ENG 122

Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

Why Teach Technical Writing?

INTRODUCTION

In a world of rushing and pressure to save time, writing documents seems slow and time-
consuming. Why write a memo if you can make a quick call? Why spend time thinking about how to put
into words information that can be transmitted spontaneously without the extra effort of heeding syntax
and punctuation? This logical reasoning fails, though, when we come to consider the type of documents
technical writers need to develop as well as the audience they are addressed to.

However, technical writing in English serves as an essential tool in communicating and

conveying one’s ideas, views, observations, instructions, and suggestions in a more logical and technical
manner.

Lesson 1 – Technical Writing Description

Technical Writing: A Definition

Technical writing is a writing discipline that is sometimes defines as simplifying the complex. It
involves communicating complex information those who need it to accomplish some task or goal. It often
results in relevant, useful and accurate information geared to specifically targeted audiences in order to
enable set of actions on the part of the audience in pursuit of a defined goal. It is not served solely for
waiting manuals for computers of software. Because of its wide range, modern technical writing is
present in nearly every industry in some form or another.

Technical writing is a communication written for and about business and industry, focusing on
products and services: how to manufacture them, market them, manage them, deliver them, and use them.

Technical writing is written:

 In a work environment (in the office, from 8:00 to 5:00, not counting overtime.)
 For supervisors, colleagues, subordinates, vendors, and customers.

 Technical writing is not a literature; it’s neither prose which recounts the fictional tales of characters
nor poetry which expresses deeply felt, universal emotions through similes and metaphors.
 Technical writing is neither an expressive essay narrating an occurrence nor an expository essay
analysing a topic.
 Technical writing is not journalism, written to report the news.
 Technical writing does not focus on poetic images, describe personal experiences, or report who
won the basketball game.

Instead, technical writing is:

 An instruction al manual for repairing machinery

 A memo listing meeting agendas
 A letter from a vendor to a client
 A recommendation report proposing a new computer system

Lesson 2 – Five Components of Technical Writing

1. Development - If you have been teaching your students to develop their essays using such
traditional means as examples, anecdotes, testimony, data, and research, then teaching technical
writing will not be a strain. The same development techniques are applicable when the students
write memos, letters, and reports.

2. Grammar- Grammar is important in essays. It might be more important in technical writing.

Whereas errors often can hide in longer essays, those same errors loom large in one page memos
or letters. In a survey (Gerson) of over 700 technical writers (coast to coast) asked to list important
aspects of correspondence, 98% ranked correct grammar as an essential component of successful
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writing. Grammar is not merely the concern of English teachers. Professional writers and business
people perceive it as essential.

3. Organization- Essays employ topic sentences, transition between and within paragraphs, and a
thesis statement. Technical writing usually does not. In a memo, letter, or report, the thesis would
be replaced by a subject line. The different aspects of organization help distinguish technical
writing from essays. Since paragraphs are shorter in technical writing (often between one to three
sentences) than in many essays, topic sentences are less important. Transitional words and phrases
in an essay can be replaced by an enumerated list, by a list of bullets, and/or by headings and
subheadings.

4. Style- Of greater importance is the different style (word usage, sentence structure, and paragraph
length) used in essays versus technical writing. Essays rely on longer, more connotative words;
longer, more complex syntax; longer, more detailed paragraphs. Technical writing, in contrast,
demands short, denotative words; short, simple sentences; short paragraphs with information
clarified through graphics (pie charts, line graphs, etc.). It has everything to do with audience and
purpose. People do not read technical writing, such as instructions, for pleasure. The writing is a
means to an end. Thus, to help people accomplish the task as quickly and as efficiently as possible,
the writing style should be concise—short words, short sentences, and short paragraphs.

5. Document design- Document design refers to the physical layout of the correspondence. Essays
consist of words, words, and more words, separated by indentations to create paragraphs. Technical
writing, in contrast, uses highlighting techniques and graphics for visual appeal to help the reader
access and understand the data.
To understand technical writing better, let us compare and contrast this with essays.

