2788 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO.
12, DECEMBER 2006
Frequency-Adaptive Network Modeling for
Integrative Simulation of Natural and Envelope
Waveforms in Power Systems and Circuits
Kai Strunz, Rachel Shintaku, and Feng Gao
Abstract—Algorithms for the simulation of transients in power
electric systems and circuits can be classified into two major cat-
egories. For the simulation of diverse transients in ac and dc net-
works, the algorithms process instantaneous signals in the time do-
main to track natural waveforms as observed in reality. For the
simulation of lower frequency transients that modulate ac carriers
in ac networks, algorithms that process phasor signals to track
envelope waveforms are popular. The methodology proposed in
this paper uses analytic signals to bridge the merits of instanta-
neous and phasor signals and enable the efficient simulation of
both natural and envelope waveforms as well as the smooth tran-
sition between both. The key enabling method referred to as fre-
quency-adaptive simulation of transients (FAST) is distinguished
by the introduction of the shift frequency as a simulation param-
eter in addition to the time-step size. This distinguishes the method-
ology from the known methods of power system and circuit sim-
ulation, which only use the setting of the time-step size to adapt
the simulation process. By setting the shift frequency to a nonzero
value, the Fourier spectra of the analytic signals are shifted and
adapted according to the waveform type of interest. This adds value
because different types of transients with and without an ac carrier
can be simulated efficiently and accurately within one and the same
simulation run. To provide compatibility with existing tools, the nu-
merical integration is formulated to model the network branches
such that nodal analysis can readily be used to construct the overall
network model. Calculations of the accuracy as well as test studies
that cover network energization and deenergization, angle mod-
ulation, and amplitude modulation substantiate the claims made
and demonstrate the application of the methodology.
Index Terms—Algorithms, circuit modeling, electromagnetic
transients (EMTs), electromechanical transients, envelope de-
tection, Hilbert transform, numerical integration, power-system
modeling, power-system simulation, Simulation Program with
Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE).
I. INTRODUCTION
HE electromagnetic transients program (EMTP) [1], [2]
T and Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis
(SPICE) [3] are widely used for the accurate simulation of
natural waveforms as observed in power electric systems and
circuits [4]–[6]. These natural waveforms are real and instan-
taneous. The effectiveness of the solution methods of EMTP
Manuscript received October 26, 2005; revised June 10, 2006. This work was
supported by the National Science Foundation under Award ECS-0238523. This
paper was recommended by Associate Editor I. A. Hiskens.
The authors are with the SESAME Laboratory, Department of Electrical En-
gineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2500 USA (e-mail:
strunz@ee.washington.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCSI.2006.883864
1057-7122/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
and SPICE is reduced when the Fourier spectrum of the nat-
ural waveforms is concentrated on a narrow bandwidth about
an ac carrier frequency. In electronic circuits, such bandpass
waveforms are often obtained through modulation of a high-fre-
quency ac carrier. In power electric systems where ac carrier
frequencies are typically either 50 or 60 Hz, perturbations
such as electromechanical oscillations cause low-frequency
deviations of voltages and currents and so create bandpass
waveforms of narrow bandwidth. It is often these modulations
and perturbations that contain the information of interest. To
represent them in a simulation study, it suffices to display
the envelope of the bandpass waveform. However, since the
algorithms of EMTP and SPICE are aimed at simulating natural
waveforms, they also track the ac carrier and the time-step size
must be selected small enough to sample the ac carrier.
To allow for the efficient representation of the envelopes of
bandpass waveforms in power electric system simulation, the
use of quasi-stationary phasor calculus was proposed in [7]. In
quasi-stationary phasor calculus, network branches are repre-
sented through complex impedances at the carrier frequency.
This means that the network behavior is described through a set
of algebraic equations. In order to allow for the use of phasor
calculus at adequate accuracy when the bandwidth is higher, dy-
namic phasor calculus was developed. The dynamic phasors are
defined as the Fourier coefficients of the natural waveforms. Dy-
namic phasor calculus has been applied to the study of transients
in power electric networks and associated electric machinery
[8]–[10]. Similarly, efficient phasor-based simulation has been
used to study the envelopes of modulated ac waveforms in elec-
tronic circuits [11], [12].
The development of models aimed at either the simulation
of natural waveforms on the one hand or envelope waveforms
on the other hand has led to the emergence of different types
of tools. Tools for simulating natural waveforms use algorithms
that process instantaneous signals. Tools for simulating enve-
lope waveforms use algorithms that process dynamic phasors.
Both types of tools have their relative merits depending on the
primary objective of a simulation study. However, if it is of in-
terest to study both natural and envelope waveforms within one
study, then it is inconvenient to switch tools to obtain the respec-
tive information. For example, a study may include the need to
study low-frequency perturbations of an ac carrier followed by
the deenergization of the network due to disconnection of the
ac source. Algorithms using dynamic phasors are particularly
efficient in simulating the envelope waveforms of the low-fre-
quency perturbation of the ac carrier, while algorithms using in-
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING 2789

