ZDM – Mathematics Education (2021) 53:695–707

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-021-01233-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Multivariable calculus results in different countries

Rafael Martínez‑Planell1   · Maria Trigueros2

Accepted: 27 January 2021 / Published online: 7 February 2021

© FIZ Karlsruhe 2021

Abstract
In this paper we present the results of a survey of research studies on the learning of multivariable calculus in a wide geo-
graphic spectrum. The goal of this study is to describe what research results tell us about students’ learning of calculus of
two-variable functions, and how they inform its teaching. In spite of the diversity of cultures and theoretical approaches,
results obtained are coherent and similar in terms of students’ learning, and of teaching strategies designed to help students
understand two-variable calculus deeply. Results show the need to introduce students to the geometry of three-dimensional
space and vectors, the importance of the use of graphics and geometrical representations, and of thorough work on func-
tions before introducing other calculus topics. The reviewed research deals in different ways with the idea of generalization
concerning how students’ knowledge of one-variable calculus influences their understanding of multivariable calculus. Some
research-based teaching strategies that have been experimentally tested with good results are included. Results discussed
include the following: basic aspects of functions of two variables, limits, differential calculus, and integral calculus. The
survey shows that there is still a need for research using different theoretical perspectives, on the transition from one-variable
calculus to two-variable and multivariable calculus.

Keywords  Multivariable calculus · Functions of two variables · Differential calculus · Integral calculus

1 Introduction itself. He insisted on the importance of a geometric interpre-

Research on the teaching and learning of one-variable cal-
culus has received much attention in mathematics education
research. Multivariable and other types of functions have
received less attention although they prevail in real word
phenomena and are needed in a wide range of engineering
and social sciences applications. As multivariable calculus
offers tools to understand such phenomena, it is indispensa-
ble in the study of many disciplines. What is known about
this topic?
The earliest papers we found that deal directly with mul-
tivariable functions were by Tall (1992a) and Yerushalmy
(1997). Tall discussed the benefits of introducing a geomet-
ric interpretation of the total differential of two-variable
functions without problematizing the notion of function
* Rafael Martínez‑Planell
rafael.martinez13@upr.edu
1
University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, Mayagüez,
Puerto Rico
2
Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Mexico City,
Mexico
tation of planes in three-dimensional (3D) space for students
to understand the differential calculus of functions in space.
Yerushalmy (1997) described the generalization of the
notion of real variable function to a two-variable function
by seventh grade students who worked on a modelling situ-
ation requiring these functions and their rate of change. Her
results addressed issues such as how to establish depend-
ency relations in problem situations involving three chang-
ing quantities, how to produce graphical representations of
functions of two variables and how to generalize tabular
representations. She concluded that relations between geo-
metrical and algebraic representations of two-variable func-
tions play a central role in generalization. These two early
papers influenced later developments.
These studies and others related indirectly to multivari-
able functions, have stressed the need to include spatial
geometry and spatial reasoning through school curricula,
and a more comprehensive study of vectors in high school,
in order to ease the transition to university calculus. How-
ever, although the understanding of space geometry and
spatial reasoning is important for development and action
in the world, as of 2006 they had received little attention