Comparison/Contrast: Technical Writing vs. Essays

Components Technical Writing Essays Summary
Development  Uses examples, anecdotes,  Uses examples, Same for both
testimony, data, research anecdotes, testimony,
data, research
Grammar  It is important!  It is important! Same for both
Organization  Provides an introduction,  Provides an Similar in
body, and conclusion introduction, thesis some ways,
 Uses a subject line vs. a thesis statement, body different in
and itemization of points vs. paragraphs, transitional others
transitional words words, and topic
sentences
Style  Uses short, denotative words;  Uses longer, Different
short sentences’ and short connotative words;
paragraphs longer sentences; and
longer paragraphs
Document  Uses highlighting Not usually a factor Different
Design techniques, such as graphics,
headings, subheadings,
various fonts, white space,
bullets, etc.

Five Traits of Technical Writing

1. Clarity. The most important criteria for effective technical writing is clarity. If the audience
responds to a memo, letter, report, or manual with, “Huh?” what has the writer accomplished? If
the correspondence is not clearly understood, the reader will either call the writer for further
clarification, or just ignore the information.

Think of it from this perspective: your company has written an installation manual for a product.
The manual, unfortunately, is not clear. When the reader fails to understand the content, three
negatives can occur:
 BAD—The equipment is damaged. This requires the owner to ship the equipment back. The
company will replace the equipment, costs accrue, and public relations have been frayed.
 WORSE—The owner is hurt, leading to pain, anxiety, doctor’s bills, and bad public relations.
 EVEN WORSE—The company is sued. The company loses money, the writer of the manual
loses a job, and public relations are severed.
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

Clarity can be achieved through reporter’s questions.

1. Who is the audience?

o Who will know what? Will the audience know a great deal (High Tech)? Will the audience
know a little about the topic (Low Tech)? Will the audience know nothing about the topic
(Lay)?
2. What do you plan to do?
o What do you want the audience to do? What do you want to know?
3. When should the job be completed?
o What’s the turnaround time? What’s the timetable? What’s the desired schedule? When do
you need an answer?
4. Where will the work take place?
5. Why is the task being undertaken (the rationale, motivation, goal)?
o Why is the desired date important?
6. How should the task be performed?
o What’s the preferred procedure?

Using the Reporter’s Questions Checklist as a prewriting tool, the previous memo could be revised to
achieve greater clarity. Here is an example of a revised memo.
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2. Conciseness. Good technical writing is concise. It is a tool for the readers to use to accomplish
whatever job they are doing. In contrast to traditional essays, effective technical writing uses short
words and short sentences.
 Conciseness achieved through short words
 Conciseness achieved through short sentences
 Avoiding redundancy

3. Accessible document design. In addition to clarity and conciseness, a third trait of effective
technical writing is accessibility (page layout—the way the text looks on the page).Students can
make information leap off the page by making content accessible through the following
highlighting techniques:
 Graphics (table and figures)
 Boldface text
 Headings and subheadings
 Italics
 Underlining
 Varied Font sizes
 Bullets
 Numbered lists
 Varied Font types (computers offer many options)

4. Audience recognition- Successful technical writers know that they can only achieve clarity by
recognizing their audiences. Basically, our students will write to either High Tech Peers, Low Tech
Peers, or Lay Readers. These three audience levels have the following traits.
 High Tech Peers know as much about a subject matter as you. They have the same job
title, same education, same years of experience, and the same level of expertise. For
example, a medical doctor writing to another medical doctor would be writing High Tech
to High Tech.
 Low Tech Peers who work in your company know something about the subject matter.
They may not have the same job title, education, years of experience, or level of
expertise. For example, a medical doctor writing to a staff nurse would be writing High
Tech to Low Tech.
 Lay Readers are your customers. They are completely out of the loop. For example, a
medical doctor communicating with a patient.

Writing successfully to these three types of audiences requires different techniques.

Achieving Audience Recognition
Audience Style Example
High Tech Abbreviations/ Please review the enclosed
Peers Acronyms OK OP and EN.

Low Tech Abbreviations/ Please review the enclosed

Peers Acronyms need OP (Operating Procedure)
parenthetical and EN (Engineering
definitions. Notice).

Lay No abbreviations/ By following the enclosed

Readers acronyms. operating procedure, you
Explanations can ensure that your printer
instead. will run to our engineers’
desired performance levels.

