18EES101J - BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT – III ELECTRONIC DEVICES

The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic Semiconductor and other is
an extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic
semiconductor and the semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for making it
conductive is known as the extrinsic semiconductor. The conductivity of the intrinsic
semiconductor become zero at room temperature while the extrinsic semiconductor is very little
conductive at room temperature. The detailed explanation of the two types of the semiconductor
is given below.
Both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor is the 2 categorizations of semiconductor
material. The difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor is that intrinsic
semiconductors are the pure form of semiconductor materials. Whereas extrinsic semiconductors
are impure semiconductor formed by adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor.
No, any external impurity is doped in case of an intrinsic semiconductor while extrinsic
semiconductors are formed by adding either trivalent or pentavalent impurities to the
semiconductor material.
Parameter Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Form of Pure form of semiconductor. Impure form of semiconductor.

semiconductor

Conductivity It exhibits poor conductivity. It possesses comparatively better

conductivity than intrinsic
semiconductor.

Band gap The band gap between conduction The energy gap is higher than intrinsic
and valence band is small. semiconductor.

Fermi level It is present in the middle of The presence of fermi level varies
forbidden energy gap. according to the type of extrinsic
semiconductor.

Dependency The conduction relies on The conduction depends on the

temperature. concentration of doped impurity and
temperature.

Carrier Equal amount of electron and holes The majority presence of electrons and
concentration are present in conduction and holes depends on the type of extrinsic
valence band. semiconductor.

Type It is not further classified. It is classified as p type and n type

semiconductor.

Example Si, Ge etc. GaAs, GaP etc.

 An intrinsic semiconductor is formed from a highly pure semiconductor material thus
also known as pure semiconductors. These are basically undoped semiconductors that do not
have doped impurity in it. At room temperature, intrinsic semiconductors exhibit
almost negligible conductivity. As no any other type of element is present in its crystalline
structure.

PN JUNCTION DIODE
• A PN Junction Diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device. It’s made up from a small
piece of semiconductor material (usually Silicon), it allows the electric current to flow in
one direction while opposes the current in other direction. In the Forward Bias, the diode
allows the current to flow in uni-direction. On the other hand, when the diode is reverse
biased it opposes the electric current to flow. A PN Junction Diode is a semiconductor
device with two opposite region such as (P-type region and N-type region).

• The P-region is called as the anode and is connected to a positive terminal of a battery
and it has Holes in majority carrier and electrons in minority carrier.
• The N-region is called as the cathode and is connected to the negative terminal of a
battery and it has Electrons as a Majority carrier while holes as Minority carrier.
•
• When the P-type semiconductor material is joined with the N-type semiconductor
material, a P-N Junction is formed, hence resulting P-N Junction is also called as a P-N
Junction Diode.
• The basic diode structure and symbol of PN Junction Diode is shown in the figure
below.

• Biasing means applying external voltages to the device, biasing of a diode is of two
types: Forward Biasing and other one is Reverse Biasing.
• Forward Biasing of Diode: We connect positive terminal of the battery to the P-type
Material and Negative terminal of the battery to the N-type, hence this configuration is
 called as Forward Bias Configuration of Diode. In this configuration Diode allows the
current to flow in uni-direction.
• Reverse Biasing of Diode: We connect Negative Terminal Battery to the P-type Material
and Positive terminal of Battery to the N-type Material, hence this configuration is called
as Reverse Bias configuration of Diode. In this configuration, diode does not allow the
flow of current.

Forward Bias of Diode:

• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the PN junction Diode. The
voltage source is connected in such a way that it produces a Forward Bias. This external
bias voltage is designated as V(bias). The resistor limits the forward current to a value
that will not damage the diode.
• Note that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n-region of the diode and the
positive side is connected to the p-region. This is one requirement for forward bias.
• A second requirement is that the bias voltage, Vbias, must be greater than the barrier
potential.

• A Barrier Potential is an internal potential a semiconductor material, in case of Silicon-

based PN Junction diode it is 0.7v and in case of Germanium, it is 0.3v. It means in order to
forward bias the PN junction diode Vbias should be greater than 0.7 for silicon and 0.3V for
germanium.
 • As we know the N-type material is consist of Electrons and the P-type material is consist of
Holes.
• A fundamental picture of what happens when a PN junction diode is forward-biased is
shown below. When the P-type material is connected with a positive terminal of battery it
transfers the holes (positive charge carrier), which travels from p-type material to the N-
type material through (Junction).
• When the N-type material is connected with a negative terminal of battery it transfers the
free electrons (negatively charged carriers), which travels from n-type material to the P-
type material through (junction).
• These free electrons are attracted towards the positive terminal of the diode while the holes
are attracted towards the negative terminal of a diode.