13
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696
in high school curricula and in research (NRC 2006). The
importance of these topics has since begun to be recog-
nized by researchers. Results have shown that high school
and university students evidence difficulties in constructing
justifications and arguments when 3D figures and their prop-
erties are involved, and that they frequently show confusion
between surface area and volume and struggle with partition
and iteration of 3D objects (e.g., Newcombe, 2010; Sandoval
& Possani 2016). Studies including the use of technology
report that digital simulations of 3D environments can help
students to identify and differentiate between 3D objects,
their properties, and their representations, but are insuffi-
cient in helping them to reason about them (e.g., Pittalis and
Christou 2010).
In the last fifteen years research on students’ learning of
two-variable functions has received the attention of several
researchers around the globe. Presenting a critical survey on
the results obtained from research on two-variable functions
and multivariable calculus can be helpful to high school and
university calculus teachers and also to mathematics educa-
tion researchers, not only to promote the consideration of
fundamental geometrical and algebraic aspects that should
be discussed earlier in students’ education, but also to make
teachers aware of students’ needs when they study more
advanced calculus courses.
In this paper we analyze results obtained so far and offer
readers a state of the art account of literature about teaching
and learning of multivariable calculus. Researchers can find
in this paper a useful guide to select topics needing attention
or that can be studied from other perspectives. Results may
also be of interest to teachers who can reflect on didactic
strategies suggested or design their own.
2 Method
We conducted a rigorous and actualized literature review on
the learning and teaching of multivariable calculus, particu-
larly of two-variable functions. To do so we systematically
consulted the databases Mathematics Education Database,
Science Direct, SCOPUS, OJS, JSTOR; we focused on all
results published in the main international mathematics edu-
cation research journals, in research books, and doctoral the-
ses published in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese
from 1980 to 2020, while also considering the references
cited in each of these works. We are aware that there can
be research studies in other languages such as German or
Italian, among others, that we do not understand; however,
we did search for references in different languages in those
papers we reviewed and did not find any other studies rel-
evant to multivariable calculus. At the end of this process,
we had identified 135 papers.
13
R. Martínez‑Planell, M. Trigueros
The authors of this paper read and summarized all the
collected materials described above. Summaries were first
discussed in terms of the papers’ contribution to mathemat-
ics education research. This led to the exclusion of some
papers whose contribution was not considered to be suffi-
cient in this regard, or that were judged not to address didac-
tical research. We decided not to include references to arti-
cles published in conference proceedings, in order to make
sure that the results reported had been rigorously reviewed,
and that conclusions obtained throughout the entire review
were reliable. We also excluded papers describing teach-
ing experiences or the use of specific software or other
technology that may be interesting, but in which results
obtained were not analyzed in depth, and PhD theses that
had already been published in papers that complied with the
selection criteria. The literature found was then organized
and classified according to the calculus topic studied. The
categories that emerged coincide with the sections of this
paper, namely, basic aspects of functions of two variables,
multivariable limits, multivariable differential calculus,
and multivariable integral calculus. Further subdivision of
these categories was done by topic when it helped clarify the
exposition. We then excluded a few papers that dealt with
topics for which there were only one or two publications.
We ended up with 51 papers that complied with the crite-
ria. All these papers are included in the reference section.
For each paper selected within a topic, main characteristics
such as theoretical framework and methodological approach,
main results and contributions, were discussed and negoti-
ated by the authors of this paper based on their importance
and pertinence. Then papers were organized and compared
in terms of their findings related to the teaching and learn-
ing of different two-variable calculus topics at university
level. Findings obtained were finally organized in the results
section by topic, considering our interest to give readers a
useful perspective on knowledge on the teaching and learn-
ing of two-variable functions, and according to our inter-
est in responding to the following two questions: what does
research say about students’ learning of two or more variable
functions and their calculus? Based on their results, what are
researchers’ suggestions about teaching multivariable func-
tions and their calculus with meaning? We aim to present a
panorama of what is known so far about students’ learning
of multivariable calculus and what teachers can do to make
their experience richer.
3 Research on basic aspects of functions
of two variables
Knowledge about two-variable functions is constructed
on previous notions of one-variable functions. Generally,
research results about the learning of two-variable functions
Multivariable calculus results in different countries 697
are contrary to the common teachers’ belief that it is a seam-
less generalization of previously learned calculus concepts.
Evidence shows instead the many complexities involved
when introducing students to this new type of functions.
3.1 Students understanding of three‑dimensional
space and two‑variable functions
Research shows different ways to proceed when using knowl-
edge on one-variable functions to introduce two-variable
functions. One approach considers that in order to examine
the global behavior of a given two-variable function, one
may keep one of the variables fixed, examine the resulting
one-variable function, and then repeat this procedure let-
ting the previously fixed variable change. Geometrically, this
is equivalent to looking at the intersection of fundamental
planes (these are planes of the form x = c, y = c, or z = c)
with a surface and then, while changing the constant c, con-
sidering the intersection of parallel planes with the surface
representing the function. In this approach, fundamental
planes enable the generalization from one-variable to two-
variable functions. Trigueros and Martínez-Planell (2010)
underscored fundamental planes in a study conducted in
México and Puerto Rico. When analyzing conceptions about
two-variable functions manifested by 13 students who had
finished a multivariable course in Mexico or Puerto Rico,
they found that some of them had not conceptualized their
experiential 3D space, where they live and move, as a 3D
coordinate system, and, consequently, had difficulties with
locating curves in their corresponding fundamental planes
in 3D space. When presented with expressions such as x = 4
in a 3D context, some students considered it as a number
to be used in a procedure or as a point, but not as a plane
where variables y and z are free to vary. That is, they did
not think of y and z as unnamed variables in a presumed 3D
context. Indeed, some of them did not show awareness of
what a fundamental plane could mean in the experiential
world and could not represent them using a physical manipu-
lative for 3D coordinate space, as described by McGee et al.
(2012). Trigueros and Martínez-Planell (2010) also observed
students’ tendency to consider that substitution of a value
for a variable in z = f (x, y) (for example, substituting c for
x) results in a curve located on the coordinate plane cor-
responding to the two variables that are left (in this case, y
and z), instead of a curve that by necessity must lie on the
corresponding fundamental plane (as soon as one substi-
tutes c for x, the context reduces to that of the fundamental
plane x = c , so the curve is located there). In other words,
students tend to confuse a transversal section with its pro-
jection on the corresponding coordinate plane. This has an
effect when students are to graph a function of two-variables
z = f (x, y) , since they must be able to imagine the successive
substitution of values, for example x = c , as resulting in
curves placed at the successive appropriate locations.
Fundamental planes may also be used to graph cylinders
(surfaces in 3D space described by an equation involving
only two variables), leading to coherence of a surface graph-
ing schema and to further understanding of fundamental
planes, as this idea is used throughout multivariable calcu-
lus, beyond the graphing of functions. Indeed, in a second
cycle of research, Martínez-Planell and Trigueros (2013)
found that students tended to draw the intersection of the
cylinder z = x2 with the fundamental plane y = 1 on the XZ
plane rather than on the plane y = 1 . However, as shown by
Martínez-Planell and Trigueros (2019) in a third research
cycle, after using specifically designed activity sets, students
were able to think of fundamental planes as 2D geometric
contexts within 3D space, which helped them in drawing
graphs of surfaces.
Results discussed so far suggest the need to help students
construct an ­R3 schema with fundamental planes as objects,
and processes enabling them to decide on the appropriate
geometric context (1D, 2D, or 3D, including 1D or 2D con-
texts within 3D—as in the case of lines and fundamental
planes in space) to interpret an open statement (equation in
several variables).
Trigueros and Martínez-Planell (2010) also highlighted
the need to help students make conversions between ver-
bal and geometric representation (Duval 2006), since some
commonly used expressions related to movement, such as
‘cut the surface with a plane’ and ‘lift the curve’, may elicit
in students a different meaning than that intended by the
instructor. Şefik and Dost (2020) found the same result in
a replication of the Trigueros and Martínez-Planell (2010)
study in Turkey. These results can be related to spatial rea-
soning abilities, communication and mathematical represen-
tation skills in 3D space. Teachers expect students to have
constructed these skills through their everyday experience,
but research results show this is not always the case. It is
thus desirable to help students to imagine surfaces and inter-
sections while explicitly constructing the meaning of com-
mon language related to transformations of objects in space.
Other researchers considered different strategies based on
generalization of one-variable function ideas. Kabael (2011),
in Turkey, used the ‘function machine’ as a cognitive root,
together with attention to conversions between represen-
tations, to help students generalize their understanding of
one-variable functions to the 3D context. Her observations
suggest that this approach helped students think of two-var-
iable functions as a generalized input–output process, which
is independent of representation. As observed by Oehrt-
man, Carlson and Thompson (2008) in the USA, these are
some characteristic of a process conception of two-variable
functions, together with dynamic imagery resulting from
13