5. Accuracy- Effective technical writing must be correct, whether grammatically, mathematically,

electronically, etc. Errors in technical writing make the company and the employee look bad. More
importantly, errors can lead to damages, injuries, lawsuits, or just embarrassment and
misunderstandings.
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo
Students must understand the importance of proofeading
Ask your students to try these proofreading techniques:
 Use the computer’s spell check—remember, however, that a spell check will not catch
form if you mean from, to if you mean too, or except if you mean accept.
 Let it sit—for a day or a weekend. When the document is cold, students are more objective
about their own writing.
 Use peer evaluations—others will see the errors we miss.
 Read it aloud—sometimes we can hear errors.
 Read it backwards—then you read words out of context. You cannot anticipate the next
word.

TYPES OF TECHNICAL WRITING

A. LETTER

Letters, which rarely should exceed one page, are a basic form of technical writing.

A corporate environment will send letters (external correspondence) to and receive letters from potential
employees, vendors, clients, lawyers, colleagues in other companies, and city, state, national, and
international governments.

All-Purpose Template
In addition to the eight essential letter components, an effective letter will also contain an Introduction, a
Body, and a Conclusion (the text of the letter). To help students understand what these three parts of a
letter should include, use the following all-purpose template:

INTRODUCTION BODY CONCLUSION

� Tell the reader why you are
writing and
� What you are writing about
� Itemize what exactly you
want
the reader to do or
� What exactly you plan to do
� Tell the reader what’s next
� Include when you plan a
follow-up action and
� Why that date or time is
important

This is called the All-Purpose Template because students can use this organizational approach for every
type of letter they might write. Whether writing a cover letter for a resumé, a sales letter, or a letter of
inquiry, the student will respond to the same questions.

TYPE OF INTRODUCTION BODY CONCLUSION

LETTER
Question: Question: Question:
Why are you writing? What exactly do you What is next?
COVER want to say?
LETTER Answer: Answer:
In response to a job Answer: When can you meet with the
advertisement. The reasons why you personnel director to discuss
are qualified for the this job opening?
Question: job.
What are you writing about?

Answer:
Name the specific job opening.

PROFESSIONAL FORMAT

Readers first react to the appearance of a document; they expect a professional format. Format is the
arrangement f words on the page, indention, margins, line spacing, typeface, and standard letter, memo, or
report form. What your document looks like and how it is arranged may be just as important as what it
says. A professional format helps you look and invite’s the reader’s attention.
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

Letter Formats

A technical correspondence just like business letters usually follow any of the basic formats: block style
and modified block style.

……………… ………………
……………… ………………
……………… ………………

……………… ………………
………………
……………… ………………
………………
………………
………………:

……………………………………………… ………………:
………………………………………………
……………………………………………… ………………………………………………
……………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………
……………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………
……………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………
…………………………………… ………………………………………………

……………………………………

………………
………………
………………
………………

………………

Letter Formats

Block Style. Block style is the most formal layout for technical and business letters and is usually written
on letterhead stationery. To type a letter in block style, begin all elements—including date, inside address,
salutation, body and close—flush with the left margin.

Modified Block Style. Modified block style appears less formal. Type a modified block letter the same as
one in block style, beginning every line at the margin, with one major exception: the date and the
signature lines must begin at the center of the page.

PARTS OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Return Address Heading. This part includes the sender’s full mailing address—but not the
sender’s name because that appears at the end of the letter—and the date. Do not abbreviate the
names of the streets, avenues, boulevards, and the like.

Block 15 Lot 15, Estancia Subdivision

Bateria Poblacion, Guihulngan City
Negros Oriental
March 21, 2023

2. Inside Address. The recipient’s name, title, position, and complete mailing address appears here.
If the person’s title is short, include it following the name and a comma. If the title is long, place it
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo
on the line below the name. Write the company name as it usually appears. Again, do not abbreviate
the names of streets, avenues, or boulevards. Begin the inside address two lines below the return
address heading and always at the left hand side of the page.

Jose Dela Cruz, Dean

College of Arts
Negros Oriental State University
Guihulngan City, Negros Oriental

3. Salutation

This part addresses the recipient by title or last name. If you do not know the name of the person
to whom your letter should be directed, you may be able to indicate the person’s function. For
example, the salutation may be:

Dear Personnel Officer:

If you cannot specify a function for the individual to whom you are writing, you can use a more
general salutation such as:

Dear Sir or Ma’am:

Whatever salutation you use should be followed by a colon (:) and it should appear two spaces
below the inside address.

