Linear Algebra Chapter 5 H

Chapter 5.
The Vector Space Rn
Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 1 / 46

1 Subspace and Spanning
2 Independence and Dimension
3 Orthogonality
4 Rank of a Matrix

5.1 Subspace and Spanning
  
 x1





n

 x 2




R =  .  , xi ∈ R
 


  ..  


 
 x n

We consider Rn as a set of all matrices of size n × 1 that has two

operations: addition and scalar multiplication. Denote
     
1 0 0
0 1 0
     
 ..  , e 2 =  ..  , · · · , e n =  .. 
e1 =      
. . .
0 0 1
h iT
is the standard basis of Rn . For any vector x = x1 x2 · · · xn can
be expressed via the standard basis: x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + · · · + xn e n .
Definition
A set U of vectors in Rn is called a subspace of Rn if it satisfies the
following properties:
(i) If x, y ∈ U then x + y ∈ U.
(ii) If x ∈ U then ax ∈ U, for any a ∈ R.

Definition

Definition
Note.
h iT
If U is a subspace then the zero vector 0 = 0 0 · · · 0 ∈ U.

Definition
Note.
h iT
In R2 , all subspaces of R2 is either zero vector, or lines pass the
origin, or R2 .

Definition
Note.
h iT
origin, or R2 .
origin, or planes containing the origin, or R3 .

Definition
Note.
h iT
origin, or R2 .
...

Definition
Note.
h iT
origin, or R2 .
...

Example
Which of the following are subspaces of R3 ?
(i) U = {(x , y , z)|z = 2x + 3y + 2}
(ii) V = {(x , y , z)|x 2 + y 2 = 2z 2 }
Answer:

Example
(i) U = {(x , y , z)|z = 2x + 3y + 2}
(ii) V = {(x , y , z)|x 2 + y 2 = 2z 2 }
Answer:
h iT
(i) Since 0 = 0 0 0 is not in U. Hence U is not a subspace.
(U is a plane which does not pass through the origin in R3 )

Example
(i) U = {(x , y , z)|z = 2x + 3y + 2}
(ii) V = {(x , y , z)|x 2 + y 2 = 2z 2 }
Answer:
h iT
(ii) V is not closed under addition (although V is closed under scalar
multiplication as well as 0 ∈ V ). Indeed, we can see that
h iT h iT
v1 = 2 2 2 , v 2 = 2 2 −2 ∈V
h iT
but v 1 + v 2 = 4 4 0 ∈
/ V . Hence V is not a subspace.
(V is a cone in the space R3 )

Example
(i) U = {(x , y , z)|z = 2x + 3y + 2}
(ii) V = {(x , y , z)|x 2 + y 2 = 2z 2 }
Answer:
h iT
(ii) V is not closed under addition (although V is closed under scalar
multiplication as well as 0 ∈ V ). Indeed, we can see that
h iT h iT
v1 = 2 2 2 , v 2 = 2 2 −2 ∈V
h iT
but v 1 + v 2 = 4 4 0 ∈
/ V . Hence V is not a subspace.
(V is a cone in the space R3 )

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
(i) U1 is the line through the origin with normal vector 2 5 in the
plane R2 . Hence U1 is a subspace of R2 .

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
Hence U1 is a subspace of R2 .
You can check by definition. For any u = (x1 , y1 ), v = (x2 , y2 ) in U1
and a ∈ R, then we have 2x1 + 5y1 = 0 and 2x2 + 5y2 = 0. Hence

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1
since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And
au = (ax1 , ay1 ) ∈ U1

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1
au = (ax1 , ay1 ) ∈ U1
since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1
au = (ax1 , ay1 ) ∈ U1
since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

(ii) U2 is the y − axis ( a line pass through the origin). Hence it is a
subspace of R2 .
Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1
au = (ax1 , ay1 ) ∈ U1
since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

subspace of R2 .
Example
(i) U1 = {(x , y ) : 2x + 5y = 0}
(ii) U2 = {(x , y ) : x = 0}
h iT
plane R2 .
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1
au = (ax1 , ay1 ) ∈ U1
since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

subspace of R2 .
Let A be an m × n matrix.
A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
null(A) = x = x1 x2 · · · xn ∈ R |Ax = 0 ⊆ Rn
n

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n
the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n

Image space of A:

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n

Image space of A:
im(A) = {Ax|x ∈ Rn } ⊆ Rm

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n

Image space of A:
is the set of all b ∈ Rm such that the system Ax = b has at least one
solution.

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n

Image space of A:
solution.

A
Rn −→ Rm
x 7→ Ax
Definition
Null space of A:
h iT
n

Image space of A:
solution.