698
covariational thinking. Oehrtman et al. went on to suggest
how students may consider graphs of two-variable functions.
Expanding on these ideas, Weber and Thompson (2014)
in the USA studied how students’ understandings of graphs
of one-variable functions influenced their generalization to
graphs of two-variable functions, and the role that covari-
ational reasoning may play in this generalization. Consid-
ering two-variable functions, Weber and Thompson pro-
posed a hypothetical learning trajectory (HLT) based on
covariational reasoning, to help students imagine the graph
as the result of thinking of different variables (x, y, z) as
parameters that may be used to sweep out a curve along the
axis perpendicular to the corresponding coordinate plane.
Although using a different theoretical framework, their
strategy is related to the work by Trigueros and Martínez-
Planell (2010) as it requires dynamic imagery of how curves
in space, obtained by setting a variable equal to a constant,
change as the constant changes, or equivalently, the intersec-
tion curves change as the fundamental plane in which they
live moves.
Several authors analyzed students’ generalization of the
notions of domain and range from the one-variable to the
two-variable function context. Kabael (2011) found that
some students considered that the domain of a two-variable
function consisted of ordered triples, which suggests that the
domain of a two-variable function and its representation in
­R3 needs specific attention. Martínez-Planell and Trigueros
(2012) found similar results when studying students’ general
notion of function. They also found that even successful stu-
dents sometimes were not aware of uniqueness of functional
value and the arbitrary nature of a functional assignment for
two-variable functions. Also, when facing functions with
domain defined symbolically as restricted to a specific sub-
set of the XY plane, some students needed help to graphi-
cally represent the domain, or in deciding how to consider
the restriction when finding the range. However, students
in Şefik and Dost’s (2020) study did not show the same dif-
ficulty with restricted domains.
Dorko and Weber (2014) studied students’ meaning for
domain and range of one-variable functions and how they
generalized it to two-variable functions. They found that
students’ thinking about domain and range of both types
of functions could be classified as input/output, independ-
ence/dependence, and/or as attached to specific variables
(x is domain, y is range). Also, for the most part, the clas-
sification of students’ meanings for domain and range did
not change from the one-variable to the two-variable func-
tion situation. They concluded that as domain and range are
neglected in many textbooks, they require explicit attention
during instruction.
Dorko (2017) studied uniqueness of functional value and
the generalization of the vertical line test. She observed that
some students can leverage their understanding of function
13
R. Martínez‑Planell, M. Trigueros
notation to successfully generalize univalence and the verti-
cal line test. She found that students experience confusion
as to the role of y in f (x, y) , which was also observed by
Martínez-Planell and Trigueros (2012), resulting in difficul-
ties, for example in identifying whether a multivariable situ-
ation represents a function and finding its domain and range.
In all these research studies and others conducted in
Malaysia and Iran (Kashefi et al. 2010, 2012, 2013) and
in Ethiopia (Gemechu et al. 2018), authors found that the
learning of two-variable functions was characterized by new
challenges that included the following: an expanded range
of possible contexts in which to interpret algebraic equa-
tions, visualization of mathematical objects in 3D, relating
students’ 3D schemas to their experiential reality, and the
reinterpretation of one-variable function ideas in the two-
variable case. It is noticeable that although different theoreti-
cal frameworks were used in these studies, similar results
and challenges involved in the learning of functions of two
variables were found.
3.2 Teaching suggestions
Most of the papers reviewed included suggestions for teach-
ing two-variable functions, mostly at university level, but
they can also be taken into account when teaching functions
in high school. Examples of suggestions include the value
of using the function machine (Kabael 2011) and the need
to clarify the meaning of variables in y = f (x) and z = f (x, y)
(Martínez-Planell et al 2015; Dorko 2017) instead of assum-
ing that students recognize the different use of the term ‘ver-
tical’ and ‘horizontal’ in 2D and 3D. The consistent use
of an embodied language (move to the front-back instead
of x increases-decreases, right-left instead of y increases-
decreases, up-down, instead of z increases-decreases) helped
with language related issues.
Weber and Thompson’s (2014) HLT is a teaching sug-
gestion aiming to promote the dynamic imagery needed
by students to construct a process conception of graphs of
two-variable functions. Together with Kabael (2011) and
Şefik and Dost (2020), they noted the importance of teach-
ing the reversibility of processes, going from a graph to a
possible equation and vice versa, to help students develop
a process conception of two-variable function, while Dorko
and Weber (2014) suggested complementing explicit atten-
tion to domain and range with a focus on covariation for one
and two-variable functions.
The studies by Trigueros and Martínez-Planell (2010)
and Martínez-Planell and Trigueros (2012), were followed
by a second research cycle (Martínez-Planell and Trigueros
2013), which unveiled further specific constructions where
students needed help. An example of this aspect is the need