stantaneous signals are efficient in simulating the natural wave-

forms of the following deenergization.
The methodology developed in this paper supports the in-
tegrative simulation of both natural and envelope waveforms
within one and the same study. The development of the method-
ology includes three principle contributions. First, companion
models that process analytic signals and serve as building blocks Fig. 1. Conventions for an inductance; left: original element, right: companion
model.
in the nodal-analysis-based construction of the network model
are created. Compared with the companion models that emu-
late network branches in EMTP and SPICE, the shift frequency
appears as a new simulation parameter. This parameter allows Using trapezoidal integration, (1) is discretized as follows:
the user to specify the shifting of the Fourier spectrum of the
analytic signals. Instead of performing only a one-dimensional (2)
setting of the time-step size, the setting of the simulation pa-
rameters is now two-dimensional and includes time-step size where is the time-step size and is the time-step counter. By
and shift frequency. As it will be shown, the so-obtained flex- substituting
ibility enables the adaptation of the simulation process to both
the tracking of natural and envelope waveforms. Second, as the
(3)
simulation parameters are now two-dimensional, the contribu-
tion of the shift frequency setting to the accuracy and efficiency (4)
of the modeling is evaluated and guidelines for the setting of
the shift frequency as the novel parameter are developed. Third,
the proposed methodology was implemented in the simulator the inductance is thus modeled through a conductance and a
Virtual Integrator for Synthesis, Testing and Analysis (VISTA) history source . The resulting companion model is shown
[13], validated, and applied in diverse studies that include net- in Fig. 1 [1], [14]. The same approach is used to obtain the com-
work energization and deenergization, angle modulation, and panion model of a capacitance.
amplitude modulation. 2) Network Construction: The network model is obtained
Section II is intended to provide the reader with the required by connecting the companion models in the same way as the
background knowledge. In Section III, the proposed method- original elements in the network under study. Computationally,
ology is developed, its accuracy analyzed, and the two-dimen- this can be implemented through direct construction [14], also
sional parameter setting is discussed. Diverse applications are referred to as the stamping method. The network is so described
studied in Section IV, and conclusions are drawn in Section V. through a nodal equation system that is solved for the unknown
variables at each time step.

II. STATE OF THE ART B. Analytic Signals

Both EMTP and SPICE rely on nodal analysis for the network All naturally generated signals are real. For the purpose of
modeling. In Section II-A, it is shown how branch models are signal processing, it can be desirable to modify the original real
established and the network model is constructed in these pop- signal. By adding a quadrature component as an imaginary part,
ular simulation tools. In Section II-B, the key characteristics of analytic signals are obtained [15], [16].
analytic signals are reviewed. 1) Hilbert Transform: The quadrature component of a signal
is obtained through the Hilbert transform
A. Nodal-Analysis-Based Simulation Using Instantaneous
Signals
(5)
The nodal-analyis-based simulation approach as imple-
mented in EMTP and SPICE involves the development of
companion models followed by the connection of the latter to
The analytic signal, marked by an underscore to indicate that it
the network model.
is complex, is then obtained as follows:
1) Branch Companion Model for Instantaneous Signals:
While the relationship of voltages and currents of resistances is
governed by Ohm’s law, voltages and currents of inductances
(6)
and capacitances are related through differential equations. The
inductance depicted in Fig. 1 is described through the following
The effect of the creation of the analytic signal from an orig-
differential equation:
inal signal with bandpass character and carrier frequency is
shown in Fig. 2. While the Fourier spectrum of the real signal
extends to negative frequencies, this is not the case for the
(1) Fourier spectrum of the corresponding analytic signal .
2790 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006
Fig. 2. Application of the Hilbert transform.
Fig. 3. Shifting by the carrier frequency.
2) Frequency Shifting: The analytic signal can be shifted
by the frequency , which is hereafter referred to as shift fre-
quency, as follows:
(7)
Expressed in terms of the angular frequency , (7) is
rewritten as
(8)
Of particular interest is the case where the shift frequency is
made equal to the carrier frequency: or . In this
case, the complex envelope [15] is obtained
(9)
The graphical interpretation of this operation is given in Fig. 3.
It can be seen that the complex envelope is a low-pass signal,
whose maximum frequency is reduced as a result of the shifting.
3) Magnitude: The envelope or magnitude of the analytic
signal is calculated as follows:
(10)
Since , the magnitude is not changed through
the shift operation. It follows from (9) that the magnitude can
readily be derived from the complex envelope [15]
(11)
As evidenced by Fig. 3, the complex envelope is a low-pass
signal whose maximum frequency is lower than the one of the
original real bandpass signal. In accordance with Shannon’s
sampling theorem [15], a lower sampling rate can be chosen
when tracking the complex envelope rather than the original
bandpass signal.
III. NODAL-ANALYSIS-BASED SIMULATION USING
FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE ANALYTIC SIGNALS
An overview of the signals processed in available power-
system and circuit simulation tools, the waveform types that
are emulated, and the typical applications of interest are given
in Table I. Simulation based on instantaneous signals is used
TABLE I
SIGNALS AND WAVEFORMS IN AVAILABLE SIMULATION TOOLS
TABLE II
SIGNALS AND WAVEFORMS IN FAST
to emulate natural waveforms as generated in reality. Instanta-
neous signals have shown to be effective in the simulation of
diverse transients in dc networks as well as transients in ac net-
works where the frequencies involved are higher than the carrier
frequency. An example for such phenomena are EMTs caused
through switching discontinuities. Since the signals are instan-
taneous, the ac carriers are tracked if present and represented in
the simulation results. This is not the case in simulation based
on dynamic phasors, which are suitable for tracking envelope
waveforms in ac networks. Typically, dynamic phasors are pre-
ferred over instantaneous signals when low-frequency transients
modulate the ac carrier. Phasors are not suitable for studying
transients in dc networks.
The simulation concept frequency-adaptive simulation of
transients (FAST) developed in the present section allows for
both the simulation of natural and envelope waveforms as well
as the smooth transition between them. As stated in Table II, the
simulation concept makes use of shiftable analytic signals and
so combines the virtues of instantaneous and phasor signals.
In a first step, a numerical integrator and a differentiator for
analytic signals are developed in Section III-A. Based on the
integrator and differentiator for analytic signals, companion
models that use analytic signals are developed in Section III-B.
Network modeling is considered in Section III-C. The accu-
racy of the modeling is calculated in Section III-D. Parameter
settings are discussed in Section III-E. The added value of the
methodology is elaborated upon in Section III-F.
A. Trapezoidal Integrator and Differentiator for Analytic
Signals
For the purpose of discretizing the differential equations in
the simulation with analytic signals, appropriate integrators and
differentiators need to be available [13], [17]. Furthermore, they
need to be put into a format that allows the derivation of com-
panion models. The formulation of these integrators and differ-
entiators is dealt with in this section.
1) Trapezoidal Integrator for Analytic Signals: In the con-
tinuous time domain, an integrator with gain , input ana-
lytic signal , and output analytic signal is described as
follows:
(12)
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING 2791