Reverse Bias of Diode:

Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the PN junction
diode. As mentioned above if we connect negative terminal of the battery to P-type material and
positive Terminal of Battery to N-type material this lead to the diode in Reverse Bias. Note that
the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias.

A diode connected for reverse bias. A limiting resistor is shown although it is not
important in reverse bias because there is essentially no current.

An illustration of what happens when a

PN junction diode is reverse-biased is shown

below. When the P-type material is connected with a negative terminal of a battery, the holes are
attracted away from the junction and attracted to the negative electrodes of batter.

Similarly when the N-type material is connected with a positive terminal of a battery, the
free electrons are attracted away from the junction and attracted towards the positive electrodes.
This results in an increase in the depletion region. As the depletion region widens, the
availability of majority carriers decreases. As more of the n- region and p-regions become
depleted of majority carriers, the high potential barrier is created thus opposing electric current to
flow in reverse bias.
V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE
Forward bias produces the current through a PN junction diode and reverse bias
essentially prevents current, except for a negligible reverse current. Reverse bias prevents current
as long as the reverse-bias voltage does not exceed the breakdown voltage limit of the junction.
Now we will examine the relationship between the voltage and the current in a diode on a
graphical basis.

Effect of Forward Bias on V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is
called the forward current. When the forward-bias voltage is increased to a value where the
voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward current
begins to increase rapidly, as illustrated in Figure given below. As you continue to increase the
forward-bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the
diode is constant till 0.7v for silicon and 0.3v for germanium.

The forward characteristic of a PN junction diode is non linear, i.e., not a straight line.
This type of forward characteristic shows that resistance is not constant during the operation of
the PN junction. The slope of the forward characteristic of a PN junction diode will become very
steep quickly.
This shows that resistance is very low in forward bias of the junction diode. The value of
forward current is directly proportional to the external power supply and inversely proportional
to the internal resistance of the junction diode.

Effect of Reverse Bias on V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN junction diode with increase in
the amount of applied external voltage. However, leakage current due to minority charge carriers
flows in the PN junction diode that can be measured in micro amperes.
 As the reverse bias potential to the PN junction diode increases ultimately leads to PN
junction reverse voltage breakdown and the diode current is controlled by external circuit.
Reverse breakdown depends on the doping levels of the P and N regions. With the increase in
reverse bias further, PN junction diode become short circuited due to overheat in the circuit and
maximum circuit current flows in the PN junction diode.

Combine the curve for both forward bias and reverse bias, and you have the complete V-I
characteristic curve for a PN junction diode, as shown in Figure give below.
Applications of PN Junction Diode

• N Junction Diodes are mostly used for rectification (Alternative Current to Pulsating
DC).
• They are used as clipper to clip the portion of AC.
• They are used as clamper to change the reference voltage.
• They are used as switches in many electronic circuitry.
• They are used in Voltage Multipliers to increase the output voltage.

ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown
region. Zener diodes acts like normal pp-n
n junction diodes under forward biased condition. When
forward biased voltage is applie
applied to the Zener diode it allows large amount of electric
elec current
and blocks only a small amount of electric current.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal pp-n n junction diode. Hence, it has very
thin depletion region.. Therefore, Zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n p
junction diodes.
Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but also
allows electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than the
Zener voltage. Zener diode is always connected in reverse direction because it is specifically
designed to work in reverse direction.

Zener diode definition

A zener diode is a p-nn junct
junction
ion semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by controlling the
doping level during manufacture. Zener diodes are mainly used to protect electronic circuits from
over voltage.

Symbol of zener diode

The symbol of zener diode is shown in below figure. Zener diode consists of two terminals:
cathode and anode.

In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and cathode to anode.
The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal pp-n n junction diode, but with bend edges on
the vertical bar.
Operation of Zener Diode

• Zener Diodes are normally used only in the reverse bias direction.
• It means that the anode must be connected to the negative side of the voltage source and
the cathode must be connected to the positive side.
• A main difference between Zener diodes and regular silicon diodes is the way they are
used in the circuits.
• It is primarily used to regulate the circuit voltage as it has constant Vz.
• A large change in IR will cause only a small change in Vz. It means that a zener diode
can be used as an alternate current path. The constant Vz developed across the diode can
then be applied to a load.
• Thus the load voltage remains at constant by altering the current flow through the Zener
diode.
V-I Characteristics

(i) Forward Characteristics

(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics
The forward characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in figure. It is almost identical to the
forward characteristics of a P-N junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics

As we increase the reverse voltage, initially a small reverse saturation current Io. Which
is in A, will follow. This current flows due to the thermally generated minority carriers. At a
certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current will increase suddenly and sharply . This is
an indication that the breakdown has occurred. This breakdown voltage is called as Zener
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz.
Breakdown in zener diode
There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and
zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener diodes at high reverse voltage.
When high reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free electrons (minority
carriers) gains large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities.