Example
 
1 −1
Given A = 2 3 . We have
 
0 2
     
 " # " #
 x x 0  
 
 " # x − y = 0
 
 (" #)
x   0
null(A) = A = 0 = 2x + 3y = 0 =
 
 y
 y   y 
0    
2y = 0



0
  
( " # " # )  x −y 
x x
 
im(A) = A ∈ R3 = 2x + 3y  x , y ∈ R
 
y y

 
 2y 

Example
 
1 −1
 
0 2
     
 " # " #
 x x 0  
 
 " # x − y = 0
 
 (" #)
x   0
null(A) = A = 0 = 2x + 3y = 0 =
 
 y
 y   y 
0    
2y = 0



0
  
( " # " # )  x −y 
x x
 
im(A) = A ∈ R3 = 2x + 3y  x , y ∈ R
 
y y

 
 2y 

Example
 
1 −1
 
0 2
     
 " # " #
 x x 0  
 
 " # x − y = 0
 
 (" #)
x   0
null(A) = A = 0 = 2x + 3y = 0 =
 
 y
 y   y 
0    
2y = 0



0
  
( " # " # )  x −y 
x x
 
im(A) = A ∈ R3 = 2x + 3y  x , y ∈ R
 
y y

 
 2y 

Theorem
For any matrix A of size m × n,
null(A) is a subspace of Rn .

Theorem
im(A) is a subspace of Rm .

Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}

Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}
" #
2 1 −1
is a subspace of R3 . In fact, U = null(A), for A = .
3 −1 5

Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}
" #
2 1 −1
3 −1 5
The set
h iT
V = 2x − y + z + t y − 3z − t x , y , z, t are real numbers


Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}
" #
2 1 −1
3 −1 5
The set
h iT
V = 2x − y + z + t y − 3z − t x , y , z, t are real numbers is a

subspace of R2 .

Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}
" #
2 1 −1
3 −1 5
The set
h iT

" #
2 −1 1 1
subspace of R2 . In fact, V = im(B) with B = .
0 1 −3 −1

Theorem
Example
The set
h iT
U={ x y z ∈ R3 | 2x + y − z = 0 and 3x − y + 5z = 0}
" #
2 1 −1
3 −1 5
The set
h iT

" #
2 −1 1 1
subspace of R2 . In fact, V = im(B) with B = .
0 1 −3 −1

Spanning sets
Given vectors x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k in Rn .
Definition
• A vector of the form
t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k
where the ti ∈ R are scalars is called a linear combination of the x i , and ti

is called the coefficient of x i in the linear combination.

Spanning sets
Definition
t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k

is called the coefficient of x i in the linear combination. • The set of all
such linear combinations is called the span of the x i and is denoted
n o
span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } = t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k ti ∈ R

If V = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }, we say that V is spanned by the vectors

{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }.

Spanning sets
Definition
t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k

is called the coefficient of x i in the linear combination. • The set of all
such linear combinations is called the span of the x i and is denoted
n o
span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } = t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k ti ∈ R

If V = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }, we say that V is spanned by the vectors

{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }.

Example
" #
1
Let x = ∈ R2 . Then
2
(" # )
t
span{x} = {tx|t ∈ R} = t∈R
2t

Example
" #
1
2
(" # )
t
2t
h iT
is the line through the origin with direction vector 1 2 in the plane R2 .

Example
" #
1
2
(" # )
t
2t
h iT
Example
h iT h iT
Given two vectors u = −1 0 1 and v = 2 1 3 in R3 .

Example
" #
1
2
(" # )
t
2t
h iT
Example
h iT h iT
Given two vectors u = −1 0 1 and v = 2 1 3 in R3 . Then
  
 −a + 2b
 

span{u, v} = {au + bv| a, b ∈ R} =  b a, b ∈
 
 R

 a + 3b 


Example
" #
1
2
(" # )
t
2t
h iT
Example
h iT h iT
  
 −a + 2b
 

 
 R

 a + 3b 

h iT
is a plane through the origin with a normal vector u × v = −1 5 −1 .
n
Chapter 5. The Vector Space R 11 / 46
Example
" #
1
2
(" # )
t
2t
h iT
Example
h iT h iT
  
 −a + 2b
 

 
 R

 a + 3b 

h iT
is a plane through the origin with a normal vector u × v = −1 5 −1 .
n
Chapter 5. The Vector Space R 11 / 46
Example
Find all values of a so that the vector [5 3 a]T is in
span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T }.
Answer:

Example
span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T }.
Answer: The vector [5 3 a]T is in span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T } if and
only if the linear system
[5 3 a]T = s[3 2 0]T + t[1 0 3]T
has at least one solution s, t.

Example
span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T }.
[5 3 a]T = s[3 2 0]T + t[1 0 3]T
has at least one solution s, t. The above system is
5 = 3s + t, 3 = 2s, a = 3t.