If there are outputs that in turn linearly depend on inputs, or

then the following description can be established:

for (13)
(21)

In matrix form, (13) is written as follows: Equation (21) can be rearranged as follows:

(14)
(22)
where is an matrix. Frequency shifting of the Fourier
spectra of the vector of output analytic signals is performed as
follows: By defining the feedforward term and the history term ,
(22) becomes
(15)
(23)
Insertion of (15) into (14) yields
with
(16) (24)

Equation (16) can be expanded as follows:

(17)

and solved for the derivative of the shifted output analytic signal (25)

For the scalar case, (23), (24), and (25) are

(18)
(26)
Application of the trapezoidal method to transform (18) into a
difference equation leads to with
(27)

(19)

The difference term on the left of (19) is expressed in terms of (28)

the shifted signal. Since, as shown in Fig. 3, frequency shifting
is performed to reduce the maximum frequency in the Fourier
spectrum, the shifted signal changes at a lower rate compared A key difference between the trapezoidal integrator for real
with the unshifted counterpart. Thus, for rad/s a larger instantaneous signals and the presented trapezoidal integrator
time-step size can be chosen compared with the case where the for analytic signals is the availability of the shift frequency
differences are considered. This, in turn, re- as an adjustable parameter in addition to the time-step size
duces the number of time steps and the associated computational .
effort. In the unshifted case of Hz, (27) and (28) simplify as
Backsubstitution of analytic signals yields follows:
(29)

(30)
For Hz, the numerical integration is performed in the
same way as for real instantaneous signals.
2) Trapezoidal Differentiator for Analytic Signals: In the
(20)
continuous time domain, a differentiator with gain , input
2792 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006

analytic signal , output analytic signal is described as

follows:

(31)

If outputs linearly depend on inputs, then in the same way Fig. 4. Frequency-adaptive companion model of an inductance.
as for the integrator an matrix can be introduced
In the unshifted case of Hz, (40) and (41) simplify as
follows:
(32) (42)

Frequency shifting the vector of input analytic signals is per- (43)

formed as follows:
For Hz the differentiation is performed in the same way
as for instantaneous signals.

(33)
B. Frequency-Adaptive Companion Model
Insertion of (33) into (32) yields
The trapezoidal integrator and differentiator for analytic sig-
nals developed in Section III-A have already been formulated
to facilitate the creation of companion models for network
(34) branches. As the integrator and differentiator, the companion
models also have the shift frequency as an adjustable param-
Application of the trapezoidal method to transform (34) into a eter. Therefore, they are hereafter called frequency-adaptive
difference equation and, as detailed in Appendix A, proceeding companion models. In the following, the development of these
in a similar way as for the trapezoidal integrator in the previous models is elaborated for single-phase inductances, magnetically
section leads to coupled inductances, and capacitances.
1) Inductance: When using analytic instead of real signals,
the differential equation describing the behavior of the induc-
tance in Fig. 1 becomes
(35)
(44)
Introducing the feedforward term and the history term ,
(35) becomes Comparing (44) and (12) reveals that ,
, and . Defining admittance , history
(36) source and considering (26), (27), and (28), the com-
panion model is
with
(45)
(37)
with
(46)
(38)

For the scalar case, (36), (37), and (38), become

(39)
(47)
with

(40) The resulting companion model is depicted in Fig. 4 [13]. It is

of the same structure as the one shown in Fig. 1. However, now
and are complex. Shiftable analytic signals rather than
real instantaneous signals are processed and the shift frequency
(41) appears as a new parameter.
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING 2793

Therefore, it is helpful to provide for the option to specify the

entrees of the matrix [18].
2) Capacitance: Using analytic signals, the differential
equation describing the behavior of the capacitance in passive
polarity convention is as follows:

(54)

Comparing (54) and (31) reveals that ,

, and . Defining conductance , history
source and considering (39), (40) and (41), the com-
panion model is

Fig. 5. Current and voltage conventions for magnetically coupled inductances.

(55)
In the continuous time domain, the magnetically coupled in-
ductances shown in Fig. 5 can be modeled as follows: with

(56)

.. .. .. .. ..
.. . . . . .
. (57)

(48) As the companion model of the inductance, the companion

or model of the capacitance consists of the parallel connection of
an admittance and a current source.
In multiphase networks, charges generally depend on all volt-
ages and vice versa. Such coupling between phases of different
(49) conductors is described through mutual capacitances. The de-
scription of such effects can be readily derived from the matrix
forms (36), (37) and (38).
Using analytic signals, (49) becomes

C. Network Construction
(50)
The method of direct construction, reviewed in
Section II-A-2, is applied to establish the network model in the
A comparison of (50) and (14) reveals that , same way as it is done in EMTP and SPICE. This facilitates
, and . Considering (23), (24), (25), integration with existing simulation drivers from a practical
and defining conductance matrix and history source standpoint.
vector , the companion model is

(51) D. Accuracy

with The transfer function approach can be used to examine the

accuracy of numerical integration [19] and is also applied here-
after. Based on the outcome, the relative errors of the induc-
(52) tance and capacitance models are calculated and guidelines for
the shift frequency setting are derived. To start the analysis, the
ideal integrator is considered as a reference. The ideal integrator
in (12) is a linear time invariant (LTI) system of which the com-
plex exponential is an eigen function [15]