The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms and knock off more
electrons. These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated. As a result,
electric current in the diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in electric current may
permanently destroys the normal diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed
because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
Zener breakdown

The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their narrow
depletion region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow
depletion region generates strong electric field.

When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field
in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence
electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion region will
breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance electrons which break bonding with parent
atom will become free electrons. This free electrons carry electric current from one place to
another place. At zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the
electric current.

• Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage whereas avalanche breakdown occurs at
high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in zener diodes because they have very thin depletion region.
• Breakdown region is the normal operating region for a zener diode.
• Zener breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (Vz) less than 6V.

Advantages of zener diode

• Power dissipation capacity is very high
• High accuracy
• Small size
• Low cost

Applications of zener diode

• It is normally used as voltage reference
• Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
 • Zener diodes are used in switching operations
• Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
• Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits

Half Wave Rectifier

• A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of
an AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are
used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct.
• A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It is
done by using a diode or a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while a
full wave rectifier uses multiple diodes.

• The diagram below illustrates the basic principle of a half-wave rectifier. When a
standard AC waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC
waveform remains. Half-wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or negative
half-cycle) of the AC voltage through and will block the other half-cycle on the DC side,
as seen below.

• Only one diode is required to construct a half-wave rectifier. Since DC systems are
designed to have current flowing in a single direction putting an AC waveform with
positive and negative cycles through a DC device can have destructive (and dangerous)
consequences. So we use half-wave rectifiers to convert the AC input power into DC
output power.

• Half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode
 First, a high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer and
we will get a low voltage at the secondary winding which will be applied to the diode.

• During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be forward biased and the
current flows through the diode. During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the
diode will be reverse biased and the flow of current will be blocked.

• If we replace the secondary transformer coils with a source voltage, we can simplify the
circuit diagram of the half-wave rectifier as:

• Now we don’t have the transformer part of the circuit distracting us.
• For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit effectively
becomes:
 • This is because the diode is forward biased, and is hence allowing current to pass
through. So we have a closed circuit.
• But for the negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit becomes:

• Because the diode is now in reverse bias mode, no current is able to pass through it. As
such, we now have an open circuit. Since current cannot flow through to the load during
this time, the output voltage is equal to zero.

The graph above actually shows a positive half wave rectifier. This is a half-wave rectifier which
only allows the positive half-cycles through the diode, and blocks the negative half-cycle.
The voltage waveform before and after a positive half wave rectifier is shown in figure 4 below.

Conversely, a negative half-wave rectifier will only allow negative half-cycles through the diode
and will block the positive half-cycle. The only difference between a posive and negative half
wave rectifier is the direction of the diode.
The diode is now in the opposite direction. Hence the diode will now be forward biased only
when the AC waveform is in its negative half cycle.

Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter

The output waveform is obtained from the theory above is a pulsating DC waveform. This is
what is obtained when using a half wave rectifier without a filter.

Filters are components used to convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms into constant DC
waveforms. They achieve this by suppressing the DC ripples in the waveform.

Although half-wave rectifiers without filters are theoretically possible, they can’t be used for any
practical applications. As DC equipment requires a constant waveform, we need to ‘smooth out’
this pulsating waveform for it to be any use in the real world.

So we use half wave rectifiers with a filter. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter –
but half wave rectifier with capacitor filter is most commonly used.

The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is can be used to smoothen out a
pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC waveform.
Ripple Factor

‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage waveform
into a DC waveform. Even though we try out best to remove all AC components, there is still
some small amount left on the output side which pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable
AC component is called ‘ripple’.
The ripple factor is the ratio between the RMS value of the AC voltage (on the input side) and
the DC voltage (on the output side) of the rectifier.

The formula for ripple factor is:

The ripple factor of half wave rectifier is equal to 1.21 (i.e. γ = 1.21).

Efficiency

Rectifier efficiency (η) is the ratio between the output DC power and the input AC power. The
formula for the efficiency is equal to:

The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is equal to 40.6% (i.e. ηmax = 40.6%)

RMS value

To derive the RMS value of half wave rectifier, we need to calculate the current across the load.
If the instantaneous load current is equal to iL = Imsinωt, then the average of load current (IDC) is
equal to:

Where Im is equal to the peak instantaneous current across the load (Imax). Hence the output DC
current (IDC) obtained across the load is:
For a half-wave rectifier, the RMS load current (Irms) is equal to the average current (IDC)
multiple by π/2. Hence the RMS value of the load current (Irms) for a half wave rectifier is:

Where Im= Imax which is equal to the peak instantaneous current across the load.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum voltage that the diode can withstand during reverse
bias condition. If a voltage is applied more than the PIV, the diode will be destroyed.