for explicit discussion of free variables in the different con-
texts in which they appear, in particular, in construction of
Multivariable calculus results in different countries 699
a process for intersecting fundamental planes with surfaces.
Authors found that students’ actions were different when
the free variable was explicit in the given algebraic state-
ment, as for instance, when substituting x = 0 in z = xsiny
(for any y value, z = 0 ) than when they were not explicit
(as in z = x2 ). It was found that when graphing cylinders in
3D (as in z = x2 ), students tended to use memorized proce-
dures different from those used to graph functions of two
variables, and did not relate their procedures to the intersec-
tion of fundamental planes (for any y value, or as you move
right-left, z = x2 holds true). Other observations included
the following: the fact that the construction of a process for
graphing functions of two variables requires the recognition
of transformations of a one-variable function or families of
plane curves needed for sweeping out a transversal section
along a perpendicular axis, as in Weber and Thompson’s
HLT (2014); the fact that familiar algebraic expressions can
act as obstacles when graphing functions of two variables
(e.g., considering z = x2 to be a parabola, regardless of the
context); students’ tendency to try to graph the entire surface
in order to obtain specifically requested transversal sections,
where knowing the graph of the surface is not necessary and
only its equation is needed to graph its intersection with a
fundamental plane; and the potential usefulness, for some
students and during instruction, of performing point by point
evaluations, particularly in situations involving free vari-
ables. All the above observations imply suggestions for the
design of activities and for teaching, particularly regarding
free variables.
A third research cycle (Martínez-Planell and Trigueros
2019) showed that most students who used a set of spe-
cially designed activities with the pedagogical strategy of
collaborative group work on activities, class discussion, and
exercises (also used in the previous research cycles), dem-
onstrated the construction of a process conception of two-
variable functions, while those in sections where teaching
was lecture-based responded in ways similar to those found
in the studies described above. Reference to the specific
activity sets is given in that publication.
The different studies on multivariable functions show the
importance of helping students distinguish between an open
statement (an equation in several variables) and the context
of the statement (1D, 2D, 3D, or even 1D or 2D within 3D).
A solution set for an equation depends on what is presumed
to be the context. While the open statement is there for any-
one to see, the context depends on the problem situation and
must be decided by the student.1
The increased interest in the teaching of two-variable has
spurred the development of different manipulatives designed
1
  The authors thank a referee for suggesting notions of ‘open state-
ment’ and ‘presumed context’.
to ease geometric interpretation (e.g., McGee et al. 2012;
Wangberg and Johnson 2013).
4 Multivariable limits
4.1 Research on limits of functions of two variables
Research on the learning of limits of multivariable functions
is scarce. Fisher (2008), in the USA, analyzed how students
who held a dynamic mental image of limit of one-variable
function generalized it to limits of two-variable functions
and the different conceptualizations of multivariable limits
they showed. Inspired by the study of Williams (1991) on
one-variable function limits, he found that most students
developed dynamic (based on motion along paths and chang-
ing function values) and topographical (based on the shape
of a two-variable function graph) personal models for limit,
and that there was little evidence of the use of the neigh-
borhood model (based on closeness; consistent with the
ɛ-δ definition of limit) necessary to understand the formal
definition.
Alves (2011), made use of a computer algebra system
(CAS) to consider limits and continuity as part of a more
encompassing study in Brazil. He explored the role of graph-
ical imagery in students’ understanding of limits and conti-
nuity and found that visualization opportunities afforded by
the CAS fostered student argumentation, promoting mani-
festations of intuitive reasoning.
While Fisher and Alves explored students’ mental images
of limits, Mamona-Downs and Megalou (2013) in Greece,
studied their formal understanding. They analyzed math-
ematics students’ understanding of four possible formal
statements for limit of a two-variable function: the standard
ɛ-δ definition in terms of disk and square neighborhoods,
and non-equivalent conditions based on radial limits and
limits along lines. Their results showed that most of the four
interviewed students did not relate the neighborhood with
the directional approach definitions, tended to use proce-
dural strategies, and manifested some of the misconceptions
described in the literature on one-variable function limits.
They also observed that, when working with limits, students
did not attempt to use graphical imagery involving surfaces.
This led them to suggest that students’ graphical interpre-
tations of limits, as in the topographical model of Fisher
(2008), or Alves (2011), should be explored. Continuing
with the same research approach, Megalou (2018), unlike
Fisher (2008), found that students’ use of contour curves
did not seem to help them reason about the neighborhoods
approach to limits in the usual ɛ-δ definition. It seems to
us Fisher’s use of computer-generated color-coded contour
diagrams motivated students to think of functions’ behavior
in neighborhoods of a given point, while Megalou’s proposal
13