(58)
(53)
Therefore, the response is given by
There are situations where may not exist. This is, for example,
the case when this approach is used to model ideal transformers. (59)
2794 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006

where is the transfer function and gives the frequency re-

sponse. In the case of ideal integration, the frequency response
is

(60)

The complex exponential is also an eigen function of LTI dis-

crete time systems [16]. Using the transfer function approach in
the discrete time domain with
(61)
(62)
where is the transfer function of the frequency-adaptive
integration. As a function of frequency, the complex exponential
is very useful to assess how the frequency-adaptive integration
treats various frequencies. Furthermore, since the magnitude of
the complex exponential is fixed in size and does not have a zero
crossing, it is suitable for assessing the relative error, which is
particularly meaningful.
Inserting (61) and (62) into (26), (27), and (28) gives
Fig. 6. Comparison of ideal elements and frequency-adaptive companion
models in the frequency domain.
or
(69)
In Fig. 6, the ideal inductance and capacitance as well as the fre-
quency-domain representations of the frequency-adaptive com-
panion models are summarized. Since is real, the numerical
integration does not introduce any phase error and therefore the
models and are real. In the special case of Hz,
the frequency-domain representations of the companion models
are the same as those obtained in [20] through the application
of the trapezoidal method on real instantaneous signals. An il-
lustrative measure of the accuracy is given by the relative error
of the frequency-adaptive companion models

(70)
(63)
(71)
Rearranging and resolving for gives
Inserting (67) into (70) gives
(64)
(72)
with
Inserting (69) into (71) yields the same result. Therefore, the
(65) new symbol is introduced

As discussed in Section III-B-1, in the case of an inductance (73)

, , and . In this case, (64)
gives the admittance associated with the inductance. Therefore, The relative error is zero when the shift frequency equals
the modeled inductance of the frequency-adaptive companion the frequency of the waveform
models becomes
(74)
(66) Thus, the error is zero when a waveform with a single discrete
frequency is considered. This is true independent of the time-
or step size and a very important attribute of the frequency-adap-
tive companion models.
(67) In the simulation of transients, the Fourier spectrum does not
contain only a single discrete frequency. It is therefore helpful
As derived in Appendix B, for the capacitance the following to establish an operating range within which the error is
relationship is found: sufficiently small. In the case of Hz, which corresponds
to the companion model for instantaneous signals, it was shown
(68) in [20] that the distortions are visibly low for . In
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING
Fig. 7. Ratios of modeled and ideal L, C for diverse shift frequencies.
general, is desirable for Hz. For
this condition extends to
With (75), the tangent function in (73) can be approximated
using the Taylor–Maclaurin power series expansion as follows:
(76)
Using (76) to calculate the relative error in (73) leads to
Equation (77) shows how the relative error depends on shift fre-
quency and time-step size given that (75) is maintained.
By having available as a parameter and adjusting it appropri-
ately, the time-step size can be greatly increased for enhanced
computational speed in the simulation of modulating transients
in ac networks with Fourier spectra similar to those in Fig. 2.
A setting of is often sensible. For transients in dc net-
works and a setting of Hz, the accuracy is the same as
for the companion models for instantaneous signals reviewed in
Section II-A. By specifying a maximum magnitude of the rel-
ative error and resolving (77) for , it is further possible
to automate the setting of the time-step size with techniques as
those described in [17]. Numerical examples of the relative error
are studied in Section IV-B.
It is very important to note that while frequency shifting ap-
pears particularly attractive for the simulation of modulating
transients in ac networks, the accuracy of simulating any high-
frequency transients is also improved. To substantiate this state-
ment, the ratios of and , which are both equal to
, are considered in Fig. 7. For , the ratios are
equal to one because the error is zero. As increases with re-
spect to , the error increases for a given time-step size . By
reducing the time-step size, the error can be decreased. The lines
for and Hz can barely be distinguished. This
observation shows that for the accuracy without FAST
is approached. It can be seen that for any given time-step size
and , the error is always below the error obtained for
zero shift Hz. Thus, the accuracy of simulating high-fre-
quency transients is improved even though the degree of im-
provement decreases as increases.
2795
Fig. 8. From one-dimensional to two-dimensional parameter setting in
simulation.
Hz,
(75)
Fig. 9. Tracked carrier waveform; solid: carrier; 2: sampling points.
(77)
E. Two-Dimensional Operating Point
The time-step size is an important parameter both in simula-
tion based on instantaneous signals and in simulation based on
dynamic phasors. In the same way as it is done for the simulation
with instantaneous signals or dynamic phasors, the time-step
size is also selected in the simulation with analytic signals. How-
ever, the frequency-adaptive companion models also support the
setting of the shift frequency. In Fig. 8, the shaded areas indi-
cate where the possible operating points can be located when
both time-step size and shift frequency can be set. While the
parameter setting in either instantaneous or phasor signal simu-
lation is one-dimensional, it is two-dimensional for FAST.
To illustrate the value introduced by the two-dimen-
sional setting and to complement the accuracy calculation