Form Factor

Form factor (F.F) is the ratio between RMS value and average value, as shown in the formula
below:

The form factor of a half wave rectifier is equal to 1.57 (i.e. F.F= 1.57).

Output DC Voltage

The output voltage (VDC) across the load resistor is denoted by:

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

• For rectification applications

• For signal demodulation applications
• For signal peak applications

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

The main advantage of half-wave rectifiers is in their simplicity. As they don’t require as many
components, they are simpler and cheaper to setup and construct.
As such, the main advantages of half-wave rectifiers are:
• Simple (lower number of components)
• Cheaper up front cost

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of half-wave rectifiers are:

• They only allow a half-cycle through per sinewave, and the other half-cycle is wasted.
This leads to power loss.
• They produces a low output voltage.
• The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a lot of ripple (i.e. it
has a high ripple factor)
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

As shown in the above figure, the full wave rectifier converts both positive and negative
half cycles of the input AC signal into output pulsating DC signal. The full wave rectifier is
further classified into two types: center tapped full wave rectifier and full wave bridge
rectifier. The center tapped transformer plays a key role in the center tapped full wave rectifier.

The center tapped full wave rectifier uses a center tapped transformer to convert the input
AC voltage into output DC voltage. When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of
the center tapped transformer divides this input AC voltage into two parts: positive and negative.

During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become positive,
terminal B become negative and center tap is grounded (zero volts). The positive terminal A is
connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the negative terminal B is connected to the n-side of
the diode D1. So the diode D1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle and allows electric
current through it.
 On the other hand, the negative terminal B is connected to the p-side of the diode D2 and
the positive terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode D2. So the diode D2 is reverse
biased during the positive half cycle and does not allow electric current through it. The diode
D1 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced at the load RL will return to the
secondary winding through a center tap.

During the positive half cycle, current flows only in the upper part of the circuit while the
lower part of the circuit carry no current to the load because the diode D2 is reverse biased. Thus,
during the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode D1 allows electric current while
diode D2 does not allow electric current.

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become negative,
terminal B become positive and center tap is grounded (zero volts). The negative terminal A is
connected to the p-side of the diode D1 and the positive terminal B is connected to the n-side of
the diode D1. So the diode D1 is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and does not allow
electric current through it.

On the other hand, the positive terminal B is connected to the p-side of the diode D2 and
the negative terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode D2. So the diode D2 is forward
biased during the negative half cycle and allows electric current through it. The diode
D2 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced at the load RL will return to the
secondary winding through a center tap.

During the negative half cycle, current flows only in the lower part of the circuit while
the upper part of the circuit carry no current to the load because the diode D1 is reverse
biased. Thus, during the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, only diode D2 allows electric
current while diode D1 does not allow electric current.

Thus, the diode D1 allows electric current during the positive half cycle and diode
D2 allows electric current during the negative half cycle of the input AC signal. As a result, both
half cycles (positive and negative) of the input AC signal are allowed. So the output DC voltage
is almost equal to the input AC voltage.

A small voltage is wasted at the diode D1 and diode D2 to make them conduct. However,
this voltage is very small as compared to the voltage appeared at the output. So this voltage is
neglected. The diodes D1 and D2 are commonly connected to the load RL. So the load current is
the sum of individual diode currents.

We know that a diode allows electric current in only one direction. From the above
diagram, we can see that both the diodes D1 and D2 are allowing current in the same direction.
We know that a current that flows in only single direction is called a direct current. So the
resultant current at the output (load) is a direct current (DC). However, the direct current
appeared at the output is not a pure direct current but a pulsating direct current.

The value of the pulsating direct current changes with respect to time. This is due to the
ripples in the output signal. These ripples can be reduced by using filters such as capacitor and
inductor. The average output DC voltage across the load resistor is double that of the single half
wave rectifier circuit.
Output waveforms of full wave rectifier

The first waveform represents an input AC signal. The second waveform and third
waveform represents the DC signals or DC current produced by diode D1 and diode D2. The last
waveform represents the total output DC current produced by diodes D1and D2. From the above
waveforms, we can conclude that the output current produced at the load resistor is not a pure
DC but a pulsating DC.