Example
span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T }.
[5 3 a]T = s[3 2 0]T + t[1 0 3]T
5 = 3s + t, 3 = 2s, a = 3t.
We find s = 3/2, t = 1/2 and a = 3/2.

Example
span{[3 2 0]T , [1 0 3]T }.
[5 3 a]T = s[3 2 0]T + t[1 0 3]T
5 = 3s + t, 3 = 2s, a = 3t.
We find s = 3/2, t = 1/2 and a = 3/2.

Example
h iT
U= x + y − 3z 2x − 3y + z −x + 2y + 4z x , y , z are real

 
1 1 −3
= im  2 −3 1 
 
−1 2 4
       

 1 1 −3 

= x  2  + y −3 + z  1  x , y , z are real
     
 −1

2 4


     
 1
 1 −3 
= span  2  , −3 ,  1 
     
 −1

2 4 


Example
Let x = (2, −1, 1, 1) and y = (1, 1, 3, 4) in R4 . Determine whether
p = (0, −2, 4, 5) or q = (7, −5, 1, 0) are in U = span{x, y}.
Answer:

Example
Answer:
The vector p is in U if and only if p = sx + ty for scalars s and t.
Equating components gives equations
2s + t = 0, −s + t = −2, s + 3t = 4, s + 4t = 5
This system has no solution, hence p ∈

/ U.

Example
Answer:
2s + t = 0, −s + t = −2, s + 3t = 4, s + 4t = 5

/ U.
The vector q is in U if and only if q = ax + by for scalars a and b.
This gives equations
2a + b = 7, −a + b = −5, a + 3b = 1, a + 4b = 0
This system has solution a = 4, b = −1, hence q ∈ U.

Example
Answer:
2s + t = 0, −s + t = −2, s + 3t = 4, s + 4t = 5

/ U.
The vector q is in U if and only if q = ax + by for scalars a and b.
This gives equations
2a + b = 7, −a + b = −5, a + 3b = 1, a + 4b = 0
This system has solution a = 4, b = −1, hence q ∈ U.

Theorem
Let U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } in Rn . Then:
1. U is a subspace of Rn containing each x i .

Theorem
2. If W is a subspace of Rn and each x i ∈ W , then U ⊆ W .
Example
If U = span{x, y} in Rn , show that U = span{x + y, x − y}.

Theorem
Example
Answer:

Theorem
Example
Answer: Since x + y and x − y are in span{x, y}, thus
span{x + y, x − y} ⊆ U.

Theorem
Example
span{x + y, x − y} ⊆ U.
Moreover, we have
1 1
x = (x + y) + (x − y)
2 2
1 1
y = (x + y) − (x − y).
2 2

Theorem
Example
span{x + y, x − y} ⊆ U.
Moreover, we have
1 1
x = (x + y) + (x − y)
2 2
1 1
y = (x + y) − (x − y).
2 2
These show that x, y ∈ span{x + y, x − y}. Hence
U ⊆ span{x + y, x − y}.
Theorem
Example
span{x + y, x − y} ⊆ U.
Moreover, we have
1 1
x = (x + y) + (x − y)
2 2
1 1
y = (x + y) − (x − y).
2 2
These show that x, y ∈ span{x + y, x − y}. Hence
U ⊆ span{x + y, x − y}.
Example
n
It is easy to(see that " #)1 , e 2 , · · · , e n }. For example " #
" #R = span{e
1 0 x
R2 = span e 1 = , e2 = . Indeed, for any vector u = ∈ R2
0 1 y
can be written as u = x e 1 + y e 2 .
Example
(" # " #)
1 −1
Show that R2 = span , .
1 2

Example
n
" #R = span{e
1 0 x
0 1 y
Example
(" # " #)
1 −1
1 2
Answer:

Example
n
" #R = span{e
1 0 x
0 1 y
Example
(" # " #)
1 −1
1 2
" #
x
Answer: Any vector u = in R2 can be written as
y
" # " # " # " # " #
x 1 −1 2x + y 1 −x + y −1
u= =s +t = + ,
y 1 2 3 1 3 2

Example
n
" #R = span{e
1 0 x
0 1 y
Example
(" # " #)
1 −1
1 2
" #
x
y
" # " # " # " # " #
x 1 −1 2x + y 1 −x + y −1
u= =s +t = + ,
y 1 2 3 1 3 2
(" # " #)
1 −1
this shows that u ∈ span , .
1 2

Example
n
" #R = span{e
1 0 x
0 1 y
Example
(" # " #)
1 −1
1 2
" #
x
y
" # " # " # " # " #
x 1 −1 2x + y 1 −x + y −1
u= =s +t = + ,
y 1 2 3 1 3 2
(" # " #)
1 −1
this shows that u ∈ span , .
1 2

5.2 Independence and Dimension
Definition
A set {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } in Rn is linearly independent if the following holds:
”If t1 x 1 + t2 x 2 + · · · + tk x k = 0 then t1 = t2 = · · · = tk = 0”.