of Section III-D, the tracking of both natural and envelope
waveforms is compared hereafter. In Fig. 9, the tracking of
the natural waveform of a carrier signal is shown. This is how
signals are tracked in analytic signal simulation for a shift fre-
quency of Hz. It is obvious from Fig. 9 that for a given
carrier frequency the time-step size for tracking the carrier
cannot be increased to arbitrary values. According to Shannon’s
sampling theorem, the maximal time-step size is given by the
Nyquist step size . This is consistent with the
results of Fig. 7, which shows that for Hz the error
goes to infinity for and is desirable. Since
in ac power systems there is a frequency component given by
the carrier frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, the Nyquist step size
corresponding to this carrier frequency imposes a theoretical
maximal time-step size that cannot be exceeded. Due to this
barrier imposed by the presence of the carrier, transients that
modulate the carrier and whose rates of change are significantly
2796 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006
Fig. 10. Tracked envelope and carrier waveform; solid light: carrier; solid bold:
2
envelope; : sampling points.
slower than those of the carrier are not simulated efficiently
using instantaneous signals.
When modulating transients in ac networks are considered,
envelope information is of interest. It is then advantageous to
adjust the shift frequency to the carrier frequency because
the accuracy is enhanced as shown in Section III-D. The com-
panion models for analytic signals then allow for efficient ex-
traction of the envelope information. As illustrated in Fig. 10, a
much larger time-step size can be chosen when only the tracking
of the slower changing envelope is of interest. This effectively
corresponds to phasor simulation. While the theoretical max-
imum time-step size now depends on the difference frequency,
, (77) is useful to obtain an appro-
priate time-step size as discussed in Section III-D.
It can be concluded that for the simulation of diverse tran-
sients in dc networks and whenever it is of interest to track the
carrier in ac networks, the setting Hz is appropriate.
For the simulation of modulating transients whose frequencies
are low compared with the ac carrier frequency and that lead
to waveforms with bandpass character, is appropriate.
In the case when high-frequency transients with in ac
networks are considered, then if
. In this case, both and Hz are appro-
priate as also evidenced by Fig. 7. Together, the shift frequency
and time-step size settings define the two-dimensional operating
point. Practical examples are studied in Sections IV.
F. Added Value
As summarized in Table I, different simulation tools are used
depending on the primary objective of the study. Switching
between these different programs and the associated inconve-
niences can be avoided with the presented frequency-adaptive
companion models because their range of use is extended with
the shift frequency as a novel parameter.
Smooth transitions between the tracking of natural and en-
velope waveforms are also possible within one simulation run.
This is beneficial when the primary objective changes during
the simulation of an ac network. When a high resolution of
the output is of interest, then the natural waveform is tracked.
When fast simulation progress is of interest, then the envelope is
tracked. All this is possible at the proved high level of accuracy.
Further value is added by means of the implementation using
companion models as building blocks that are compatible with
TABLE III
STUDY OF FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE COMPANION MODELS
Fig. 11. Test circuit for switching of carrier and comparison with simulation
of EMTP type.
techniques of nodal analysis. This facilitates the selection of
different shift frequencies in different network parts depending
on whether an ac carrier is present or not.
IV. APPLICATION AND VALIDATION
In order to validate the methodology FAST and illustrate the
diversity of application, the study plan summarized in Table III
was implemented in simulator VISTA. All tests of this study
plan differ in the way ac carriers appear in the simulation
and so cover a broad range of different carrier treatments. In
Section IV-A, energization, steady state, and deenergization
are studied. The carrier is switched. This means that during a
certain period the carrier is present, while during another period
it is not present. Furthermore, the presence of the carrier also
depends on the location within the circuit. It is demonstrated
how the setting of the shift frequency of the companion models
can be adapted to the changing presence of the carrier. For this
purpose, the concept of frequency areas is introduced. The ob-
tained results are compared with the results of a commercially
available simulator of the EMTP type and of a staged field test.
In Section IV-B, the ac carrier of the source voltage is angle
modulated as it is observed in electromechanical oscillations in
power systems. It is validated that a larger time-step size can be
chosen with the frequency-adaptive companion models when
only envelope waveforms are of interest. In Section IV-C, it is
shown that the methodology is equally effective for studying
the simulation of amplitude-modulated carriers.
A. Energization and Deenergization
The validation of the simulation of energization and deener-
gization comprises two important stages. First, the performance
is compared with a simulator of EMTs in Section IV-A-1. Then,
the simulation results are compared with those obtained through
a staged real world test in Section IV-A-2.
1) Validation With Simulator of EMTs: The circuit in Fig. 11
shows an ac power system in which the resistive load and
capacitance are connected to a voltage source via a line. A
further resistive load and capacitance can be supplied
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING 2797

