CHAPTER THREE

COMPUTER AIDED
MANUFACTURING
 Introduction to NC and CNC
• CNC or Computer Numerical Control is a term
derived from NC or Numerical Control.
• NC refers to Control of a process or automatic
operation of a machine by using symbolic codes
consisting of characters and numbers.
 Computer Numerical Control
John T Parsons introduced NC
machine tools for which he was
awarded a patent titled motor
Controlled apparatus for
positioning machine tool control
(patent No: 2820187)

• NC was introduced in late 40’s to control machine

tools such as Drilling and Milling machines. One of
the first applications of NC machine tool was in
production of helicopter rotor blades and ship
propellers.
 Numerical Control
• Numerical control is a method of automatically
operating a manufacturing machine based on a
code of letters, numbers, and special characters.
• The numerical data required to produce a part is
provided to a machine in the form of a program,
called part program or CNC program.
• The program is translated into the appropriate
electrical signals for input to motors that run the
machine.
 NUMERICAL
DATA
(NC CODE)

NUMERICAL
MANUFACTURING CONTROLLER
OPERATOR
Drive Control

PROCESSED
PART

MACHINE UNIT
 Computer Numerical Control
• CNC controlled Lathes and Milling Machines constitute a
large percentage of CN machines.
• CNC are part of automation as it replaces manual effort
with computer controlled devices.
• CNC Control is used in other metal cutting machine tools
such as CNC grinding, CNC gear hobbing etc. and also in
EDM (Electric Discharge Machine) and Wire-cut EDM.
• CNC controls are used in many other manufacturing
processes such as punching, arc-welding etc. and also in
part inspection, electronic chip manufacturing, garment
manufacturing.
 Direct Numerical Control
• The main tasks performed by the
computer are to program and edit
part programs as well as download
part programs to NC machines.
• Machine tool controllers have
limited memory and a part program
may contain few thousands of
blocks
• So the program is stored in a
separate computer and sent
directly to the machine, one block
at a time.
 Hardware Configuration of NC Machine
Machine Control Unit (MCU)
the brain of the NC machine.
The Data Processing Unit (DPU)
reads the part program.
The Control Loop Unit (CLU)
controls the machine tool operation.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CNC MACHINE TOOLS
1. Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point or Continuous path
2. Based on Control Loops:
Open loop or Closed loop
3. Based on axis :
2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines.
4. Based on Power Supply:
Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic
5. Based on Positioning System
Incremental or Absolute
 Point-to-point systems
• It require that the cutter and the work piece be
placed at a certain fixed relative positions at
which they must remain while the cutter does
its work.
• Feed rates need not be programmed
• In theses machines tools, each axis is driven
separately
• Drilling, reaming, punching, boring and tapping
are examples of point-to-point operations.
Con…
 Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)
• Other type of machine tools involve motion of work
piece with respective to the cutter while cutting
operation is taking place.
• These machine tools include milling, routing
machines etc
• Feed rates should be programmed
• These machines require simultaneous control of
axes.
• In contouring machines, relative positions of the
work piece and the tool should be continuously
controlled.
Con…
 Open loop systems
• Programmed instructions are fed into the controller
through an input device
• These instructions are then converted to electrical
pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the servo
amplifier to energize the servo motors
• Drawback of the open-loop system is that there is no
feedback system to check whether the program
position and velocity has been achieved
• If the system performance is affected by load,
temperature, humidity, or lubrication then the actual
output could deviate from the desired output
 Open Loop System

Generally used in point-to-

point systems where the
accuracy requirements are
not critical.
 Closed Loop System
• AC, DC, and hydraulic servo-motors are used
• The speed of these motors are variable and controlled by
the amount of current or fluid.
• The motors are connect to the spindle and the table.
• A position sensor continuously monitors the movement
and sends back a signal to Comparator to make
adjustments.
• Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate
because they are capable of monitoring operating
conditions through feedback subsystems and
automatically compensating for any variations in real-
time
 Con…