700 R. Martínez‑Planell, M. Trigueros

of drawing contour curves by hand focused students’ atten-

tion on individual curves and values.

4.2 Teaching suggestions

One suggestion shared in all the above studies is the use of

graphing technology to help students explore limits and con-
tinuity of two-variable functions. Fisher (2008) suggested
that contour diagrams can help students think in terms of
a function having close values in neighborhoods of a given
point, an idea which can lead to a formal ɛ-δ definition of
limit. Mamona-Downs and Megalou (2013) offered their
method of having students compare different formal state-
ments about limits as a way of fostering student reflection
and discussion, while Alves (2011) proposed the graphical Fig. 1  Tall’s model
exploration of functions to help students construct conjec-
tures about limits and continuity.

5 Research on multivariable differential

calculus

Much of the research we found on this topic is based on

the ‘locally straight’ approach of Tall (1992a), while some
is based on finding ways to generalize student understand-
ings of the one-variable function case, as in studies by
Yerushalmy (1997). Research studies performed by the
physics education community and others focusing on opti-
mization, were also included in this discussion.
Fig. 2  Vertical change on a plane Δz = mx Δx + my Δy
5.1 A foundational idea: local straightness

The idea of ‘local straightness’ was proposed as a founda-
tion upon which to build an approach to one-variable cal-
culus (Tall, 1992b) that exploits the capability of computer
technology to zoom in for the purpose of magnifying the
region around any given point of a curve to uncover its local
straightness, and which provides an embodied approach
where the ambiguities of the Leibniz notation may be elim-
inated by interpreting dy and dx as quantities that may be
cancelled. Local straightness may also be used to introduce
the derivative function, while stressing rate of change as a
conceptual support (Weber et al. 2012). These approaches
to the teaching of one-variable calculus are based on the fact
that differentiable one-variable functions are approximated
locally by straight lines. Since differentiable two-variable
functions are approximated locally by planes, it is not sur-
prising that local straightness can play a role as a cognitive
approach to two-variable functions.
Tall (1992a) extended the idea of local straightness to
multivariable differential calculus. He proposed a geomet-
ric model (Fig. 1) to visualize and write the total differen-
tial of a two-variable function dz = (∂z/∂x)dx + (∂z/∂y)dy
as dz = (dzx/dx)dx + (dz y/dy)dy, where dz x is the vertical
change on the tangent plane corresponding to a horizontal
change dx (leaving y fixed) and similarly for dzy. He con-
sidered that as the partials appear as quotients of lengths,
which may be cancelled, the second expression would be
more meaningful than the first, where the use of the sym-
bol ∂z in the terms (∂z/∂x) and (∂z/∂y) mean two different
things.
Based on Tall’s (1992a) idea, Martínez-Planell et  al.
(2015) used the idea of vertical change on a plane to pro-
pose a coherent model of mental constructions students may
use to understand main notions of the differential calculus
of two-variable functions. Changing notation, the vertical
change Δz on a plane from an initial base point (a, b, c) to a
final generic point (x, y, z) is the sum of the vertical changes
in the x and y directions, Δzx + Δzy as one moves from the
initial to the final point (Fig. 2). But each one of these verti-
cal changes can be expressed in terms of slope: Δzx is the
slope in the x direction times the horizontal change in the
x direction, Δzx = mx Δx and similarly Δzy = my Δy . So that
Δz = mx Δx + my Δy.

13
Multivariable calculus results in different countries 701
fx (a,b)u+fy (a,b)v
Fig. 3  D⟨u,v⟩ f (a, b) = ‖⟨u,v⟩‖
Fig. 4  Vertical change on the tangent plane and the total differential
From this model, Martínez-Planell et al. (2015) conjec-
tured mental constructions that students may undertake to
understand the point-slopes equation of a plane:
z − c = mx (x − a) + my (y − b)   , t h e t a n ge n t p l a n e : 2
z − f (a, b) = fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b) , the directional
d e r i va t i ve i n d i r e c t i o n o f a ve c t o r ⟨u, v⟩  :
f (a,b)u+fy (a,b)v
D⟨u,v⟩ f (a, b) = x ‖⟨u,v⟩‖ (Fig. 3), and the total differential:
df (a, b) = fx (a, b)dx + fy (a, b)dy (Fig. 4).
5.2 Planes
Despite the potentially unifying role that local straightness
and the resulting point-slopes equation of a plane can play,
this is not pedagogically exploited by many widely used cal-
culus textbooks (e.g., Stewart 2006) that choose instead to
build upon the point-normal equation, perhaps due to the
formal convenience of its wider applicability to surfaces that
need not be graphs of two-variable functions, and its relation
to the gradient vector.
Martínez-Planell et al. (2015) used the above idea based
on the generalization of slope to the 3D context to help stu-
dents construct the notions of vertical change on a plane in
2
  fx denotes 𝜕x
𝜕f
. ⟨u, v⟩ : D⟨u,v⟩ f (a, b) = x ‖⟨u,v⟩‖
the x and y directions, to give meaning to important concepts
in the differential calculus. They found that some students
needed help to recognize that in a plane the slopes in the x
and y directions are independent of base point, and to coor-
dinate processes of vertical change in the x and y directions,
Δzx and Δzy to construct a process of vertical change on a
plane Δz = Δzx + Δzy.
5.3 Partial and directional derivatives
The notion of slope of a line in 3D space was explored with
secondary mathematics education graduate students in the
USA by Moore-Russo et al. (2011). They found that students
showed difficulties arguing that slope could be negative and
did not recognize that it should be directed. In another exper-
imental study, McGee and Moore-Russo (2015) reported
that students who explicitly considered slopes in 3D before
discussing derivatives of two-variable functions evidenced
a better understanding of ideas of the differential multivari-
able calculus than students who did not explicitly consider
such slopes.
In another study, Weber (2012, 2015) in the USA, used
the results obtained from a teaching experiment to propose
a framework, based on the importance of quantitative and
covariational thinking, to characterize students’ thinking
about rate of change in space. He considered how students
may generalize their understanding of rate of change of func-
tions of one variable to develop a notion of ‘rate of change’
for two-variable functions (directional derivative). His find-
ings showed that students realized that in the case of two-
variable functions there are rates of change both in the x
and y directions, but expected that there should be a single
‘rate of change’ for these functions at a given point, the ‘two
change problem’, and that this problem would arise regard-
less of students’ meanings for rate of change of a one-var-
iable function. He also found that, with guidance, students
could discover the importance of the direction of change,
although they showed a tendency to look for an algebraic
solution to this problem. Results concerning the ‘two change
problem’ were anticipated by Yerushalmy (1997).
While Weber (2015) found that students tended to look
for an algebraic solution to the ‘two change problem’, Mar-
tínez-Planell et al. (2015) stressed that they need help to
interpret the problem geometrically. They found that an
important prerequisite for students to interpret partial deriva-
tives geometrically is the ability to imagine the intersection
of fundamental planes and the surface representing a two-
variable function, so that they can use derivatives of one-
variable functions in the context of the resulting curve. The
previously mentioned model based on Tall’s (1992a) con-
struction of the tangent plane to a surface included the con-
struction of the directional derivative in direction of a vector
f (a,b)u+fy (a,b)v
(Fig.  3). Results of the
13