Characteristics of full wave rectifier

Ripple factor

The ripple factor is used to measure the amount of ripples present in the output DC
signal. A high ripple factor indicates a high pulsating DC signal while a low ripple factor
indicates a low pulsating DC signal. Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the
pure DC voltage. The ripple factor is given by

Finally, we get
γ = 0.48

Rectifier efficiency
Rectifier efficiency indicates how efficiently the rectifier converts AC into DC. A high
percentage of rectifier efficiency indicates a good rectifie
rectifierr while a low percentage of rectifier
efficiency indicates an inefficient rectifier. Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC
output power to the AC input power.

It can be mathematically written as

η = output PDC / input PAC

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is twice that of the half wave rectifier. So the full
wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier

Peak inverse voltage (PIV)

Peak inverse voltage or peak reverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can
withstand in the reverse bias condition. If the applied voltage is greater than the peak inverse
voltage, the diode will be permanently destroyed.

The peak inverse voltage (PIV) = 2Vsmax

DC output current

At the output load resistor RL, both the diode D1 and diode D2 currents flow in the same
direction. So the output current is the sum of D1 and D2 currents.

The current produced by D1 is Imax / π and the current produced by D2 is Imax / π.

So the output current IDC = 2Imax / π

Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current

DC output voltage

The DC output voltage appeared at the load resistor RL is given as

VDC = 2Vmax /π

Where,
Vmax = maximum secondary voltage
Root mean square
are (RMS) value of load current IRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a full wave rectifier is

Root mean square (RMS) value of the output load voltage VRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a full wave rectifier is

Form factor

Form factor is the ratio of RMS value of current to the DC output current

It can be mathematically written as

F.F = RMS value of current / DC output current

The form factor of a full wave rectifier is F.F = 1.11

Advantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

• High rectifier efficiency

• Low power loss
• In a half wave rectifier, only half cycle (positive or negative half cycle) is allowed and
the remaining half cycle is blocked. As a result, more than half of the voltage is wasted.
But in full wave rectifier, both half cycles (positive and negative half cycles) are allowed
at the same time. So no signal is wasted in a full wave rectifier.
• Low ripples

Disadvantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

• High cost
• The center tapped transformers are expensive and occupy a large space.
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge. The transformer
secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A & C. The
load resistance RL is connected to bridge through points B and D.
During the first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D1 and
D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and
returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and
D4 are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC.

During the second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer
secondary winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and D4 become
forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns
back to the source flowing through arm DA. Thus the direction of flow of current through the
load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage.

Peak Inverse Voltage of a Full wave bridge rectifier

PIV of a bridge rectifier = Vmax (max of secondary voltage)

Peak Current

The instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier is given as

vs = Vs max Sin wt

If the diode is assumed to have a forward resistance of RF ohms and a reverse resistance equal to
infinity, the current flowing through the load resistance is given as
i1 = Imax Sin wt and i2 = 0 for the first half cycle

i1 = 0 and i2 = Imax Sin wt for second half cycle

The total current flowing through the load resistance RL, being the sum of currents i1 and i2 is
given as

i = i1 + i2 = Imax Sin wt for the whole cycle.

Where the peak value of the current flowing through the load resistance RL is given as

Imax = Vsmax/(2RF + RL)

Output Current

DC Output Voltage

Average or dc value of voltage across the load is given as

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current

RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance RL is given as

RMS Value of Current of Full Wave Rectifier

Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Output Voltage

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

Rectification Efficiency

Power delivered to load,

Ripple Factor

Form factor of the rectified output voltage of a full wave rectifier is given as

Advantages

• The rectification efficiency is much higher than that of half wave rectifier. It is
approximately double to that of half wave rectifier i.e. it is about 81%.
• The filtering circuit required in full wave rectifier is simple because ripple factor in the
case of full wave rectifier is very low as compared to that of half wave rectifier. The
value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier it is about
1.21.
• The DC currents flowing in the two halves of the secondary winding of transformer flow
in opposite direction, thus, the problem of DC saturation of core is eliminated in full
wave rectifiers.

Disadvantages

• The full wave rectifiers need more circuit elements than half wave rectifier which makes
it costlier.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The output voltage of the full wave rectifier is not constant, it is always pulsating. But
this cannot be used in real life applications. In other words, we desire a DC power supply with a
constant output voltage. In order to achieve a smooth and constant voltage a filter with a
capacitor or an inductor is used. The circuit diagram below shows a half wave rectifier with
capacitor filter.

Comparison of rectifier circuits

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The Bipolar Junction Transistor is a semiconductor device which can be used for
switching or amplification. A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three terminals connected to
three doped semiconductor regions. In an NPN transistor, a thin and lightly doped P-type
P base is
sandwiched between a heavily doped N N-type emitter and another N-type collector;
collector while in a
PNP transistor, a thin and lightly doped N N-type base is sandwiched between a heavily doped P-P
type emitter and another P-type collector
collector.. In the following we will only consider NPN BJTs.

