0.2
o-
8

1
;;
0.1

I I
o.o_
0.1 1 10 100
Ai
Fig. 5. Experimentally observed vortex growth for abrupt and rounded cases.

120.
100 -
(b) m=lOO

80 -

PE 60 -

40 -

20 -

Fig. 6. The extensional viscosity function used in the numerical simulations [Pi = p/h]

shown in Fig. 6(a), which plots the extensional viscosity function given in Eq. (3)
for m = 5. The value of E = 0.8used in the predictions is that of the experiments
although, of course, the 1 value used to compute E is derived from different sources.
Using such a characterisation, the predictions for the flow, using the same condi-
tions as in the experiments, are shown on the right in Fig. 4. It can be seen that
quite remarkable agreement is obtained with the experimental data. The competing
effect of the extensional behaviour and that due to inertia are faithfully reproduced
by the computer program. There was inevitably an element of ‘serendipity’ in the
 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 295

Fig. 7. Numerically predicted streamlines for a round corner, E = 0.8 and m = 5

choice of m = 5 for the predictions, although further computations showed that the
streamline patterns are relatively insensitive to changes in m, with essentially the
same patterns being obtained for values of m up to as high as 10.
For completeness, the predictions for the rounded case are shown in Fig. 7. These
are largely uninteresting, with the corner vortex staying almost constant in size, but
decaying in strength. Again this compares well with the data given in Fig. 5.
Clearly, for both rounded and abrupt comers, the simple model employed here is
capable of generating predictions of the contraction flow which are in close
agreement with the experimental visualisations. One interpretation of these results
is that the interplay between extensional effects and inertia is the dominant influence
for this flow under the conditions described, with shear and memory effects playing
a much less important role.

4.3. The eflect of different molecular conjigurations

As well as the experiments carried out on the Ml fluid, Boger and co-workers
have also investigated the contraction flow for a second solution, 0.03% MG500/
water/corn syrup, which has a constant viscosity in shear. The argument presented
above concerning the molecular configuration should be different here. One would
expect the molecule to be in a virtually fully stretched configuration even in the
quiescent state. Any attempt then to stretch the fluid would lead to strong
resistance, with a very rapid increase in the extensional viscosity. That such
behaviour leads to different flow patterns is confirmed in Fig. 8, which shows a
sequence of pictures with flowrate increasing from top to bottom, with the abrupt
corner on the left and the rounded corner on the right.
In the abrupt case, at the lowest flowrate, a large lip vortex is present which
grows as the flowrate is increased. Eventually, the growth becomes unstable and the
296 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285302

Re =0.0019

(4 (4

Re:=0.0022

(b)

Fig. 8. (a), (b), :k (0.

last picture shows that the flow has degenerated into a three-dimensional, unsteady
flow. Throughout the sequence, the outer surface of the vortex remains convex in
shape. In the rounded case, as observed earlier in the predictions of Fig. 3, the
comparable flow is quite different, starting with a small lip vortex near the round
corner, which grows and eventually fills the salient corner. Initially this leads to a
dividing streamline which bends in towards the salient corner, but then straightens,
 A. Baloch et al. I J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 297

Re=0.0041

Re=0.0053

(4 (h)
Fig. 8. Experimental visualisations of the flow of a 0.03% MGSOO/water/corn syrup solution for an
abrupt corner (on the left) and a round corner (on the right).

and eventually bows out away from that corner. Comparison of Fig. 8(a) and 8(h)
shows that the rounded case is now at the starting point observed for the abrupt
case. So again it is now clear that the rounding of the corner has introduced a delay
in the pattern of vortex formation, and now the lip vortex occurs sooner in the
rounded corner geometry.
298 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

To attempt to simulate these observations one must again make some assump-
tions about the rheological behaviour of the fluid. In this case, we have adopted the
extensional viscosity curves shown in Fig. 6(b), in which m = 100 and where, for
even quite small extension rates, the viscosity rises very rapidly to some large value.
The latter was chosen quite arbitrarily but, provided it is sufficiently large, the
actual value would seem to have little effect on the flow patterns computed.
Figure 9 shows the results of the calculations for both abrupt and rounded corner
cases at E = 1 and m = 100. In the former, a large lip vortex is observed, which
grows rapidly with an increase in flowrate. The shape of the vortex is exactly that
observed in the experiments. Obviously, the computations, which are two-dimen-
sional, cannot predict the eventual breakdown to a three-dimensional flow. In the
rounded case one sees an initial salient corner vortex which is overcome by the
growth of a lip vortex. A further increase in flowrate would eventually lead to a
configuration observed in the abrupt case at a lower flowrate. In view of the
extremely rough approximations made concerning the fluid behaviour, the com-
puter predictions are in very good qualitative agreement with the experiments.

