EC410: Electronic Measurements

Lecture (1):
Introduction to Measurement Systems

Lecturer: Dr. Azza Kamal

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Instructors

Lecturer: Azza Kamal

e-mail: kamal.mahdy.azza@gmail.com
azza.kamal@aast.edu

Teaching Assistant: Salsabil Saied, Salma Abdelwaab

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Grading System

• 7th Week Exam out of 15 points +5 points (Section) + 10 points (Lab).

• 12th Week Evaluation out of 10 points + 5 points (Section) + 5 points

(Lab).

• Pre-Final Grades out of 10 points (Lab Project and report).

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References

1- Prithwiraj, Budhaditya, Santanu, and Chiranjib“Electrical and

Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation” 2013, McGraw Hill
Education (India) Private Limited. (Ch.1, Ch.9, Ch.11, Ch.13, and Ch.14).

2- Data acquisition Handbook, Published 2012 in the United States of

America.

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Course Objective
• This course aims at bridging traditional concepts with
modern technologies of electrical and electronics
measurements and instrumentation, as well as to be
introduced to several applications.

How?!

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Analytical Thinking: Problem solving

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 Course Outline

Modules Topic Lectures Week #

1 Introduction to Measurement systems, concept, andnerrors 1 1
2 Signal generators and Oscillators 2 2-3
3 Sensors and Transducers 3 4-5
4 Signal Conditioning 1 6
5 Data Acquisition 2 8-9
6 Noise reduction and isolation 1 10
7 Introduction to Internet of Things (IoT) Systems: 4 11,13,14
- IoT Technologies and protocols
- Design Methodology
- Data Analytics

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Outline
• Concept of Measurement Systems

• Methods of Measurements

• Measurement Systems and Its Elements

• How to evaluate a measurand

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Concept of Measurement Systems
• Definition of Measurement
Process:
It is the act, or the result, of a
quantitative comparison between a
given quantity and a quantity of
the same kind chosen as a unit.

• What is meant by a standard?

A standard is defined as the
physical personification of the unit
of measurement or its submultiple
or multiple values
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 Methods of Measurement
Approaches to measure unknown quantities:

Direct Indirect
• The value of the unknown quantity is
• The unknown quantity is measured determined by measuring the functionally
directly instead of comparing it with a related quantity and calculating the
standard. desired quantity rather than measuring it
directly
• Ex: current by ammeter, voltage by
voltmeter..etc • Ex: R= V/I

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 Measurement Standard
• Any time you measure anything, you are comparing it to something
whose value you think you know. You assume your ruler is 1 ft long.
But who says what a foot is?

• A combination of several international agencies are responsible for

maintaining the primary standard measures of various quantities.

• The standard kilogram and the standard second are maintained by

the French. Others are kept elsewhere. It extremely important that
these standards do not change with time, even over hundreds of
years. 11
• International measurement standards are standards
recognized by an international agreement to serve
internationally as the basis for assigning values to other
standards of the quantity concerned.

• The oldest standard in use today is the

International Prototype of the Kilogram, kept at the
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) in
Sevres.

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What is the meaning of
instrument calibration?
The calibration of a measuring instrument lets us know
how far off the measurement on the instrument is from
the real value of what we are measuring.

This is done by comparing the measurements from the

instrument to a known value of what we are measuring. We
also know how uncertain this measurement is.

Calibration is not the same as meter verification or

adjustment. Verification is when you check to see if the
instrument meets certain requirements. For example, you
might do this to see if a measuring system works the way it
is supposed to.

Adjustment is when you change the readings on a

measuring device so it corresponds to the real value of
what you are measuring. This is usually done after
calibration.

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What is the adjustment of a measuring system?
Calibration meaning is often confused with the adjustment of a
measuring system. The adjustment is a set of operations that are
done on a measuring system so that it provides the correct
measurements for the quantity you want to measure. After an
adjustment of a measuring system, the measuring system must
usually be recalibrated.

What are calibration verification and validation?

Calibration verification is the confirmation that performance
properties or legal requirements of a measuring system fulfill
specified requirements. Not every verification is a validation.
Calibration validation is a verification process that ensures the
specified requirements are adequate for the intended use.

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Why do calibrations need to be done?

• The four most common reasons why calibrations are necessary are:

• To ensure accuracy and consistency, metrological traceability must be

established and demonstrated.
• To ensure readings from the instrument are consistent with other
measurements, it is important to calibrate the device before taking any
readings.
• To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings, you need to take
into account any potential sources of error.
• To ensure that the instrument is reliable, i.e., that its results can be
trusted.

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What is a calibrator?
A calibrator is a measurement standard used in
calibration. A calibrator is often used as a
reference to measure other quantities of the
same kind. This helps to establish values and
measurement uncertainties.

What are the first 3 types of calibration?

• Different Types of Calibration
• Pressure Calibration.
• Temperature Calibration. ...
• Flow Calibration. ...
• Pipette Calibration. ...
• Electrical calibration. ...
• Mechanical calibration.