Definition
Otherwise, we say {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } is linearly dependent.

Definition
Example
(" # " #)
2 −1
The set , is linear independent
1 1

Definition
Example
(" # " #)
2 −1
The set , is linear independent since the homogeneous system
1 1
" # " # " # (
2 −1 0 2s − t = 0
s +t = ⇔
1 1 0 s +t =0

Definition
Example
(" # " #)
2 −1
1 1
" # " # " # (
2 −1 0 2s − t = 0
s +t = ⇔
1 1 0 s +t =0
has only trivial solution s = t = 0.

Definition
Example
(" # " #)
2 −1
1 1
" # " # " # (
2 −1 0 2s − t = 0
s +t = ⇔
1 1 0 s +t =0
has only trivial solution s = t = 0.

Example
      

 1 0 2 
Show that u = −1 , v = 2 , w = −4 is linearly dependent.
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:

Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
1st way: We can see that w = 2u − v or
2u − v − w = 0.

Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
2u − v − w = 0.
Hence {u, v, w} is linearly dependent.

Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
2u − v − w = 0.

2nd way: The system t1 u + t2 v + t3 w = 0
t1 + 2t3 = 0, −t1 + 2t2 − 4t3 = 0, 2t1 + 3t2 + t3 = 0

Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
2u − v − w = 0.

t1 + 2t3 = 0, −t1 + 2t2 − 4t3 = 0, 2t1 + 3t2 + t3 = 0

 
1 0 2
has nontrivial solutions since rank −1 2 −4 = 2.
 
2 3 1

Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
2u − v − w = 0.

t1 + 2t3 = 0, −t1 + 2t2 − 4t3 = 0, 2t1 + 3t2 + t3 = 0

 
1 0 2
has nontrivial solutions since rank −1 2 −4 = 2. Hence {u, v, w} is
 
2 3 1
linearly dependent.
Example
      

 1 0 2 
     
 
 2 3 1 
Answer:
2u − v − w = 0.

t1 + 2t3 = 0, −t1 + 2t2 − 4t3 = 0, 2t1 + 3t2 + t3 = 0

 
1 0 2
has nontrivial solutions since rank −1 2 −4 = 2. Hence {u, v, w} is
 
2 3 1
linearly dependent.
Theorem
{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } is linearly independent if and only if
h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = k .
{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } is linearly dependent if and only if

h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m < k .

Theorem
h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = k .

h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m < k .
And we only can take at most m linearly independent vectors from k

vectors {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }.

Theorem
h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = k .

h i
rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m < k .
And we only can take at most m linearly independent vectors from k

vectors {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }.

Example
For what values of a is the set {[1, 1, 1], [1, 0, 2], [1, a, 1]} is linearly
dependent?
Answer:

Example
dependent?
Answer: The set {[1, 1, 1], [1, 0, 2], [1, a, 1]} is linearly dependent if and
only if
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
 −R1 +R2
rank 1 0 a = rank 0 −1 a − 1
  
−R1 +R3
1 2 1 0 1 0
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
R2 ↔R3  R +R
= rank 0 1 0  2= 3 rank 0 1 0  < 3.
  
0 −1 a − 1 0 0 a−1
Last inequality holds if a − 1 = 0 or a = 1.

Example
dependent?
Answer: The set {[1, 1, 1], [1, 0, 2], [1, a, 1]} is linearly dependent if and
only if
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
 −R1 +R2
rank 1 0 a = rank 0 −1 a − 1
  
−R1 +R3
1 2 1 0 1 0
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
R2 ↔R3  R +R
= rank 0 1 0  2= 3 rank 0 1 0  < 3.
  
0 −1 a − 1 0 0 a−1
Last inequality holds if a − 1 = 0 or a = 1.

Dimension
Definition
If U is a subspace of Rn , a set {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m } of vectors in U is called a
basis of U if it satisfies the following two conditions:
1. {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m } is linearly independent.

Dimension
Definition
2. U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m }.

Dimension
Definition
2. U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m }.
Theorem
If {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m } and {y 1 , y 2 , . . . , y k } are basis of U then m = k.

Dimension
Definition
2. U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m }.
Theorem
Definition
If U is a subspace of Rn and {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m } is a basis of U, then the
number m is called the dimension of U, denoted dim(U) = m.

Dimension
Definition
2. U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m }.
Theorem
Definition

Dimension
Definition
2. U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m }.
Theorem
Definition

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
Show that u= ,v = is a basis of R2 .
2 3
Answer:

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h i 1 −1
Answer: Since rank u v = rank = 2, the set {u, v} is linearly
2 3
independent.