702
Martínez-Planell et al. (2015, 2017) studies showed that
most interviewed students from sections that used the tan-
gent plane idea could perform actions to find a directional
derivative at a point and/or to determine its sign from a given
surface, while most other students could not. Many students
did not realize that the direction vector ⟨u, v⟩ is a two-dimen-
sional vector on the domain of the function, represented in
space by the vector ⟨u, v, 0⟩ , so they had difficulties when
trying to interpret directional derivative graphically. Another
result was that students who showed an action conception of
vertical change on a plane (Fig. 2) were constrained when
giving geometric meaning to the dot product of vectors:
D⟨u,v⟩ f (a, b) = fx (a, b)u + fy (a, b)v where ⟨u, v⟩ is a unit vec-
tor, or to the directional derivative formula in Fig. 3.
Since 2006, several studies were conducted in the USA
concerning physics students’ use and understanding of par-
tial derivatives while solving thermodynamics problems
(e.g., Kustusch et al. 2014). In the first such study, Thomp-
son et al. (2006) found that some students had difficulty
interpreting a partial derivative in a thermal physics con-
text, while many had difficulty writing a partial derivative to
describe such physical processes. More recently Bajracharya
et al. (2019) found that students were able to interpret par-
tial derivatives and how they could be calculated, but they
struggled when needing to relate their multiple representa-
tions and to consolidate those representations into a single
representation in thermodynamic equations.
5.4 Tangent plane and total differential
Martínez-Planell et  al. (2015) proposed that under-
standing tangent plane as a process assumes students
are able to relate the algebraic form and geometric
ideas involved in the point-slopes equation of a plane:
z − c = mx (x − a) + my (y − b) and the tangent plane at a
point: z − f (a, b) = fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b) . However,
they observed that some students seem to lose track of the
function once the tangent plane is given. For instance, given
a graphical representation of the tangent plane, these stu-
dents needed help to tell the sign of a directional derivative,
to find the partial derivatives, draw the direction vector, or
argue about the total differential if the graph of the function
was not also given. This result suggests that awareness of the
relation between the tangent plane and the function needs the
coordination of processes of plane, partial derivative, and
function to be able to deduce local properties of the function
based on those of the tangent plane.
These observations led to the refinement of the model
developed by Martínez-Planell et al. (2015, 2017) to include
more details of the constructions of tangent plane and total
differential of functions of two variables (Trigueros et al.
2018). Results dealing with total differential show that
most students showed no knowledge or recollection of
13
R. Martínez‑Planell, M. Trigueros
this notion while the few who did based arguments on the
notion of vertical change on a plane (Fig. 4). It was observed
that students needed help to think of the total differential
df (a, b) = fx (a, b)dx + fy (a, b)dy as a function of two inde-
pendent variables dx and dy, while they evidenced the ability
to do computations only where dx and dy are small numbers
without relating them with their geometrical interpretations.
5.5 Optimization
Only a few studies deal with the optimization of multivari-
able functions. Most of them use technology to support visu-
alization of definitions and key ideas.
Alves (2011) considered the optimization of a two-vari-
able functions on a closed and bounded subset of the plane.
He found that computer generated graphs of functions and
contour diagrams helped students pose conjectures about
extreme points, extrema on the boundary set of the func-
tion’s domain, and also fostered conversions between repre-
sentations needed to verify the conjectures.
While the ‘locally linear’ character of functions of two
variables plays a key role in the discussion of tangent planes
and total differential, Alves (2014) considered ‘locally
quadratic’ approximation of a surface to classify its criti-
cal points. He used the support of Maple and GeoGebra to
analyze the benefits of the geometrical exploration of critical
points of two-variable functions using quadratic polynomi-
als in two variables obtained from a second order Taylor
approximation and comparing the function’s graph with the
approximating quadratic surface.
Like Alves (2011), Vigo (2014) in Brazil studied the role
of a CAS in helping students give meaning to the definition
and theorems about extrema of two-variable functions. She
designed contextual modeling situations for engineering stu-
dents that required finding a model, graphing two-variable
functions with the aid of a CAS, conjecturing the nature of
local extrema, and relating these points to the notions of
tangent plane and partial derivatives, in order to conjecture
necessary conditions before they were introduced in class,
and finding the extrema. She reported that the use of a CAS
helped students overcome initial difficulties establishing
necessary conditions for the existence of local extrema. In
a situation involving saddle points, she found that students
needed help to anticipate the use of second derivatives to
classify critical points.
Unlike Alves and Vigo, Xhonneux (2011) in Belgium
considered equality constrained optimization. He studied
how the topic of Lagrange multipliers is taught, the role of
proof in teaching and learning the topic, and students’ dif-
ficulties. He found that there were essentially two types of
textbooks, namely, deductive, where theory is given prec-