The feedback system could be

either analog or digital. The analog
systems measure the variation of
physical variables such as position
and velocity in terms of voltage
levels. Digital systems monitor
output variations by means of
electrical pulses.
 2& 3 axis CNC machines
• CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes
machines
• The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the
bed (Z-axis)
• the cross slide moves transversely on the
saddle (along X-axis)
• In 3-axes machines, there will be one more axis,
perpendicular to the above two axes
• By the simultaneous control of all the 3 axes,
complex surfaces can be machined.
 Axes on a CNC lathe
•
Axes on a CNC milling machine
Machine Zero Point and Work part zero point on
CNC milling machine
Axes of CNC Machine Tool
 4 & 5 axes CNC machines

• 4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis

machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-
axis CNC tool path movements.
• A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y,
Z axes, the A axis which is rotary tilting of the
spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary
index table.
Five Axis CNC
 Importance of higher axes machining
• Reduced cycle time by machining complex
components using a single setup. In addition to
time savings
• Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting
the tool to maintain optimum tool to part
contact all the times.
• Improved access to under cuts and deep
pockets
• Higher axes machining has been widely used for
machining sculptures surfaces in aerospace and
automobile industry.
 Con…
• Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms
some form of energy to mechanical power which may be used
for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of machine
tool
• The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
❑ Electric systems
• Electric motors may be used for controlling both
positioning and contouring machines
• They may be either a.c. or d.c. motors and the torque
and direction of rotation needs to be controlled
❑ Hydraulic systems
• These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning
and contouring machine tools of all sizes
• These systems may be either in the form of rams or
motors
• Hydraulic motors are smaller than electric motors of
equivalent power
• The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that they can
be very small and have considerable torque.
 CNC Machines- How do they look like?

Servo Motors

Display Console Coolant

control
Slides Automated
Tool changer

Controller
Controller

Chip collection and

removal
 CNC Introduction

A numerical control
system in which the data
handling, control
sequences, and response
to input is determined by
an on-board computer
system at the machine
tool.
 Elements of CNC Machine
• A CNC machine consist of following 6 major
elements:
i. Input Device
ii. Machine Control Unit
iii. Machine Tool
iv. Driving System
v. Feedback Devices
vi. Display Unit
 ❑ Program Input Device
• The program input device is the means for part
program to be entered into the CNC control
• Three commonly used program input devices are
punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader, and
computer via RS-232-C communication
❑ Machine Control Unit
• The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a
CNC system. It is used to perform the following
functions:
 Con…
• Reads the coded instructions
• Decodes the coded instructions
• Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands
• Feeds the axis motion commands to the
amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms
• Receives the feedback signals of position and
speed for each drive axis
• Implement auxiliary control functions such as
coolant or spindle on/off and tool change
 ❑ Drive System
• A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors,
and ball lead-screws
• The MCU feeds the control signals (position and speed) of
each axis to the amplifier circuits
• The control signals are augmented to actuate drive motors
which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the
machine table
❑ Machine Tool
• CNC controls are used to control various types of machine
tools
• Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it
always has a slide table and a spindle to control of position
and speed
• The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while
the spindle runs along the Z axis.
 ❑ Feed Back System
• The feedback system is also referred to as the
measuring system.
• It uses position and speed transducers to
continuously monitor the position at which the
cutting tool is located at any particular instant.
• The MCU uses the difference between
reference signals and feedback signals to
generate the control signals for correcting
position and speed errors.
 ❑ Part Program
• A part program is a series of coded
instructions required to produce a part.
• It controls the movement of the machine
tool and on/off control of auxiliary
functions such as spindle rotation and
coolant.
• The coded instructions are composed of
letters, numbers and symbols
 Basic Concept of Part Programming
➢ Part programming contains geometric data about the part and motion
information to move the cutting tool with respect to the work piece
➢ Basically, the machine receives instructions as a sequence of blocks
containing commands to set machine parameters; speed, feed and other
relevant information
➢ A block is equivalent to a line of codes in a part program.

Sequence and format of words:

N3 G2 X+1.4 Y+1.4 Z+1.4 I1.4 J1.4 K1.4 F3.2 S4 T4 M2

sequence no destination coordinates tool

dist to center of circle
spindle speed
preparatory function
feed rate
miscellaneous function
 Common Format of a Block

Sequence Preparatory Dimension Feed Spindle Tool Misc.