Fig. 12. Natural and envelope waveforms of line voltage simulated with fre-
quency-adaptive network modeling; solid light: natural waveform; solid bold:
envelope.

Fig. 14. Two-dimensional operating point settings of companion models in

source side area.

a rapid drop of the amplitude of the voltage source at s

and the resulting transients in the circuit are considered. Due to
the conditions of low voltage, the circuit breaker (CB), which is
modeled as an ideal switch, is opened at s to dis-
connect the loads. After the study of the deenergization of the
load, the magnitude of the source voltage is ramped up from
Fig. 13. Natural waveform of line voltage simulated with EMTP type.
s. Then, the loads are energized again at s.
As visible in Fig. 12, the proposed methodology allows the
through a transformer. The latter has a turns ratio of 6:1 and a
examination of both natural and envelope waveforms depending
leakage inductance .
on the types of transients observed at a given time point. Up to
The ac source voltage is described by the following excitation
, hefty changes of the amplitude are observed during the ener-
function:
gization. In this period of energization and EMTs, it is of prime
(78) interest to track the natural waveform of exactly. Then, the
transients calm down. This is evidenced by the smaller change
kV Hz of successive peak values of the ac voltage. As a criterion for
this, the rate of change of the envelope is considered. In order
Amplitude is modified at s to study a condi-
to speed the simulation up, it is now possible to monitor the en-
tion of reduced voltage in the network, and the amplitude is in-
velope instead. This transition is shown in the frequency-time
creased back to the original value from s. The line is
chart in Fig. 14 for the source side area. The term source side
represented through two series-connected -models [21] with
refers to the concept of frequency areas introduced later in this
lumped parameters
section. At the beginning of the simulation, the operating point
mH F is set to Hz and s as typical of an EMTs sim-
ulation. The operating point is changed to Hz and
Alternatively, the constant distributed parameter line model for ms at . In accordance with the discussions in Sections III-D
simulating natural and envelope waveforms [22] can be used. and III-E, this allows a large increase of the time-step size. In
For and connected at the end of the line focusing on the envelope, the simulation process is now much
more efficient because the number of operations to be computed
F is reduced by the factor of ms s .
The drop of the amplitude of the ac voltage is observed at
Further power can be supplied via the transformer with leakage
s. This modulating transient can still be tracked at the
inductance and the shown load
time-step size of ms. Therefore, there is no need to change
the operating point of the companion models. At ,
mH F the switch CB is opened to disconnect the loads due to the
low voltage. The opening of the breaker triggers EMTs. Since
At ms, all voltages and currents are zero, and a single switching events are expected to cause hefty changes, this makes
phase is considered. At ms, the energization ideal it interesting to track natural waveforms rather than envelopes.
switch S is closed and the line and loads are energized. The re- Therefore, after switching events, the time-step size returns to
sulting EMT of the line voltage simulated with FAST is de- s, and the shift frequency is set to Hz again
picted in Fig. 12. For the purpose of comparison, the circuit was as shown in Fig. 14. As visible from Fig. 12, the EMTs damp
also simulated with EMTDC [23], which is a simulator of the out rapidly. As steady-state conditions approach, at , the oper-
EMTP type. The EMTDC processes real signals and is there- ating point is moved to Hz and ms. The envelope
fore suitable for representing natural waveforms. The results of is then used to represent the steady state and the following in-
this EMTP type for the line voltage are shown in Fig. 13. Fol- crease of the line voltage, which is obtained by increasing the
lowing this energization, a sequence of events is studied. First, magnitude of the ac source voltage gradually.
2798 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006

Fig. 15. Natural and envelope waveforms of load voltage simulated with fre-
quency-adaptive network modeling; solid light: natural waveform; solid bold:
envelope.

Fig. 16. Natural waveform of load voltage simulated with EMTP type. Fig. 17. Definition and determination of frequency areas as guidance for shift
frequency setting.

As the voltage has recovered, the switch CB is closed again at

to reconnect the loads. Again, this is a switching event and
the operating point is set to Hz and s. This
transition corresponds to in Fig. 14. For the EMTs
resulting from the switching, it is of interest to track the natural
waveform. As the EMTs damp out, it is sensible to return to
envelope tracking as done at .
No difference of the simulation of EMTP type in Fig. 13 and
the corresponding FAST simulation in Fig. 12 is visible. The
simulation of EMTP-type processes real signals and is there-
fore suitable for representing natural waveforms. The constant Fig. 18. Two-dimensional operating point settings of companion models in
time-step size of s was used for the EMTP type. Fur- load side area.
thermore, the envelope in FAST precisely touches the instanta-
neous amplitudes as observed with the EMTP type. It is to be
repeated though that the envelope information was obtained at
the much larger time-step size of ms.
In Fig. 15, the load voltage as obtained with method FAST
is shown for exactly the same simulation run. The simulation
results of the EMTP type are depicted in Fig. 16. Again, the Fig. 19. Test circuit for switching of carrier and comparison with staged field
natural waveforms match, while the envelope precisely touches test.
the instantaneous amplitudes as observed with the EMTP type.
When the switch CB in Fig. 11 is closed, the waveforms of the represents a dc network. Therefore, while the switch is open,