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h 1 −1
i
2 3
independent.
h iT
Any vector x y is a linear combination of u, v since

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h 1 −1 i
2 3
independent.
h iT
h iT 3x + y y − 2x
x y = u+ v.
5 5

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h 1 −1 i
2 3
independent.
h iT
h iT 3x + y y − 2x
x y = u+ v.
5 5
Thus, R2 = span{u, v}.
We have showed that {u, v} is a basis of R2 .

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h 1 −1 i
2 3
independent.
h iT
h iT 3x + y y − 2x
x y = u+ v.
5 5
Example
We can see that dim(Rn ) = n and {e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n } is a basis of Rn .

Example
( " # " #)
1 −1
2 3
" #
h 1 −1 i
2 3
independent.
h iT
h iT 3x + y y − 2x
x y = u+ v.
5 5
Example
We can see that dim(Rn ) = n and {e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n } is a basis of Rn .

Theorem
Suppose that U = span{x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k }. Then
h i
dim(U) = rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m ≤ k
And we can choose m vectors among k vectors x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k to get a

basis of U.
Example
Find the dimension of the subspace U = span{[1, 2], [2, −1], [0, 3], [1, 4]}.

Theorem
h i
dim(U) = rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m ≤ k

basis of U.
Example
Answer:

Theorem
h i
dim(U) = rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m ≤ k

basis of U.
Example
Answer: We have
" # " #
1 2 0 1 −2R1 +R2 1 2 0 1
rank = rank =2.
2 −1 3 4 0 −5 3 2

Theorem
h i
dim(U) = rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m ≤ k

basis of U.
Example
Answer: We have
" # " #
1 2 0 1 −2R1 +R2 1 2 0 1
rank = rank =2.
2 −1 3 4 0 −5 3 2
Hence dim(U) = 2 . We can choose basis {[1, 2], [2, −1]} for U. In fact,
U = R2 .

Theorem
h i
dim(U) = rank x 1 x 2 · · · xk = m ≤ k

basis of U.
Example
Answer: We have
" # " #
1 2 0 1 −2R1 +R2 1 2 0 1
rank = rank =2.
2 −1 3 4 0 −5 3 2
Hence dim(U) = 2 . We can choose basis {[1, 2], [2, −1]} for U. In fact,
U = R2 .

Example
Find the dimension of the subspace
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.
Answer:

Example
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.
Answer: We can see that

       
a+c 1 0 1
 b + c  = a 0 + b 1 + c 1
       
a + 2c + b 1 1 2

Example
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.

       
a+c 1 0 1
 b + c  = a 0 + b 1 + c 1
       
a + 2c + b 1 1 2
h iT h iT h iT
Hence U = span 1 0 1 , 0 1 1 , 1 1 2 .

Example
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.

       
a+c 1 0 1
 b + c  = a 0 + b 1 + c 1
       
a + 2c + b 1 1 2
h iT h iT h iT
Hence U = span 1 0 1 , 0 1 1 , 1 1 2 .
Moreover,
     
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
 −R1 +R3  −R2 +R3
rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = 2.
   
1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0

Example
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.

       
a+c 1 0 1
 b + c  = a 0 + b 1 + c 1
       
a + 2c + b 1 1 2
h iT h iT h iT
Hence U = span 1 0 1 , 0 1 1 , 1 1 2 .
Moreover,
     
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
 −R1 +R3  −R2 +R3
rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = 2.
   
1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0
Hence dim(U) = 2. Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 24 / 46

Example
U = {[a + c, b + c, a + 2c + b]|a, b, c in R}.

       
a+c 1 0 1
 b + c  = a 0 + b 1 + c 1
       
a + 2c + b 1 1 2
h iT h iT h iT
Hence U = span 1 0 1 , 0 1 1 , 1 1 2 .
Moreover,
     
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
 −R1 +R3  −R2 +R3
rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = rank 0 1 1 = 2.
   
1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0
Hence dim(U) = 2. Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 24 / 46

Example
V = {[a + 2b + 2d, c + d, 2a + 4b + 2d, −c + d]| a, b, c, d in R}.
Answer:

Example
Answer: We can see that V is
h iT h iT h iT h iT
span 1 0 2 0 , 2 0 4 0 , 0 1 0 −1 , 2 1 2 1 .