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1-Pressure Calibration
• Pressure calibration is a key function across multiple industries where measurement equipment is used to
monitor process performance and safety, typically measuring gas and hydraulic pressure.

• Nowadays, many companies are certified to quality standards such as the ISO9000. There are
numerous quality procedures in order to maintain quality standards, and because many
industrial processes rely on the measurement of pressure, pressure calibration plays an
important part in company’s quality assurance.

• A few examples of pressure instruments that are regularly calibrated are:

➢ Digital Pressure Gauges

➢ Digital Indicators

➢ Transducers

➢ Transmitters

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 2. Temperature Calibration
❑ In all processed where temperature readings have a critical role, temperature calibration are
conducted and are carried out in a controlled environment.
In the process of temperature calibration, thermistors, thermocouples or Platinum
resistance thermometers (PRTs), also called resistance temperature devices (RTDs) are
usually used.
❑ A temperature calibration can only be performed by comparing a known standard, in a stable
temperature environment to the probe being tested.

A few examples of equipment that require temperature calibration on a periodic basis are:

Data Acquisition Systems

Thermometers/Thermocouples

Dial Thermometers

Chambers/Furnaces
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Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system /
instrument:

a) Ruggedness

b) Linearity

d) Repeatability

e) High output signal quality

f) High reliability and stability

g) Good dynamic response

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Measurement Systems and Its Elements

Gnereally…

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Measurement Systems and Its Elements
The main functional elements:
Primary sensing element Signal conditioning element Data transmission element

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Primary sensing element

• A transducer is defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. The
output of the sensor and detector element employed for measuring a quantity could be in different
analogous form.

• This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. This is true of most of the cases
but is not true for all. In many cases, the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical
quantity by a detector transducer. The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector
transducer stage.

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Signal conditioning element
• The output signal of transducers contains information which is further processed by the system.
• Many transducers develop usually a voltage or some other kind of electrical signal and quite often the signal developed is
of very low voltages, may be of the order of mV.
Problem
• This signal could be contaminated by unwanted signals like noise due to an extraneous source which may interfere with
the original output signal.
• Another problem is that the signal could also be distorted by processing equipment itself. If the signal after being sensed
contains unwanted contamination or distortion, there is a need to remove the interfering noise / sources before its
transmission to next stage. Otherwise we may get highly distorted results which are far from its true value.
Solution
• The solution to these problems is to prevent or remove the signal contamination or distortion.
• The operations performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is called Signal Conditioning.
• The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation.
• Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as, amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation,
addition and subtraction.
• Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation, filtering, clipping, etc.
• The signal conditioning processes are performed on the signal … why??to bring it to the desired form for further
transmission to next stage in the system. 24
Variable conversion element
• The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any
kind. It could be a mechanical or electrical signal. It may be a
deflection of elastic member or some electrical parameter,
such as, voltage, frequency etc.

• Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the

measurement system.

• For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be

necessary to convert this output signal from the sensor to
some other suitable form while preserving the information
content of the original signal.

• For example, suppose the output from the sensing element is

in the form of very small displacement which is difficult to
measure mechanically, it is converted in to corresponding
electrical signal with the help of transducer called stain gauge
for further processing.

• Also if the output at one stage is analogue form and the next
stage of the system accepts input signal only in digital form.
In such cases, we will have to use as Analogue /Digital
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converter.
Data transmission element
• There are several situations where the elements
of an instrument are actually physically
separated.
• In such situations it becomes necessary to
transmit data from one element to another.
• The element that performs this function is called
a Data Transmission Element.
• For example satellites or the air planes are
physically separated from the control stations at
earth. For guiding the movements of satellites or
the air planes control stations send the radio by a
complicated telemetry systems.
• The signal conditioning and transmission stage is
commonly known as Intermediate Stage. The telemetry consists of
sensors for pressure,
A telemeter is a physical device used in telemetry. It
temperature,
consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a
display, recording, or control device. Electronic and humidity and a wireless
devices are widely used in telemetry and can be transmitter to return the
wireless or hard-wired, analog or digital. captured
data to an aircraft. 26
Data presentation element
• The information conveyed must be in a convenient form. In
case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed.
• In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic
tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equipment; storage type
C.R.T., printers, analogue and digital computers may be
used
• For control and analysis purpose computers and the control
elements are used.
• The final stage in a measurement system is known as
terminating stage.

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..Let’s get into the blocks of a measurement process..