load voltage look similar to those of the line voltage . In the the shift frequency is set to Hz on the load side. The re-
interval , the switch is open and two sulting sequence of operating points of the companion models
disconnected areas exist. In one of the areas, on the load side, on the load side is given in Fig. 18.
there is no ac carrier present. Consequently, in this interval the This simulation study has underlined the flexibility that is
waveforms described by line voltage and load voltage look attained with the frequency-adaptive companion models. The
very different. To deal with the changing carrier availability as shift frequency can be changed as a function of time as well
a function of time as well as location, the concept of frequency as location because it is a parameter of the companion models.
areas is introduced and explained by means of Fig. 17. At the High levels of accuracy have been confirmed through compar-
beginning of the simulation, CB is closed and the entire circuit ison with a well-established and validated simulator that was
is energized by the ac source. The ac carrier is visible in all volt- run at the constant time-step size of 100 s.
ages and currents of the circuit. The typical selection of the shift 2) Validation With Staged Field Test: To further evaluate the
frequency is illustrated through Fig. 14. When the switch opens accuracy of the proposed method, the simulation is compared
at , frequency area 2 is created. Since it is decoupled with a staged field test to study the transient recovery following
from frequency area 1 through the open switch, there is no ac a three-phase-to-ground fault. The setup of the test is illustrated
carrier in frequency area 2. Thus, area 2 on the load side now by means of the one-line diagram of Fig. 19. The substations
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING
Fig. 20. Configuration of equivalent networks connected to Raver and Schultz
substations.
TABLE IV
PARAMETERS OF RAVER AND SCHULTZ EQUIVALENT NETWORKS
TABLE V
PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES ON DOUBLE-CIRCUIT TOWER
TABLE VI
PARAMETERS OF TRANSMISSION LINES ON SINGLE-CIRCUIT TOWER
Raver and Schultz are linked by four three-phase transmission
lines of the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). Line 1 was
grounded at the Raver substation and CB initially closed to em-
ulate the three-phase-to-ground fault. The voltage at the ter-
minal of line 1 at the Schultz substation is monitored during
the short circuit and the following transient recovery. The net-
works connected to the Raver and Schultz substations are repre-
sented as shown in Fig. 20 [24]. While the elements and
model lumped parameters, constitutes the equivalent surge
impedance of transmission lines that are not explicitly shown
here. The parameters are given in Table IV. Subscripts 0 and 1
indicate zero and positive sequences, respectively. The angles of
the given phase voltages refer to sine functions of a frequency
of 60 Hz.
Lines 1 and 2 share a double-circuit tower and are modeled
through six magnetically coupled conductors using alpha, beta,
and zero components [25]. The resistances , inductances ,
and capacitances per unit length are given in Table V for zero
and positive sequences as denoted by subscripts 0 and 1, respec-
tively. The corresponding parameters for three-phase lines 3 and
4 are given in Table VI. All lines are implemented using the con-
stant distributed parameter transmission line model for simula-
tion of natural and envelope waveforms presented in [22]. The
CB is modeled as an ideal switch.
Phase B of voltage is shown in Fig. 21. Before switch CB
opens, the voltage is of sinusoidal shape and describes the car-
rier at the ac source frequency as evidenced by the field test re-
sult, which is drawn in solid light. The envelope as simulated
with FAST at Hz is drawn in solid bold and precisely
touches the natural waveform of the field test. In the staged field
test, phase B of switch CB opened at ms while
2799
Fig. 21. Comparison of phase B of line voltage during short circuit and tran-
sient recovery; solid light: staged field test; solid bold: frequency-adaptive net-
work modeling.
Fig. 22. Test circuit for angle modulation of carrier.
phases A and C of switch CB were still closed. The switching
triggered traveling waves on line 1 leading to the observed tri-
angular oscillation of . In practice, for rating the CB, it is of
particular interest to know the initial rate of rise and the first
peak of the recovery voltage. From Fig. 21, it can be seen that
initial rise and peak of the recovery voltage are accurately ob-
tained by tracking the natural waveform, which is performed at
Hz.
B. Electromechanical Oscillation in Power Electric System
A three-phase ac source connected to an infinite bus via a
step-up transformer and a short line is shown in Fig. 22. The
ac source is representative of a 60 Hz distributed synchronous
generating unit with a rating of 50 kVA, 480 V. The reactances
are given in per unit on the base of 50 kVA, 480 V. The as-
sumed balanced conditions allow for per-phase analysis [21],
performed hereafter. The infinite bus serves as the reference to
measure angles, which refer to sine functions .
The steady-state conditions are marked by subscript 0
Assuming that the ac source has the small inertia constant of
s and that the overall system is lossless, the natural
frequency of the system at which undamped electromechanical
oscillations [26] occur is Hz. This means that small
perturbations of the angle of the ac source describe undamped
harmonic oscillations at the natural frequency.
The objectives of the simulation tests performed hereafter are
twofold. First, it is shown that the effects of angle modulation
[27], which can be formulated as a phase modulation (PM) or a
frequency modulation (FM), can be studied with the frequency-
adaptive companion models. Second, it is demonstrated that the
2800 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006