Example
h iT h iT h iT h iT
span 1 0 2 0 , 2 0 4 0 , 0 1 0 −1 , 2 1 2 1 .
Moreover,
   
1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2
0 0 1 1 −2R1 +R3 0 0 1 1
 
rank  = rank 
 
2 4 0 2 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 −1 1 0 0 −1 1
   
1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
R2 +R4 R ↔R
 3 4
= rank   = rank   = 3. ⇒ dim(V ) = 3.
  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Example
h iT h iT h iT h iT
span 1 0 2 0 , 2 0 4 0 , 0 1 0 −1 , 2 1 2 1 .
Moreover,
   
1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2
0 0 1 1 −2R1 +R3 0 0 1 1
 
rank  = rank 
 
2 4 0 2 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 −1 1 0 0 −1 1
   
1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
R2 +R4 R ↔R
 3 4
= rank   = rank   = 3. ⇒ dim(V ) = 3.
  
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Theorem
Any set consist of n linearly independent vectors in Rn is a basis of Rn .
Example
Which of the following sets are bases of R3 ?
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}

Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:

Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:
(i) No, since any basis of R3 must have exactly three vectors.

Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:
(ii) Yes. We have

Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:
(ii) Yes. We have
     
−1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0
 3R1 +R3   −5/4R2 +R3 
A= 4 0 1  →  0 4 1  →  0 1 1/4 
 
4R1 +R2 1/4R2
3 2 −5 0 5 −5 0 0 −25/4
See that rank(A) = 3.

Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:
(ii) Yes. We have
     
−1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0
 3R1 +R3   −5/4R2 +R3 
A= 4 0 1  →  0 4 1  →  0 1 1/4 
 
4R1 +R2 1/4R2
3 2 −5 0 5 −5 0 0 −25/4
See that rank(A) = 3. Hence {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)} is
linearly independent.
Theorem
Example
(i) {(1, 2, 1), (−1, 0, 3)}
(ii) {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)}
Answer:
(ii) Yes. We have
     
−1 1 0 −1 1 0 −1 1 0
 3R1 +R3   −5/4R2 +R3 
A= 4 0 1  →  0 4 1  →  0 1 1/4 
 
4R1 +R2 1/4R2
3 2 −5 0 5 −5 0 0 −25/4
See that rank(A) = 3. Hence {(−1, 4, 3), (1, 0, 2), (0, 1, −5)} is
linearly independent.
5.3 Orthogonality
Given x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) are two n-tuples

(vectors) in Rn .
Definition
The dot product of x and y is defined as follows:
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn .

5.3 Orthogonality

(vectors) in Rn .
Definition
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn .
The length of x is
√ q
∥x∥ = x ·x = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .

5.3 Orthogonality

(vectors) in Rn .
Definition
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn .
The length of x is
√ q
∥x∥ = x ·x = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .
A vector of length 1 is called a unit vector.

5.3 Orthogonality

(vectors) in Rn .
Definition
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn .
The length of x is
√ q
∥x∥ = x ·x = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .

5.3 Orthogonality

(vectors) in Rn .
Definition
x · y = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn .
The length of x is
√ q
∥x∥ = x ·x = x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2 .

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
Let u, v and w be vectors in Rn .
1. u · v = v · u

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
4. (au) · v = a(u · v) = u · (av) for any scalar a.

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
5. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w.

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
5. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w.
6. |u · v| ≤ ∥u∥ ∥v∥ (Cauchy inequality)

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
5. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w.
7. ∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥ (Triangle inequality)

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
5. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w.

Example
If u = (1, 1, −1, 2) and v = (2, 0, 3, 1) in R4 then
q √
u·v =1 ∥u∥ = 12 + 12 + (−1)2 + 22 = 7
Theorem
1. u · v = v · u
2. u · 0 = 0 · u = 0
3. u · u = ∥u∥2
5. u · (v ± w) = u · v ± u · w.

Orthogonal Sets
Definition
Two vectors x and y in Rn are orthogonal if x · y = 0.
A set {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } of vectors in Rn is called an orthogonal set if

Orthogonal Sets
Definition
x i · x j = 0 for all i ̸= j and x i ̸= 0 for all i .

Orthogonal Sets
Definition
A set {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } of vectors in Rn is called an orthonormal if it is

orthogonal and each x i is a unit vector ∥x i ∥ = 1.

Orthogonal Sets
Definition


Orthogonal Sets
Definition

Example
The standard basis {e 1 , e 2 , · · · , e n } is an orthonormal set in Rn .

Orthogonal Sets
Definition

Example
Example
(" # " #)
1 2
The set , is orthogonal in R2 ,
−2 1
Orthogonal Sets
Definition

Example
Example
(" # " #)
1 2
The set , is orthogonal in R2 , but not orthonormal.
−2 1
Orthogonal Sets
Definition

Example
Example
(" # " #)
1 2
The set , is orthogonal in R2 , but not orthonormal.
−2 1
Example
Find
 thenumber
 c suchthat the set  

 1 1 2 a 

 2 −1 −1 b 

u 1 =   , u 2 =   , u 3 =   , u 4 =   is orthogonal.
       