# Function Words Rate Function Function Function

N50 G90 G01 X1.40Y2.25 F10 S1500 T01 M03

Individual Words
 Basic Concept of Part Programming
Preparatory command (G code)
The G codes prepare the MCU for a given operation, typically
involving a cutter motion.
G00 rapid motion, point-to-point positioning
G01 linear interpolation (generating a sloped or straight cut)
G02 Circular movement (CW)
G03 Circular movement (CCW)
G06 parabolic interpolation (produces a segment of a parabola)
G17 X-Y plane selection milling
G18 selection of x-z plane in milling
G19 selection of y-z plane in milling
G20 circular interpolation
 Con…

G28 automatic return to reference point

G32 thread cutting
G90 programming in absolute coordinates
G91 programming in incremental coordinates
G94 specify feed per minute in milling and drilling
G95 specify feed per revolution in milling and drilling
G98 specify feed per minute in turning
G99 specify feed per revolution in turning
 Basic Concept of Part Programming
Miscellaneous commands (M code)
M00 program stop
M01 optional program
M03 start spindle rotation (cw)
M04 start spindle in counter clockwise
M05 spindle stop
M06 tool change
M07 turn coolant on
M09 turn coolant off
M10 Automatic clamping of fixture
M11 Automatic unclamping
M30 End of program. Machine stop.
 Basic Concept of Part Programming
Feed commands (F code)
Used to specify the cutter feed rates in inch per
minute.
Speed commands (S code)
Used to specify the spindle speed in rpm.

Tool commands (T code)

Specifies which tool to be used, machines with
automatic tool changer.
 Programming Key Letters
• O - Program number (Used for program identification)
• N - Sequence number (Used for line identification)
• G - Preparatory function
• X - X axis designation
• Y - Y axis designation
• Z - Z axis designation
• R - Radius designation
• F – Feed rate designation
• S - Spindle speed designation
• H - Tool length offset designation
• D - Tool radius offset designation
• T - Tool Designation
• M - Miscellaneous function
Block diagram of CNC Machine
 Advantages & Disadvantages of CNC

❑ Advantage
• CNC machines can be used continuously and only
need to be switched off for occasional maintenance.
• These machines require less skilled people to
operate unlike manual lathes / milling machines etc
• CNC machines can be updated by improving the
software used to drive the machines Training for the
use of CNC machines can be done through the use of
‘virtual software’.
• The manufacturing process can be simulated virtually
and no need to make a prototype or a model. This
saves time and money.
 Con…

• Once programmed, these machines can be left

and do not require any human intervention,
except for work loading and unloading
• These machines can manufacture several
components to the required accuracy without
any fatigue as in the case of manually
operated machines
• Savings in time that could be achieved with
the CNC machines are quite significant.
❑ Disadvantage
• CNC machines are generally more expensive than
manually operated machines
• The CNC machine operator needs basic training
and skills, to supervise several machines
• Increase in electrical maintenance, high initial
investment and high per hour operating costs
than the traditional systems
• Fewer workers are required to operate CNC
machines compared to manually operated
machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead
to unemployment.
 Manual Part Programming
To be able to create a part program manually, need the
following information :
• Knowledge about various manufacturing processes and
machines
• Sequence of operations to be performed for a given
component
• Knowledge of the selection of cutting parameters
• Editing the part program according to the design
changes
• Knowledge about the codes and functions used in part
programs
 ❑ Spindle Function
• The spindle speed is commanded under an S
address and is always in revolution per
minute. It can be calculated by the following
formula

❑ Tool Function
• The selection of tool is commanded under a T
address. T04 represents tool number 4.
 ❑ Feed Function
• The feed is programmed under an F address except for
rapid traverse
• The unit may be in mm per minute or in mm per
revolution
• The unit of the federate has to be defined at the
beginning of the program
• The feed rate can be calculated by the following formula
 Circular Interpolation