edence and tasks tend to be formal, and inductive, admitting
less developed theoretical justifications and placing more
Multivariable calculus results in different countries 703
emphasis on the development and application of techniques.
These determine the type of techniques favored—generic
or tied to a context; the learning goals—theorem proving or
problem solving; and the types of proofs presented—verifi-
cation, or explanation. He found that the textbook type cor-
responded to the two examined students’ samples: enrolled
in mathematics, or in economics or engineering manage-
ment. The author reports several recurring difficulties linked
to solutions’ identification among the extrema candidates,
the Implicit Function Theorem (IFT), Lagrange multipliers
as objects, and prerequisites such as sufficient and neces-
sary conditions, and solving systems of linear equations. It
is interesting to note that typical calculus textbooks used in
many countries (e.g., Stewart 2006) can be considered as
inductive, thus difficulties with formal concepts observed in
Belgium would not be identified in other countries.
5.6 Teaching suggestions
Results from Moore-Russo el al. (2011) and McGee et al.
(2015) suggest explicitly discussing slope in 3D, including
the need of determining direction, before discussing two-
variable function derivatives. This would be useful to com-
plement students’ reliance on algebraic solutions (Weber
2015) in solving the ‘two change problem’, and in helping
students attain the synergy of representations needed in
learning (McGee et al. 2015). Alves (2011) suggested the
use of technology to help students visualize partial deriva-
tives and other notions that may be represented in 3D, pose
conjectures, and interpret their meaning. Martínez-Planell
et al. (2015, 2017) observed that to construct partial deriva-
tives, the coordination of fundamental planes and derivatives
of one-variable functions is needed. This requirement sug-
gests the benefits of explicit consideration of fundamental
planes and the use of the context of two-variable functions
to review the derivatives of one-variable functions, through
the use of conversions between different representations,
including the verbal representation as a rate of change
(Weber 2015). They also suggest carefully introducing the
geometric interpretation of directional derivatives and giv-
ing explicit consideration to the representation of a direc-
tion vector in space, together with the relation of partial
and directional derivatives with the tangent plane at a point.
Further, Trigueros et al. (2018) stressed the value of helping
students to view the tangent plane as a local approximation
of the function and suggested that technology may be used
to help students understand the graphical implication of this
relation. In terms of the total differential, these authors also
suggested making explicit the relations of the point-slopes
equation of a plane, the tangent plane, and the total differen-
tial using different representations. This emphasis includes
helping students to think of dx and dy as independent vari-
ables in the total differential of a two-variable function.
The use of ‘vertical change on a plane’ to encourage geo-
metric interpretation and relate the notions of point-slope
equation of plane, tangent plane, directional derivative, and
total differential was a key suggestion of Martínez-Planell
et al. (2015, 2017) and Trigueros et al. (2018). These aspects
can also be related to the normal equation of a plane and
gradient vector of a three-variable function, topics about
which there is almost no research (see Moreno-Arotzena
et al. 2020).
Bajracharya et al. (2019) developed several didactic activ-
ities and approaches to improve the teaching and learning
of partial derivatives in thermodynamics as a result of their
studies (e.g., Roundy et al. 2014). They also developed a
manipulative, the partial derivative machine, which was
found to be useful in helping students make sense of partial
derivatives (Roundy et al. 2014). The manipulatives devel-
oped by McGee et al. (2012) and Wangberg et al. (2013)
may also be used for the differential calculus.
Alves (2011) and Vigo (2014) suggested the use of a CAS
to help students make conjectures and interpret the main
ideas of optimization, including the interpretation of extrema
in the boundary of regions of the plane. At the same time,
Xhonneux (2011) advised the use of contour diagrams in the
introduction of explicative proofs for Lagrange multipliers
method.
6 Research on multivariable integral
calculus
6.1 Integrals of functions of two and three variables
Although multivariable integral calculus has received less
attention, results obtained so far are interesting and give a
rich panorama of findings and research directions.
In 2015, Jones and Dorko analyzed and documented stu-
dents’ understandings of definite integral of multivariable
functions and discussed how they related to understandings
about integrals of one-variable functions obtained in a pre-
vious study (Jones 2013). They concluded that difficulties
concerning multivariable integrals come from the need to
reconstruct previous single-variable ideas. They observed
that students’ ideas on multiple integrals mostly derive from
an ‘area under the curve’ understanding of one-variable inte-
grals and that no student in their study showed an under-
standing based on Riemann sums. Given that applications
of integration to other disciplines frequently require imag-
ining the contextual meaning in terms of a Riemann sum
(e.g., Nguyen and Rebello 2011), their work suggested that
conceptual aspects related to Riemann sums and Riemann
integral should be carefully considered by instructors.
McGee and Martínez-Planell (2014) studied how students
may construct a conception of double and triple integrals
13