4. Body. If possible, keep a business letter in one page in length but never more than two pages.
Structure a business letter in three main parts:

a. An introduction paragraph that states the purpose of the letter and establishes a courteous tone.
b. One or more body paragraphs that develop major points and provide details.
c. A brief conclusion paragraph that thanks the reader and suggests possibilities for further action.

5. Complimentary Close. Choose a close that reflects the tone—formal or informal—of the
salutation and the rest of the letter. Typical complimentary close include these:

Sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
Yours sincerely,
Yours truly,

Capitalize only the first letter. Begin the close two lines below the last line of the body. Except
for modified block form, align the close with the return address heading, flush left. Follow the
close with a comma.

6. Name and Signature. The full name of the sender is typed four spaces below the complimentary
close, and a handwritten signature should be inserted in the space between closing and typed name.
The sender’s title may appear below the typed name.

Writing an Application Letter

The “ideal” application letter, like the perfect resume, accomplishes one thing: it gets you an interview.
But it conforms to no particular model because it’s a reflection of your special strengths. Nevertheless, an
application letter should contain the basic components.
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

An example application letter can be read below:

872 Legarda Road

Baguio City

June 5, 2007

Mr. Lester Thoss

Vice President for Administration
Benguer Lily Holdings, Inc.
10th Floor, RCBC Tower
Ayala Avenue, Makati City

Dear Mr. Thoss:

Your advertisement in the June 2, 2007 issue of the Manila Bulletin attracted my attention because I
believe that I have the “proven skills” you are looking for an administrative assistant. In addition to
having previous experience in a variety of office settings. I am familiar with the computer system that you
use in your office.

I recently completed my advance Auto-Cad Course at the STI College in Baguio City. A supplemental
workshop on “Writing and Editing the Computer” gave me an experience with other valuable
applications. As a result of this training, I am able to compose many types of finished documents,
including sales letters, financial reports, and presentation slides. These specialized skills have proven
valuable in my work for the past eight months as assistant to the vice president for administration at the
University of Baguio.

Because my proven skills are best explained in person, I would appreciate an interview with you. at a time
convenient for you, I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss my qualifications for beginning a career
with your company. Please phone me any afternoon between 1 to 5 pm at 0912-345-6789 to see whether
we can arrange a meeting at your convenience.

Sincerely,

Jimmy Yap
Jimmy Yap
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

B. RESUME

Writing a Resume

Resumes are a form of advertising, designed to help you get an interview. As in all forms of advertising,
your objective is to call the reader’s attention to your best features and to downplay your disadvantages,
without distorting or misinterpreting the facts. A resume should be an easy to read summary of your
qualifications for a job.

Dornan (2004, p. 428) shares these general principles in creating a resume.

1. Be brief. Keep the length to one or two pages, no more.

2. Stick to the point. Give only the information someone needs to determine whether you are an
applicant worth interviewing.
3. Organize resume information. Arrange the information in categories to the position.
4. Write in brief, active phrases. Summarize information in each category in language that suggests
you will be an assertive, proactive employee.
5. Concentrate on the particular position. Tailor a resume so that the information reflects the
experience required for the position.

Elements of a Resume

1. Personal Data. List your name, address, and telephone number where you can be reached during
business hours. Include a fax number or an e-mail address or cellular phone numbers, if you have
either.
2. Career objective. You may include a brief statement of a long-range goal or specific job interest.
Keep such a statement brief, no more than a line or two.
3. Education. List all schools you have attended from high school on, the most recent first. Include
the years you attended, the diplomas and honors you have received, and your area of study.
4. Employment History. List your most recent jobs first. Include each employer’s name and address,
and identify the position you held. When describing your work experience, list your jobs in
chronological order, with the current or last one first. Include any part time, summer, intern
position, or on the job training even if the jobs have no relation to your present career objective.
5. Activities and achievements. You may include a section indicating other activities, memberships,
hobbies, skills, or awards that might interest an employer.
6. References. Before you provide an employer with a list of references, be sure everyone listed will
support your application.