CW Interpolation CCW Interpolation

Absolute (G90) vs. Incremental (G91) Positioning
❑ Incremental program locations are always given
as the distance and direction from the
immediately preceding point
❑ Absolute program locations are always given
from a single fixed zero or origin point
✓ The zero or origin point may be a position on the
machine table, such as the corner of the
worktable or at any specific point on the work
piece
 absolute
positioning

Incremental
positioning
 CNC machine tools & programming

25

x
15
 CNC machine tools & programming

30
25

x
15
 CNC machine tools & programming

Absolute Mode

6 N1 G90

y N2 G01 X45 Y31

30
25

x
15
 CNC machine tools & programming

Absolute Mode

6 N1 G90

y N2 G01 X45 Y31

Incremental Mode

30 N1 G91
25
N2 G01 X30 Y6
x
15
 CNC Programming
G02 Circular Movement (Clockwise)
Y
Absolute Mode
G02 X34 Y0 R 24

Incremental Mode
G02 X24 Y-24 R 24
10

24

(0, 0) X
 CNC Programming
G03 Circular Movement (Counter Clockwise)
Y
Absolute Mode
G03 X10 Y24 R24

Incremental Mode
10 G03 X-24 Y24 R24
24

(0, 0) X
Spindle
On/Off

Vice Open/Close

E-stop

60
1- Machine Home
2- Reference Point

62
3. Set position

63
4- Run

64
Sample Example
Manual Part Programming Example

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Tool size = 0.25 inch,

5” Feed rate = 6 inch per minute,
Cutting speed = 300 rpm,
Tool start position: 2.0, 2.0
Programming in inches
45°

(4, 4)
p1 Motion of tool:
p0 → p1 → p2 → p3 → p4 → p5 → p1 → p0
p0 (2, 2)
 1. Set up the programming parameters

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Programming in inches
5”
Use absolute coordinates

Feed in ipm
45°
N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04
(4, 4)
p1
Spindle speed in rpm
p0 (2, 2)
Spindle CCW
 2. Set up the machining conditions

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”
Machine moves in XY-plane

Use full-circle interpolation

5”
Feed rate

Spindle speed
45°
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
(4, 4)
p1
Tool no.
p0 (2, 2)
Flood coolant ON
 3. Move tool from p0 to p1 in straight line

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

Linear interpolation
1”
target coordinates

5” N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698

45°

(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
 4. Cut profile from p1 to p2

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Linear interpolation

5” target coordinates

N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125

45°
or
(4, 4)
p1 N040 G01 Y9.125

p0 (2, 2)

X-coordinate does not change ➔ no need to program it

 5. Cut profile from p2 to p3

5”
2.5”
p2 p3
p4
p5 Linear interpolation

target coordinates
1”

N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125

5”

y = 9 + 0.125 = 9.125
(6.5 - x)2 + 0.1252 = (1 - 0.125)2
x = 5.634
45° p3
(x, y)
(4, 4)
p1 (6.5, 9)
.125

p0 (2, 2)

1”
 6. Cut along circle from p3 to p4

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

circular interpolation, CCW motion

5”
target coordinates

45° N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I6.5 J9.0

(4, 4) coordinates of center of circle

p1

p0 (2, 2)
 7. Cut from p4 to p5

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”

Linear interpolation

45° target coordinates (Y is unchanged)

(4, 4) N070 G01 X9.302

p1

p0 (2, 2)
 8. Cut from p5 to p1

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”
Linear interpolation

target coordinates (see step 3)

45°
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
 9. Return to home position, stop program

5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”
Linear interpolation

5” target coordinates (see step 3)

N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30

45°
end of data
(4, 4)
N100 M00
p1

p0 (2, 2) program stop

 PART PROGRAM FOR LATHE OPERATION
• The CNC lathe operation such as simple facing, turning, taper turning,
thread, boring, parting off etc. The X-axis and Z-axis are taken as the
direction of transverse motion of the tool post and the axis of the spindle
respectively. To prepare part programs using G-codes and M-codes. The
following examples illustrated the part program for different components
•
Con…
Con…
Example 2. taper turning
Con…