704
based on Riemann sums. They designed a chain of represen-
tations and developed activities to be used in experimental
class sections throughout a semester in a university in Puerto
Rico. The chain started with the presentation of a problem
in a verbal or analytical register then successive conversions
of a Riemann sum with a small number of terms to geo-
metric, numeric, and symbolic representations (as expanded
sum and in sigma notation), followed by taking limits and
expressing the result as an iterated integral to be computed.
Results obtained were compared with those in a control sec-
tion. Findings showed that students in experimental sections
achieved synergy in using different representations, which
helped them develop a deeper understanding of integrals of
two and three-variable functions.
The results of this experience led to a follow up study
by Martínez-Planell and Trigueros (2020), who proposed
using the representations chain (McGee et al. 2014) with the
purpose of exploring students’ understanding of the relation
between Riemann sums and double integrals. The study gave
special attention to the case of an integral of a continuous
function over a rectangle, and the simplest partition possible
consisting only of the rectangle itself. Students’ geometri-
cal understanding of the relation between the corresponding
single term f (a, b)ΔxΔy , where (a, b) is a point in the rec-
tangle, and the double integral over the rectangle was then
considered. The findings underlined the importance of the
following constructions: recognizing rectangle and function;
constructing a product of the form f (a, b)ΔxΔy as one term
of a Riemann sum; recognizing the existence of points where
underestimate, overestimate, and exact value of the volume
under the surface are attained; and forming a partition and
the corresponding Riemann sum. Data supported the need
to introduce students explicitly to the individual meaning of
the Riemann sum components f (xi , yj ) , Δx , Δy , and ΔxΔy
as well as of their product f (xi , yj )ΔxΔy before considering
∑n ∑m
the meaning of sums of the form i=1 j=1 f (xi , yj )ΔxΔy .
This result is similar to that found by Sealey (2014) when
working with integrals of one-variable functions. Martínez-
Planell et al. (2020) also found that several students con-
sidered that a term of a Riemann sum, or a double integral,
gave the surface area instead of a volume, a confusion that
had been reported by Dorko and Speer (2013).
Going beyond the basic constructions, Henriques (2006)
studied the teaching and learning of multivariable integrals
and their use for the computation of volumes in Brazilian
and French universities. He concentrated on the volume of
complex solids to study students’ graphical and analytical
strategies and the role of the use of technology in overcom-
ing students’ difficulties. Results showed that instructors and
teaching materials tended to support volume calculations
with geometric representations, but that even when tech-
nology was used students struggled to produce and inter-
pret them. Students needed support parametrizing surfaces
13
R. Martínez‑Planell, M. Trigueros
to produce screen images of volumes to be computed and
relating these parametrizations in order to obtain limits of
integration.
Jones (2020) extended his previous research (Jones and
Dorko, 2015) to student understanding of line integrals. He
classified different understandings of the individual com-
ponents and the entire line integral expressions. He found
that students’ meanings for the individual components were
not related to the meaning of the whole integral expression.
As reported by other researchers cited above, Jones found
that students’ conceptions were not based on Riemann sums
needed in applications to other disciplines, but on ‘space
under the graph’ conceptions.
6.2 Teaching suggestions
Results concerning multivariable integral calculus indicate
that its learning is complex, but also suggest strategies to
support students’ learning. Jones and Dorko (2015) advised
that being aware of students’ bias towards an understand-
ing rooted in ‘area under a curve’, and that multivariable
integrals need a reconstruction of students’ previous ideas
on one-variable integrals, can help instructors in devising
methodologies to foster students’ understanding of Rie-
mann sums and their role in applications to other disci-
plines. McGee et al. (2014) suggested a possible strategy
for understanding double integrals in rectangular and polar
coordinates and triple integrals in rectangular, cylindric and
spherical coordinates, namely, the consistent use of the rep-
resentations chain they developed, throughout a semester.
Martínez-Planell et al. (2020) added that students need to
imagine the graphical representations of functions and rec-
tangular domains, and to explicitly consider the meaning of
f (xi , yj ) , Δx , Δy , ΔxΔy , and f (xi , yj )ΔxΔy , before forming
a partition and the corresponding Riemann sum, and that
instructors need to add verbal representations in the case
of contextual situations. Henriquez (2006) suggested using
graphing technology to visualize regions in space formed by
the intersection of different surfaces and to explicitly discuss
parametrizations and limits of integration.
Like Sealy (2014) and Martínez-Planell et al. (2020),
Jones (2020) posited that each component of a line integral
needs to be discussed with students, before discussing the
meaning of the entire integral.
7 Discussion
In this paper we examined the existing literature looking
at what we know today about student learning of two-
variable functions, and research-based suggestions about
its teaching. It contributes to literature in presenting an
overview of what has been done and what needs to be
Multivariable calculus results in different countries 705
done, together with a reflection on what the study of this
subject entails in terms of conceptual demands and teach-
ing strategies. The study also shows the need to better
understand what the transition from one-variable calculus
to multivariable calculus entails for students.
Seen as a whole, results show that students’ under-
standing of the different concepts studied is similar in
a wide cultural spectrum, through a diversity of studies
and theoretical perspectives. Studies surveyed stress that
students’ understandings of one-variable calculus remain
and influence the way students conceive calculus of two-
variable functions, thus the importance that teachers take
into account that when introducing two-variable functions
it is necessary to underline the differences between one
and two-variable functions and contrast them in addition
to noting their similarities.
The advantage of the use of geometric representations,
the need to emphasize conversions among representations
and to underline the role of local approximation, are under-
scored in many studies. The use of vectors and 3D geometry
is recognized as playing a crucial role in students’ possibili-
ties of grasping the main differences between one- and two-
variable calculus. Most of the studies reported in this review
suggested the need of an early introduction to vectors in 3D
space and some topics of 3D geometry such as lines, planes
and vector projections, so that students can make sense of
the objects involved in the study of two-variable calculus.
Although there is almost no research on the teaching of
multivariable calculus, most studies reported above sug-
gested interesting strategies to use in their teaching, and
gave examples of effective research-based activities. We also
found that there is evidence of the role of manipulatives,
such as the 3D Kit (McGee et al. 2012), the Raising Cal-
culus to the Surface project (Wangberg et al. 2013), or the
Partial Derivative Machine (Roundy et al. 2014), in helping
students visualize abstract two variable calculus concepts.
Studies also showed examples of how computer applications
can foster students’ discussion of important calculus ideas
and may foster understanding. More research on the use of
technology in the learning and teaching of two-variable cal-
culus is desirable, particularly studies taking into account
technological advances, such as virtual reality software.
This study is limited in terms of the topics reviewed.
Space constraints restricted our focus to topics that have
received more attention from researchers. In our opinion,
research using different approaches, particularly socio-
cultural and institutional approaches, could enrich results
obtained by providing a more encompassing perspective.
From results surveyed it can be inferred that there are limi-
tations in how this subject is presented and that there is a
strong need to take into account the results of these and
future studies in mathematics education, in order to find
creative ways to teach multivariable calculus.
8 Conclusion
This research contributes to the literature in providing
useful information about the discontinuity between the
learning of one-variable calculus and multivariable cal-
culus. Independently of the theoretical framework used,
most of the published literature suggested that teachers
need to consider that although–conceptually–multivariable
calculus is close to one variable calculus, this is not nec-
essarily true in terms of students’ learning. An important
conclusion stemming from this review is that multivariable
calculus cannot be considered as a direct generalization
of one-variable calculus. Research clearly shows the need
to take into account the existence of important nuances,
mostly related to the transition from two to three-dimen-
sional space, to allow students to do reconstructive and
expansive generalizations of notions (Harel and Tall 1989)
from one- to two-variable function calculus.
More research is needed to get a thorough view of the
complexities involved in the learning and teaching of two-
variable calculus. An in-depth view of what we know as of
today about its teaching and learning allows us to present
two main conclusions that can be deduced from this study:
on the one hand, in order for students to learn this disci-
pline deeply, a systematic introduction to 3D geometry
and to vector algebra in general before the main concepts
of two-variable calculus are introduced would give stu-
dents the necessary prerequisites to be able to fully appre-
hend the richness of two-variable calculus as a whole. On
the other hand, without the detailed and comprehensive
approach of mathematics education research, students’
necessities would remain hidden. The importance of pre-
senting research results as a whole, lies in the possibility
of inducing new designs of research-based teaching strate-
gies with the potential to help students learn this subject
with meaning.
Acknowledgements  This project was partially funded by Asociación
Mexicana de Cultura A.C.
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