 1  1   0  c 

 

0 3 −1 1 
Answer:

Example
Find
 thenumber

 1 1 2 a 

 2 −1 −1 b 

       

 1  1   0  c 

 

0 3 −1 1 
Answer: Solve the system



 u 1 · u 4 = a + 2b + c = 0
u2 · u4 = a − b + c + 3 = 0

u 3 · u 4 = 2a − b − 1 = 0



Example
Find
 thenumber

 1 1 2 a 

 2 −1 −1 b 

       

 1  1   0  c 

 

0 3 −1 1 



 u 1 · u 4 = a + 2b + c = 0
u2 · u4 = a − b + c + 3 = 0

u 3 · u 4 = 2a − b − 1 = 0


we get a = 1, b = 1, c = −3.

Example
Find
 thenumber

 1 1 2 a 

 2 −1 −1 b 

       

 1  1   0  c 

 

0 3 −1 1 



 u 1 · u 4 = a + 2b + c = 0
u2 · u4 = a − b + c + 3 = 0

u 3 · u 4 = 2a − b − 1 = 0


we get a = 1, b = 1, c = −3.

Example
n o
Find b so that B = ( √13 , √13 , √13 ), (− √12 , √12 , 0), (a, b, c) is an
orthonormal set.
Answer:

Example
n o
orthonormal set.
Answer: To B is an orthonormal set,




( √13 , √13 , √13 ) · (a, b, c) = √1 (a + b + c) =
3
0
−1
(− √12 , √12 , 0) · (a, b, c) = √
2
(a − b) = 0

 √
∥(a, b, c)∥ = a2 + b 2 + 2
c =1


Example
n o
orthonormal set.




( √13 , √13 , √13 ) · (a, b, c) = √1 (a + b + c) =
3
0
−1
(− √12 , √12 , 0) · (a, b, c) = √
2
(a − b) = 0

 √
∥(a, b, c)∥ = a2 + b 2 + 2
c =1

Substitute a by b, c by −2b into third equation we get
b 2 + b 2 + (−2b)2 = 6b 2 = 1

Example
n o
orthonormal set.




( √13 , √13 , √13 ) · (a, b, c) = √1 (a + b + c) =
3
0
−1
(− √12 , √12 , 0) · (a, b, c) = √
2
(a − b) = 0

 √
∥(a, b, c)∥ = a2 + b 2 + 2
c =1

b 2 + b 2 + (−2b)2 = 6b 2 = 1
√ √
Hence b = 1/ 6 or b = −1/ 6.

Example
n o
orthonormal set.




( √13 , √13 , √13 ) · (a, b, c) = √1 (a + b + c) =
3
0
−1
(− √12 , √12 , 0) · (a, b, c) = √
2
(a − b) = 0

 √
∥(a, b, c)∥ = a2 + b 2 + 2
c =1

b 2 + b 2 + (−2b)2 = 6b 2 = 1
√ √
Hence b = 1/ 6 or b = −1/ 6.

Theorem (Pythagoras’ Theorem )
If {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k } is an orthogonal set, then
∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Every orthogonal set in Rn is linearly independent.

∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Example
Suppose that {u, v} is an orthogonal set and their length are 4 and 5
respectively. What is the length of u − 3v.

∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Example
Answer:

∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Example
Answer: By Pythagoras Theorem:
∥u − 3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥−3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + 9 ∥v∥2 = 42 + 9 ∗ 52 = 241 .

∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Example
∥u − 3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥−3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + 9 ∥v∥2 = 42 + 9 ∗ 52 = 241 .

√
Hence ∥u − 3v∥ = 241.

∥x 1 + x 2 + · · · + x k ∥2 = ∥x 1 ∥2 + ∥x 2 ∥2 + · · · + ∥x k ∥2 .
Theorem
Example
∥u − 3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥−3v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + 9 ∥v∥2 = 42 + 9 ∗ 52 = 241 .

√
Hence ∥u − 3v∥ = 241.

Example
Which of the following statements are true?
(i) if {u, v} is orthogonal in Rn then {u, u + v} is also orthogonal.
(ii) if {u, v} and {w, z} are both orthogonal then {u, v, w, z} is also
orthogonal.
(iii) if {u, v} is orthonormal then {u + v, u − v} is orthogonal.
Answer:

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
(i) False. Since if {u, v} then u · (u + v) = ∥u∥2 ̸= 0, for any u ̸= 0.

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
" # " # " # " #
1 2 1 0
(ii) False. For example u = ,v = ,w = ,z = . Then
2 −1 0 1
{u, v} and {w, z} are both orthogonal

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
" # " # " # " #
1 2 1 0
2 −1 0 1
{u, v} and {w, z} are both orthogonal but {u, v, w, z} is not
orthogonal.