Writing a Letter of Resignation

If you get a job offer and are presently employed, you should write a letter of resignation to maintain good
relationship with your current employer. Make the letter sound positive, regardless of how you feel. Say
something favorable about the organization, the people you work with, or what you have learned on the
job. Then state your intention to leave and the termination date.

This letter illustrates the points. By sending one like it, you show that you are considerate and mature, and
you also help ensure the good feeling that may help you get another job in the future.
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

56 Roxas Street

Poblacion Guihulngan City

March 26, 2023

Mr. Juan Dela Cruz, President

Guihulngan Bus Lines

Main Terminal, Guihulngan City

Dear Sir:

My sincere thanks to you and to all the other employees of Guihulngan Bus Lines for helping me learn so
much about serving the public these 12 months. You have given me untold help and encouragement.

You may recall that when you first interviewed me, my goal was to become a customer relations supervisor.
Because that opportunity has been offered to me by another organization, I am submitting my resignation.
I regret leaving all of you, but I can’t pass up this opportunity.

I would like to terminate my work here two weeks from today but can arrange to work an additional week
if you want me to train a new replacement.

My sincere thanks and best wishes to all of you.

Sincerely,

Dianne Aubrey Tiu

Dianne Aubrey Tiu
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Instructor: Theresa Sapotalo

THE MEMORANDUM AND MEETING DOCUMENTS

MEMORANDUM FORM

Unless you are using preprinted company or commercial stationery, begin a memorandum (memo) by
typing MEMORANDUM at the top of the page. Centering, capitalizing, and underlining are optional.

Two lines spaces beneath the heading, type a block of standard information elements: TO, FROM,
DATE, RE (or SUBJECT). Double space these elements and type them in capitals or with the first letter
capitalized. Follow each element with a colon, advance several spaces, and type in the relevant
information, keeping each item aligned with the one above it.

Begin the body of the memo two lines before the last element. Single-space the body and begin flush with
the left margin (or indent in the first line five spaces.)

Do not include a closing signature element, but you may add your handwritten initials next to your nsmr
or end the memo with your signature, centered at the bottom.

When the memo includes copies or enclosures, note them the way you would in a business letter.

MEMORANDUM

TO: General Education Faculty

FROM: Romeo R. Javines, Dean, CAS

DATE: March 26, 2023

RE: Budget Allotment Meeting

I have several requests to purchase supplies and equipment from department members. Although our
supply and equipment budget has been increased by 25% above last year’s, we still do not have enough
discretionary money to accommodate all the requests. As a result, the budget committee will meet to rank
the needs of the entire department. You are invited to attend the meeting and address the committee
regarding any proposal before it. The meeting will be held in the CAS Conference Room on April 2,
2023.

Encl: Proposal List

The subject line of a memo helps busy colleagues find out quickly what the memo is about. Although the
subject “line” may overflow onto a second line, it is most helpful when it is short but still informative.

The body of the memo starts on the second or third line below the heading. Like the body of a letter, it is
usually single spaced. Lists, important passages, and subheadings may all be handled as they are in letters.
If the memo is very short, it may be double spaced.

If the memo carries over to a second page, the second page is headed just as the second page of a letter is.

Unlike a letter, a memo does not require a complimentary close or a signature because the writer’s name
is already prominent at the top.
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E-MAIL

E-mail is rapidly becoming one of the world’s most important means of communicating in the business
place.

E-mail is similar to and different from memos and letters. Letters are external correspondence; memos
are internal correspondence. E-mail, in contrast, can be both internal and/or external. Employees can E-
mail each other within a company and/or E-mail vendors, clients, and colleagues outside company.

E-mail is similar to memos in that both use identification lines (Date, To, From, and Subject) in contrast
to a letter’s components. Like letters and memos, E-mail must be clear, concise, accessible, accurate, and
achieve audience recognition.

A successful E-mail contains a subject line with a topic and a focus. An introduction, a body, and a
conclusion.

Elements of an E-mail Message

1. Subject Line
What is the email about? A good subject line summarizes the email and makes it sound important
enough for the reader to open.

2. Sender
The email address of the person who sent the message appears here. Most email services display
the person’s name before their email address to make it easier to identify them.