Re=O.Ol

Re=0.03 e) v
-

Re=O.OS

Fig. 9. Numerical predictions for an abrupt comer (on the left) and a rounded comer (on the right),
E = 1 and m = 100.
 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 299

4.4. The efSect of inertia

The majority of experiments carried out on the abrupt contraction flow with a
sharp corner are said to be at very low inertia, with Reynolds numbers of unity or
less. One might expect that a Reynolds number of unity would have such a small
influence that it would make very little difference to the flow observed. However, in
an earlier paper [ 141 we attempted to investigate the development of vortices in a
plane contraction flow, using a Phan-Thien/Tanner constitutive model. Our initial
predictions, which were carried out at a Reynolds number of unity, indicated a
lip-vortex mechanism. This was in conflict with some work in the literature reported
under creeping flow conditions. Further investigation with our own code revealed
that, indeed, if inertial effects were removed the lip vortex mechanism disappeared.
The Phan-Thien/Tanner predictions introduced many different effects, some of
which might be conflicting. In the present study we only consider extensional effects
and inertia, which from the above would seem to be the dominant effects, and it is
useful therefore, in this simplified situation, to consider just how important small
amounts of inertia are.
Figure 10 shows two sequences of calculations for m = 5, on the left for a
Reynolds number of unity, and on the right for zero inertia. The value of We is
increased from top to bottom, which is a sequence which may be compared with
simulation data in the literature, but with difficulty with experimental results, since
E does not remain constant. What is clear from the figures, however, is that low
levels of inertia do play a significant role. In the vanishing inertia case, a corner
vortex is seen to grow in size monotonically, as We is increased. For the We value
of unity, however, although a salient corner vortex is present initially, a lip vortex
appears and grows to eventually swamp and eliminate the salient corner vortex. The
final state, when inertial effects are dominated by extensional effects, is, as one
would expect, the same for both rounded and abrupt corner cases.
On the accuracy of our solutions we include Table 1, which records numerical
values on two meshes employed for the sharp corner flow at m = 5 and E = 0.2, and
at unit flowrate. These particular instances are selected to illustrate precisely the
accuracy achieved in cases where lip and salient corner vortices are present. Here
we record the strength of the lip vortex, Il/iir, the stream function value on the
outermost contour of the eddy, I)~~,, and the incremental value of the stream
function, $inc. Also recorded are the pressure drops across the domain, the maximum
values of the extensional viscosities, ,+, and the position of the vortex centres given
in (z, r) format. We also include comparable flow patterns on both meshes in Fig.
11, Mesh M2 is a hierarchical h-refinement of Mesh Ml, based on the subdivision
of parent elements on midside nodes into four quadratic subelements.

5. Conclusions

This paper has investigated inertial and extensional effects in contraction flows. It
has been shown that a simple constitutive model which takes these effects into
300 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

We = 0.2

We = 0.5

We = 0.7

Fig. 10. Vortex development as a function of We in the presence of inertia (on the left, Re = 1) and
without inertia (on the right).

account, but ignores shear dependence and memory effects, is capable of quite
remarkable qualitative prediction of vortex development in contraction flows. With
such a model, it has been shown that the flow patterns one obtains for an abrupt
corner and a rounded corner can be quite different under the same flow conditions.
It was concluded that the rounding of the comer has the effect of delaying the
influence of strain-thickening until higher flowrates are reached. In comparison with
experimental data, the same simple model would seem capable of predicting the
main flow features for two quite different polymer systems, provided one makes
appropriate assumptions about the material response under extension. Finally, it
 A. Baloch et al. 1 J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302 301

Table 1
Mesh convergence data for various parameters for m = 5, E = 0.2 and Re = 1

Mesh Ml Mesh M2

?:,, 5.0 x 10-d

10-X 5.0 X 10-d
10-3

* 1°C 9.0 x 10-d 9.0 X 10-d

Pressure drop 826.9 826.93
Max pE 3.96 3.64
Vortex centre (29.807, 1.495) (29.744, 1.628)

Fig. 11. Comparison of the numerical streamlines obtained on the two meshes for an abrupt corner,
m=5, We=0.2andRe=l.

was shown that even quite small amounts of inertia can lead to computer predic-
tions of the flow which have significant differences from those where creeping flow
is assumed. In particular, a lip-vortex mechanism present in the former is absent
when inertia is neglected.

Acknowledgements

The authors are greatly indebted to Professor D.V. Boger and K. Walters for
suggesting this program of work, and particularly to Professor Boger for permission
to reproduce his experimental data.
302 A. Baloch et al. /J. Non-Newtonian Fluid Mech. 54 (1994) 285-302

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