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Example of a complete measurement system:
Functional Elements of a Clinical Thermometer
let us consider the simple clinical thermometer shown in Figure
• The thermometer bulb containing mercury acts as the primary sensing
element as well as a variable conversion element.
• It senses the input quantity, the temperature.
• On account of the increase in temperature the mercury in bulb expands
and its volume is increased.
• The temperature signal is converted into volume displacement.
• As the mercury expands it move through the capillary tube in the
thermometer stem, integrated to the bulb.
• The cross section area of the capillary being constant, the volume signal is
thus converted into linear distance signal.
• The capillary thus has the role of signal manipulation and data
transportation elements.
• The final data presentation stage consists of the scale on the thermometer
stem, which is calibrated to give the indication of the temperature signal
applied to the thermometer bulb.
• A restriction bend is provided in the clinical thermometers at the junction
of the bulb and the capillary, which does not allow the back flow of
mercury to the bulb once it has expanded to the capillary. Thus the
restriction in the capillary acts as the data storage function of the
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instrument.
 How to evaluate a measurand?
• Data taken in experiments are not perfect because the accuracy of the data depends on
the accuracy of the test equipment and the conditions under which the measurement was
made.

• In order to properly report measured data, the error associated with the measurement
should be taken into account.

• The difference between the true or best-accepted value of some quantity and the
measured value is the error

When to consider a measurand as an accurate value!?

A measurement is said to be accurate if the error is small.

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Accuracy
❑Definition:
The ability of an instrument to measure the accurate value is known as accuracy. In other words, it
is the closeness of the measured value to a standard or true value.
• Accuracy is obtained by taking small readings.
• The small reading→ reduces the error of the calculation.

❑The accuracy of the system is classified into three types as follows:

1) Point Accuracy
• The accuracy of the instrument only at a particular point on its scale is known as point accuracy. It is
important to note that this accuracy does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
instrument.
2) Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range
• The uniform scale range determines the accuracy of a measurement.
Example:
Consider a thermometer having the scale range up to 500ºC. The thermometer has an accuracy of ±0.5,
i.e. ±0.5 percent of increase or decrease in the value of the instrument is negligible. But if the reading
is more or less than 0.5ºC, it is considered a high-value error.
3)Accuracy as Percentage of True Value
• Such type of accuracy of the instruments is determined by identifying the measured value regarding
their true value. The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to ±0.5 percent from the true31 value.
Precision
❑Definition:
• The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as the precision
of a substance.
• If you weigh a given substance five times and get 3.2 kg each time, then your
measurement is very precise but not necessarily accurate.
❑ Precision is independent of accuracy.
The below example will tell you about how you can be precise but not accurate and
vice versa.

❑ Precision is sometimes separated into:

• Repeatability
• The variation arising when the conditions are kept identical and repeated
measurements are taken during a short time period.
• Reproducibility
• The variation arises using the same measurement process among different
instruments and operators, and over longer time periods.
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Example: How to describe the measured values
To sum up…

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Errors in Measurement - Absolute Error and Relative Error
❑Definition:
• The errors in measurement are a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement.
• It is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were
measuring.

• Any measurement that you make is just an approximation, 100% accuracy is not possible.
• If you measure the same object two different times, the two measurements may not be exactly the
same.

• The difference between the two measurements is called a variation in the measurements.
• This variation introduces an unwanted but unavoidable uncertainty in our measurement.

• This uncertainty is called the Errors in measurement. This ‘error’ should not be confused with a
‘mistake’.
• Error, unlike mistake, does not mean that you got the wrong answer. It just means you didn’t get as close
to the true value as possible.
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How to find errors in measurement
Tolerance/ Margin of Error
• Error in measurement may be represented by a tolerance (margin of error).
• Machines used in manufacturing often set tolerance intervals or ranges in
which product measurements will be tolerated or accepted before they are
considered flawed.
❑Tolerance refers to the greatest range of variation that can be allowed or is
acceptable and it is one half of the precision of an instrument. So to obtain the
range, we add and subtract one half of the precision of measuring instruments.

❑Example: if a ruler has to measure an object of which has a length of 5.4 cm

and it measures this with a precision of 0.1 cm. This gives a tolerance interval
in this measurement is 5.4 ± 0.05 cm, or from 5.35 cm to 5.45 cm. Any
measurements within this range are “tolerated” or perceived as correct.
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Absolute Error
• Definition: Absolute error in measurement refers to the actual amount of error
in the measurement.

• The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is.

• Absolute error is inadequate due to the fact that it does not give any details
regarding the importance or the graveness of the error.

• Absolute Error can be represented by the expression:

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Relative Error
❑ Relative error represents the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted
measurement.
• This way we can determine the magnitude of the absolute error in terms of the actual size
of the measurement.
• If the true measurement of the object is not known then the relative error is found using the
measured value.
• The expression for relative error is:

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Significant Digits

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How to determine the number of significant figures

• The rules for determining if a reported digit is significant are

1. Nonzero digits are always considered to be significant.
2. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are never significant.
3. Zeros between nonzero digits are always significant.
4. Zeros to the right of the decimal point for a decimal number are significant
5. Zeros to the left of the decimal point with a whole number may or may not be
significant depending on the measurement.

Example:
the number 12,100 Ω can have three, four, or five significant digits. To clarify the
significant digits, scientific notation (or a metric prefix) should be used. For example,
12.10 kΩ has four significant digits
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Example:

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Example:

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