3. Recipient
If you are receiving the message, your email address probably won’t appear here. Instead, you
might see the wording like “to me”. Message recipients might also include email addresses in
these sections:

o Carbon Copy (CC) - people who receive the email for their own information, but who are
not expected to reply. When you press “reply all”, all these addresses receive your
response.
o Blind Carbon Copy (BCC) – people who receive the email but are not listed as recipients.
Senders use the BCC section if they do not want recipients to know who else has received
the email. They do not receive “reply all” responses.

4. Salutation
After the subject line, your email salutation, or greeting, is the next part that the recipient will see.

5. Email Body
The email body contains the message of the email. Effective emails keep their bodies short and
add more extensive information to the attachments.

6. Closing
If an email message is an electronic letter, it is polite to end it with a closing. The closing you
choose should match the tone of the rest of the email. Formal closings include “Sincerely” and
“Thank you”.

7. Signature
Business email accounts have signature sections that include the sender’s position, company, and
even company logo. These extended signatures are helpful when reaching out to clients or
employees from other companies.

8. Attachments
An email might include an attachment that provides more information. The attachment could be a
document for review, a picture to share or any other file type.
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Although email messages are frequently informal, those written for technical correspondence
need to be easily understood and professional forma and content. Use the following guidelines
when transmitting email in a professional environment:
1. If possible, compose offline. This will allow you to compose, revise, and edit any
drafts, and it will provide you with a file copy and backup.
2. Organize your email. Structure your email so it is easily read. Check for spelling
errors and follow standard punctuation and grammar practices.
3. Use the correct email address.
4. Provide an effective subject line.
5. Limit your email to one screen if possible. As noted already, readers don’t want to
scroll through several screens to read your message. Scrolling is time consuming and
visually difficult. When confined to one screen, your message will have more impact,
visually and in terms of your content.
6. Proofread your email. Email can be written and transmitted rapidly. That is both good
and bad. You can avoid errors in your email the old fashioned way—read and reread
it.

E-mail Benefits
 E-mail allows a writer to instantly communicate with a reader.
 E-mail can be sent t numerous readers at the same time.
 E-mail allows the writer and reader’s to chat with each other online. A real-time dialogue is
possible, whereas memos and letters may require days or weeks for dialogue to occur.

However, a wonderful value to the slowness of memos and letters is that time lets us correct errors.

E-mail problems
 Instantaneous communication hinders the writer’s ability to double check facts, effectively
proofread text, and achieve the correct tone.
 If we write something that has grammatical or mathematical errors we can check these for
correctness. If we write something that might be offensive, we can set the memo or letter aside for
awhile. Then, at a later date, we could review the original and revise accordingly. E-mail, in
contrast, can be sent at the push of a button. This speed may hinder our revision.
 People don’t like scrolling endlessly. Instead, e-mail should abide by the WYSIWYG factor (What
You See Is What You Get). One, viewable screen of text is better than text that only can be read
when you scroll . . . and scroll and scroll.

The biggest problem in e-mail is lack of Professionalism

Students are used to writing IMs—Instant Messages—to their friends. That’s not what we’re talking
about in this chapter. We’re discussing e-mail written in the workplace, to bosses, co-workers, vendors,
and clients. In instant messages, our students can get away with poor punctuation and spelling.

As Diane Stafford, editoralist for the Kansas City Star, says, “One could argue that the casual nature of
instant messaging has created a different mind-set among young e-mail users. Perhaps the medium
dictates the style, and [students] don’t think it requires the same attention as, say, a school essay.”

But for business e-mail, those errors create the wrong image, making employees and companies look
unprofessional. Stafford continues by stating, “job readiness education is a good thing in middle schools
and high schools…Teach [students] that what’s acceptable in instant messaging isn’t appropriate for job
hunting” (C1: May 2, 2002).

REFERENCES

Gerson, S., A Teacher’s Guide to Technical Writing, Topeka, KS: Washburn University, Kansas Curriculum
Center

Asperas, M. A., Avila, D. M., Basbas, R. T., Abelos, A. V., Hervas, L. C., Ligawen, S. G., . . . Visaya, A. G.
(2008). DEVELOPING SKILLS IN TECHNICAL WRITING. Mutya Publishing House, Inc.