The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

Construction
The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of “conventional current
flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always
points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,
exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.

The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction transistors mentioned above are given
below.

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base and
collector. JE and JC represent junction of emitter and junction of collector respectively. Now
initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter based junction is forward biased and collector
base junctions is reverse biased.

N-P-N Bipolar Junction Transistor

As started before in n-p-n bipolar transistor one p-type semiconductor resides between two
n-type semiconductors the diagram below a n-p-n transistor is shown

Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and VCB are emitter base
voltage and collector base voltage respectively. According to convention if for the emitter, base
and collector current IE, IB and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken
as positive and if current goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative. We can
tabulate the different currents and voltages inside the n-p-n transistor.
 Transistor
IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
type

n-p-n – + + – + +

P-N-P Bipolar Junction Transistor

Similarly for p-n-p bipolar junction transistor a n-type semiconductors is sandwiched

between two p-type semiconductors. The diagram of a p-n-p transistor is shown below,

For p-n-p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the emitter terminal. Like
any bipolar junction transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base
junction is reverse biased. We can tabulate the emitter, base and collector current, as well as the
emitter base, collector base and collector emitter voltage for p-n-p transistors also.

Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE

p–n–p + – – + – –

Working Principle of BJT

Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor biasing), the
BE junction is forward biased whereas the CB junction is reversed biased. The width of the
depletion region of the BE junction is small as compared to that of the CB junction. The forward
bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow from the
emitter to base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so some of the
electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes present in the base region and
flow out of the base terminal. This constitutes the base current, it flows due to recombination of
electrons and holes (Note that the direction of conventional current flow is opposite to that of
flow of electrons). The remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse biased
collector junction to constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,

The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector current.

Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a p-n-p transistor is same as of
the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority charge carriers are holes instead of electrons.
Only a small part current flows due to majority carriers and most of the current flows due to
minority charge carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier devices.

Here the operation of PNP transistor is same as the NPN transistor the only difference is only
holes instead of electrons. The below diagram shows the PNP transistor of the active mode
region.

Advantages of BJT
• High driving capability
• High frequency operation
• Digital logic family has an emitter coupled logic used in BJTs as a digital switch

Applications of BJT
• Switching
• Amplification

Bipolar Junction Transistors Characteristics

The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before knowing about the bipolar
junction transistor characteristics, we have to know about the modes of operation for this type of
transistors. The modes are

• Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

• Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
• Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
Common Base (CB) Configuration
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration,
the BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal. The input
signal is applied between the transistors base and the emitter terminals, while the corresponding
output signal is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown. The base
terminal is grounded or can be connected to some fixed reference voltage point.
The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current
and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of “1” (unity) or less, in other
words the common base configuration “attenuates” the input signal.

Common Base Transistor Circuit

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier circuit, in that

the signal voltages Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. This type of transistor arrangement is not very
common due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its input characteristics represent
that of a forward biased diode while the output characteristics represent that of an illuminated
photo-diode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input
resistance or more importantly “load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin ) giving it a
value of “Resistance Gain”. Then the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is
therefore given as:

Input characteristics:
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current
whereas output voltage is constant. To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage
VCB is kept constant at zero and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEB. This
is repeated for higher fixed values of VCB.
A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector
base voltage is shown in figure. When VCB is zero EB junctions is forward biased. So it behaves
as a diode so that emitter current increases rapidly.
Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant. To determine output characteristics, the emitter current IE is
kept constant at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCB. This is
repeated for higher fixed values of IE.
From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of
VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCB. As the emitter base junction is forward biased
the majority carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are injected into the base region.
In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the
quasi- neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base therefore
changes, yielding an increased collector current as the collector-base current is increased. This
effect is referred to as the Early effect.
Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied
between the base and the emitter, while the output is taken from between the collector and the
emitter as shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor
based amplifiers and which represents the “normal” method of bipolar transistor connection.
The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power gain
of all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because the input impedance is
LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as
it is taken from a reverse biased PN-junction.

• In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
• As the load resistance (RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of
the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib. A
transistors current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β).
• As the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the
ratio of Ic/Ie is called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha
will always be less than unity.
• Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by
the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (Ib),
will result in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ).
• Then, small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the
emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general
purpose transistors. So if a transistor has a Beta value of say 100, then one electron will
flow from the base terminal for every 100 electrons flowing between the emitter-collector
terminal.
• By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical
relationship between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can
be given as:
Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is the current flowing into the
base terminal and “Ie” is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.
The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting
output signal has a 180o phase-shift with regards to the input voltage signal.

Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current whereas
output voltage is constant. To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is
kept constant at zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBE. This is
repeated for higher fixed values of VCE.

A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector base
voltage is shown in figure. Here the base width decreases. So curve moves right as
VCE increases.
Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current whereas
input current is constant. To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant
at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCE. This is repeated for
higher fixed values of IB.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, Ic is independent of VCB and the
curves are parallel to the axis of VCE.

The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:

o Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements.

o Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A

o Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V.

Common Collector (CC) Configuration

In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now

common through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output
is taken from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as
a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
The common collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.

Common Collector Transistor Circuit

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value
of the transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in
series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current.

As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current
combined, the load resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector
current and the input current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is
given as:

Common Collector Current Gain

 This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal
voltages of Vin and Vout are “in-phase”. It has a voltage gain that is always less than “1” (unity).
The load resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and collector
currents giving a large current gain (as with the common emitter configuration) therefore,
providing good current amplification with very little voltage gain.

Input Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltage to input current whereas
output voltage is constant. To determine input characteristics, the emitter base voltage VEB is
kept constant at zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBC. This is
repeated for higher fixed values of VCE.A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter
voltage at constant collector base voltage is shown in figure
Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltage to output current
whereas input current is constant. To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept
constant at zero and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated
for higher fixed values of IB. From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is
independent of VEB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.

Applications of BJT:

BJT’s are suitable for high frequency applications. They are used in radio frequency for wireless
systems. Another application of BJT can be stated as small signal amplifier, metal proximity
photocell, etc.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)

A field effect transistor is a voltage controlled device i.e. the output characteristics of the device
are controlled by input voltage. There are two basic types of field effect transistors:

1. Junction field effect transistor (JFET)

2. Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

A JFET is a three terminal semiconductor device in which current conduction is by one type of
carrier i.e. electrons or holes.

The current conduction is controlled by means of an electric field between the gate and the
conducting channel of the device.

The JFET has high input impedance and low noise level.

Construction Details

A JFET consists of a p-type

type or nn-type silicon bar containing two PN junctions at the sides as
shown in fig.1.

Fig.1(i) Fig.1 (ii)

The bar forms the conducting channel for the charge carriers.

If the bar is of p-type,

type, it is called pp-channel JFET as shown in fig.1(i)) and if the bar is of n-type,
n
it is called n-channel
channel JFET as shown in fig.1(ii).

The two pn junctions forming diodes are connected internally and a common terminal called gate
is taken out.

Other terminals are source and drain taken out from the bar as sh
shown in fig.1.
Thus a JFET has three terminals such as , gate (G), source (S) and drain (D).

Working of JFET

Operation of JFET can be studied separately for both N-channel and P-channel.

N-Channel Operation of JFET

The working of JFET can be explained by discussing about how to turn on N-channel
JFET and how to turn off N-channel JFET. For turning ON a N-channel JFET, positive voltage
of VDD has to be applied to the drain terminal of the transistor with respect to source terminal
such that the drain terminal must be appropriately more positive than the source terminal. Thus,
current flow is allowed through the drain to source channel. If the voltage at the gate terminal,
VGG is 0V, then there will be maximum current at the drain terminal and N-channel JFET is said
to be in ON condition.

For turning off the N-channel JFET, the positive bias voltage can be turned off or a negative
voltage can be applied to the gate terminal. Thus, by changing the polarity of the gate voltage the
drain current can be reduced and then N-channel JFET is said to be in OFF condition.

P-Channel Operation of JFET

For turning ON P-channel JFET, negative voltage can be applied across the drain
terminal of the transistor with respect to source terminal such that the drain terminal must be
appropriately more negative than the source terminal. Thus, the current flow is allowed through
the drain to source channel. If the voltage at the gate terminal, VGG is 0V, then there will be
maximum current at the drain terminal and the P-channel JFET is said to be in ON condition.

For turning OFF the P-channel JFET, the negative bias voltage can be turned off or positive
voltage can be applied to the gate terminal. If the gate terminal is given positive voltage, then the
drain currents starts reducing (until cutoff) and thus the P-channel JFET is said to be in OFF
condition.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JFETS

There are two types of static characteristics

(1) Output or drain characteristic and

(2) Transfer characteristic.

1. Output or Drain Characteristic:

The curve drawn between drain current Ip and drain-source voltage VDS with gate-to source
voltage VGS as the parameter is called the drain or output characteristics.

(a) Drain Characteristic with Shorted-Gate

 The circuit diagram for determining the drain characteristic with shorted-gate for an N-
channel JFET is given in figure, and the drain characteristic with shorted-gate is shown in
another figure.