Fig. 23. Angle difference of ac source and infinite bus simulated with fre- Fig. 25. Terminal power simulated with frequency-adaptive network modeling
quency-adaptive network modeling. at f = 60 Hz and  j = 200 s,  j = 10 ms; solid light:
instantaneous; solid bold: average.

increased to 10 ms and only the envelope can be tracked. How-

ever, even though the time-step size is increased significantly, no
detrimental effect on the accuracy of the envelope simulation is
noticeable. The high level of accuracy can be verified with (73).
To calculate the magnitude of the maximal error, the worst case
needs to be considered. The worst case is obtained when the fre-
Fig. 24. Terminal current simulated with frequency-adaptive network mod- quency attains the minimum. From (80): .
eling at f = 60 Hz and  j = 200 s,  j = 10 ms; solid light: Using (73)
natural; solid bold: envelope.

shift frequency is the critical simulation parameter that needs to

be adjusted properly to allow for efficient envelope tracking. (84)
The perturbation of the angle of the ac source can be de-
scribed in PM form as follows: With Hz, ms and , as given before

(79) (85)

where , , and is the phase Thus, the error of representing the lumped elements is very
disturbance, i. e. the modulating signal of the PM. small indeed. Furthermore, the computational effort is reduced
The instantaneous frequency of the ac source is by a factor of ms s .
The setting of the time-step size also influences how the
power flow can be represented. In Fig. 25, the terminal real
(80)
power, which corresponds to in Fig. 22, is shown. In the first
half of the simulation at the small time-step size, it is possible
where can be treated as the frequency distur- to track the instantaneous power and the average real power.
bance, i. e. the modulating signal of the FM. Therefore, from The larger time-step size in the second half only allows the
(80) the perturbed angle of the ac source can also be described average power to be tracked.
as an FM To substantiate that the frequency shifting is critical for the
proposed methodology, an attempt is made to increase the time-
(81) step size without shifting the Fourier spectrum, i. e. at
Hz. Using (84) for Hz, ms
The effect of the disturbance of the whole system is deter-
mined by , the angle difference between the ac source and
the infinite bus. From (79) and (81)
Thus, any attempt to obtain useful simulation results at this op-
(82)
erating point would fail.
Fig. 26 serves to illustrate the transitions between operating
(83) points that are allowed and not allowed in this simulation with
FAST. At the small time-step size of s, it is possible
whose associated waveform of one period of the oscillation, to track both natural and envelope waveforms accurately. Both
s, is shown in Fig. 23. Hz and Hz are suitable. The time-step size
In Fig. 24, the simulation results for the terminal current, of ms is too large for accurate tracking of the natural
which corresponds to in Fig. 22, is shown. The shift fre- waveform in this simulation because of the fast changing carrier.
quency is set equal to the carrier frequency at Hz The envelope, however, can be tracked if the Fourier spectrum
throughout the simulation. During the first half of the simulation is shifted by the carrier frequency, i. e. if Hz. For
up to s, a time-step size of 200 s is used. The natural Hz, no envelope tracking is possible at this large a time-step
and envelope waveforms can be tracked as the time-step size size. Only the transition to the operating point with Hz
is sufficiently small. In the second half, the time-step size was is allowed when increasing the time-step size to ms.
STRUNZ et al.: FREQUENCY-ADAPTIVE NETWORK MODELING
Fig. 26. Companion model operating point transitions that are allowed and not
allowed in simulation of electromechanical oscillation.
Fig. 27. Common emitter configuration.
C. Small-Signal Amplification
In [28], it was shown that simulation based on dynamic pha-
sors is useful for small-signal analysis of modulated waveforms
and representation of envelopes in power electronic circuits.
With the frequency-adaptive companion models, the representa-
tion of envelopes for the purpose of small-signal analysis is also
possible. Since the effects of angle modulation were studied in
Section IV-B, hereafter the source is subject to amplitude mod-
ulation. As a test circuit, the active circuit in common emitter
configuration in Fig. 27 is considered. The corresponding small-
signal model is depicted in Fig. 28. Connected to the base are
the resistances , , and capacitance
k k F process real instantaneous signals, the frequency-adaptive com-
For the emitter and collector resistances
k k
For the small-signal input resistance and current gain of the tran-
sistor
k tive Simulation of Transients (FAST). This feature uniquely
2801
Fig. 28. Test circuit for amplitude modulation of carrier.
Fig. 29. Output voltage simulated with frequency-adaptive network modeling
at f = 1000 Hz and  j = 10 s,  j = 200 s; solid light:
natural; solid bold: envelope.
The signal modulating the amplitude of the source voltage has
a modulating frequency
(86)
V Hz Hz
The performed simulation tests again show that it is pos-
sible to adjust the frequency-adaptive companion models
to study both natural and envelope waveforms. The load
voltage , simulated over a period of the modulating signal,
ms, is shown in Fig. 29. The shift frequency is
set equal to the carrier frequency at 1000 Hz. During the first
half of the simulation up to ms, a time-step size of 10 s
was used. As for the study in Section IV-B, the natural and
envelope waveforms can be tracked because the time-step size
is sufficiently small. In the second half, the time-step size is
increased to 200 s and the envelope can be tracked accurately
and efficiently.
V. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
A methodology for integrative simulation of both natural and
envelope waveforms in power systems and circuits was created,
implemented, analyzed, and tested. As in EMTP and SPICE,
companion models are used for representing the network
branches and stamping is applied for constructing the network
model. While the companion models of EMTP and SPICE
panion models process shiftable analytic signals. In addition
to the time-step size, the shift frequency was introduced as
an input parameter of these models, which are referred to as
frequency-adaptive companion models. The capability to effi-
ciently simulate both natural and envelope waveforms is made
possible through the proposed two-dimensional setting of both
time-step size and shift frequency leading to Frequency-Adap-
2802 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 53, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2006

distinguishes the methodology from known methods of network Application of the trapezoidal method to transform (88) into a
simulation, which only use the setting of the time-step size to difference equation leads to
adapt the simulation process.
If no frequency shifting is applied, then the companion
models process instantaneous signals, and the time-step size is
adjusted as in EMTP or SPICE. The application of frequency
shifting provides a novel form of flexibility and is particularly
interesting when the considered waveforms contain ac carriers
that are subject to modulation. By shifting the Fourier spectra
(89)
of the associated analytic signals by the ac carrier frequency
in the negative direction, the envelope can be extracted. As As for the integrator, the difference term on the right of (89) is
guidelines for the setting of the shift frequency, the accuracy of expressed in terms of the shifted signals that change at a lower
the circuit models as a function of shift frequency and time-step rate. Backsubstitution of analytic signals yields
settings were calculated and the concept of the frequency areas
was introduced. It was shown mathematically and through the
test simulations of modulated waveforms that the time-step
size can be increased greatly while attaining very high levels of
accuracy. Time-step size and shift frequency adjustments can
be performed during a simulation run to adapt to different types
of transients with and without an ac carrier. (90)
The frequency-adaptive companion models discussed in this
Resolving for leads to (35).
paper are suitable for the modeling of lumped parameters. To
study traveling wave effects, the modeling of distributed param- B. Details on Derivation of Accuracy of Frequency-Adaptive
eters is to be considered [22] as shown in a case study on tran- Capacitance Model
sient recovery. A direction for future work includes the mod-
For the ideal differentiator in (31), the transfer function giving
eling of nonlinear phenomena such as saturation or power elec-
the frequency response is
tronic conversion.
The methodology was validated for diverse test cases. The (91)
simulations of the EMTs of energization, deenergization, and
transitional states between them have shown that depending on Using the transfer function approach with input
the rate of change and presence of the carrier, different pairs and output , the transfer function is
of settings for time-step size and shift frequency are appro- obtained by inserting and into (39), (40) and (41)
priate. A comparison with EMTP-type simulation and the out-
come of a staged field test confirmed that the results are accu-
rate. The simulations of angle- and amplitude-modulated wave-
forms were studied using a power electric system and a small-
signal model of an electronic circuit. These tests have shown that
seamless transitions from simulating natural waveforms to enve- (92)
lope waveforms and vice versa are possible without the need to Rearranging and resolving for gives
switch the simulation tool. The ensemble of test cases demon-
strated that the methodology FAST enhances the flexibility of (93)
simulation such that both natural and envelope waveforms can
be represented efficiently within one and the same simulation with given by (65). As discussed in Section III-B-2, in
run. the case of a capacitance , , and
. In this case, (93) gives the admittance associated with
APPENDIX the capacitance. Therefore, the modeled capacitance of the fre-
A. Details on Derivation of Trapezoidal Differentiator for quency-adaptive companion models is given through (68).
Analytic Signals
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power electric networks,” in Proc. 37th North American Power Symp. Beijing, China, in 2000 and 2003, respectively.
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