Initially when drain-source voltage Vns is zero, there is no attracting potential at the drain,
so no current flows inspite of the fact that the channel is fully open. This gives drain current Ip =
0. For small applied voltage Vna, the N-type bar acts as a simple semiconductor resistor, and the
drain current increases linearly with the increase in Vds, up to the knee point. This region, (to the
left of the knee point) of the curve is called the channel ohmic region, because in this region the
FET behaves like an ordinary resistor.

With the increase in drain current ID, the ohmic voltage drop between the source and
channel region reverse-biases the gate junction. The reverse-biasing of the gate junction is not
uniform throughout, The reverse bias is more at the drain end than that at the source end of the
channel, so with the increase in Vds, the conducting portion of the channel begins to constrict
more at the drain end. Eventually, a voltage Vds is reached at which the channel is pinched off.
The drain current ID no longer increases with the increase in Vds. It approaches a constant
saturation value. The value of voltage VDS at which the channel is pinched off (i.e. all the free
charges from the channel get removed), is called the pinch-off voltage Vp.

The pinch-off voltage Vp, not too sharply defined on the curve, where the drain current
ID begins to level off and attains a constant value. From point A (knee point) to the point B
(pinch-off point) the drain current ID increases with the increase In voltage Vds following a
reverse square law. The region of the characteristic in which drain current ID remains fairly
constant is called the pinch-off region. It is also sometimes called the saturation
region or amplifier region. In this region the JFET operates as a constant current device
sincedrain current (or output current) remains almost constant. It is the normal operating region
of the JFET when used as an amplifier. The drain current in the pinch-off region with VGS = 0 is
referred to the drain-source saturation current, Idss).
It is to be noted that in the pinch-off (or saturation) region the channel resistance increases in
proportion to increase in VDS and so keeps the drain current almost constant and the reverse bias
required by the gate-channel junction is supplied entirely by the voltage drop across the channel
resistance due to flow of IDsg and not by the external bias because VGS = 0

Drain Characteristics with External Bias

The circuit diagram for determining the drain characteristics with different values of external
bias is shown in figure. and a family of drain characteristics for different values of gate-source
voltage VGS is given in next figure.

It is observed that as the negative gate bias voltage is increased

(1) The maximum saturation drain current becomes smaller because the conducting channel now
becomes narrower.

(2) Pinch-off voltage is reached at a lower value of drain current ID than when VGS = 0. When an
external bias of, say – 1 V is applied between the gate and the source, the gate-channel junctions
are reverse-biased even when drain current, ID is zero. Hence the depletion regions are already
penetrating the channel to a certain extent when drain-| source voltage, VDS is zero. Due to this
reason, a smaller voltage drop along the channel (i.e. smaller than that for VGS = 0) will increase
the depletion regions to the point where 1 they pinch-off the current. Consequently, the pinch-off
voltage VP is reached at a lower 1 drain current, ID when VGS = 0.

(3) The ohmic region portion decreases.

(4) Value of drain-source voltage VDS for the avalanche breakdown of the gate junction is
reduced.
2. Transfer Characteristic of JFET

The transfer characteristic for a JFET can be determined experimentally, keeping drain-
source voltage, VDS constant and determining drain current, ID for various values of gate-source
voltage, VGS. The curve is plotted between gate-source voltage, VGS and drain current, ID, as
illustrated in fig. It is similar to the trans-conductance characteristic of a vacuum tube or a
transistor. It is observed that

(i) Drain current decreases with the increase in negative gate-source bias

(ii) Drain current, ID = IDSS when VGS = 0

(iii) Drain current, ID = 0 when VGS = VD The transfer characteristic follows equation (9.1)

The transfer characteristic can also be derived from the drain characteristic by noting
values of drain current, ID corresponding to various values of gate-source voltage, VGS for a
constant drain-source voltage and plotting them.

It may be noted that a P-channel JFET operates in the same way and have the similar
characteristics as an N-channel JFET except that channel carriers are holes instead of electrons
and the polarities of VGS and VDS are reversed.

Advantages

1. It is simpler to fabricate, smaller in size, rugged in construction and has longer life and higher
efficiency.

2. It has a high input impedance (of the order of 100 M Q), because its input circuit (gate to
source) is reverse biased
3. It carries very small current because of the reverse biased gate and, therefore, it operates just
like a vacuum tube where control grid

4. It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance and, therefore, has better thermal
stability.

5. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current

Disadvantages

1. Greater susceptibility to damage in its handling.

2. JFET has low voltage gains because of small trans-conductance.

3. Costlier when compared to BJT’s.