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
" # " # " # " #
1 2 1 0
2 −1 0 1
orthogonal.
(iii) True. If {u, v} is orthonormal then u · v = 0 and ∥u∥ = ∥v∥ = 1.
Hence

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
" # " # " # " #
1 2 1 0
2 −1 0 1
orthogonal.
Hence
(u + v) · (u − v) = u · u − u · v + v · u − v · v = ∥u∥2 − ∥v∥2 = 0.

Example
orthogonal.
Answer:
" # " # " # " #
1 2 1 0
2 −1 0 1
orthogonal.
Hence
(u + v) · (u − v) = u · u − u · v + v · u − v · v = ∥u∥2 − ∥v∥2 = 0.

Theorem
Let {x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m } be an orthogonal basis of U. Then any u ∈ U:
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2

Theorem
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2
Example
Let x = [a, b, c]. Let U be the subspace spanned by the orthogonal basis
{u = [1, 1, 1], v = [1, −1, 0], w = [1, 1, −2]}.
Find the coefficient of v when expressing x as a linear combination of
{u, v, w}.

Theorem
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2
Example
{u = [1, 1, 1], v = [1, −1, 0], w = [1, 1, −2]}.
{u, v, w}.
Answer:

Theorem
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2
Example
{u = [1, 1, 1], v = [1, −1, 0], w = [1, 1, −2]}.
{u, v, w}.
Answer: We can see {u, v, w} is an orthogonal basis of U. Hence the
coefficient of v when expressing x as a linear combination of {u, v, w} is
x ·v a−b
2 = 2
∥v∥

Theorem
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2
Example
{u = [1, 1, 1], v = [1, −1, 0], w = [1, 1, −2]}.
{u, v, w}.
x ·v a−b
2 = 2
∥v∥
(The question is: Write x = t1 u + t2 v + t3 w, find t2 .)

Theorem
u · x1 u · x2 u · xm
u= 2 x1 + 2 x2 + · · · xm
∥x 1 ∥ ∥x 2 ∥ ∥x m ∥2
Example
{u = [1, 1, 1], v = [1, −1, 0], w = [1, 1, −2]}.
{u, v, w}.
x ·v a−b
2 = 2
∥v∥
(The question is: Write x = t1 u + t2 v + t3 w, find t2 .)

Example
h iT
Express X = −3 2 2 7 as a linear combination of the orthogonal
basis of the
subspace
h iT h iT
U = span u = −1 2 0 3 , v = 1 2 −2 −1 .
Answer:

Example
h iT
basis of the
subspace
h iT h iT
U = span u = −1 2 0 3 , v = 1 2 −2 −1 .
Answer: We have
X ·u X ·v
X= 2u + v
∥u∥ ∥v∥2
28 −10
= u+ v
14 10
= 2u − v

Example
h iT
basis of the
subspace
h iT h iT
U = span u = −1 2 0 3 , v = 1 2 −2 −1 .
Answer: We have
X ·u X ·v
X= 2u + v
∥u∥ ∥v∥2
28 −10
= u+ v
14 10
= 2u − v

5.4 Rank of a Matrix
Let A be m × n matrix.
Definition
The column space, col(A), of A is the subspace of Rm spanned by the
columns of A.

Definition
columns of A.
The row space, row(A), of A is the subspace of Rn spanned by the
rows of A.

Definition
columns of A.
rows of A.

Definition
columns of A.
rows of A.

Example
" #
1 2 3
If A = then
−2 0 5
(" # " # " #)
1 2 3
col(A) = span , , is a subspace of R2
−2 0 5
( " # " # " # ) (" # )
1 2 3 x + 2y + 3z
= x +y +z x , y , z ∈ R = x , y , z ∈ R
−2 0 5 −2x + 5z
   
 1
 −2 
row(A) = span 2 ,  0  is a subspace of R3
   

 3 
5 
        
 1
 −2 
  x − 2y 

= x 2 + y  0  x , y ∈ R =  2x  x , y ∈ R
     

 3 
  
5  3x + 5y 

Example
" #
1 2 3
If A = then
−2 0 5
(" # " # " #)
1 2 3
col(A) = span , , is a subspace of R2
−2 0 5
( " # " # " # ) (" # )
1 2 3 x + 2y + 3z
= x +y +z x , y , z ∈ R = x , y , z ∈ R
−2 0 5 −2x + 5z
   
 1
 −2 
row(A) = span 2 ,  0  is a subspace of R3
   

 3 
5 
        
 1
 −2 
  x − 2y 

= x 2 + y  0  x , y ∈ R =  2x  x , y ∈ R
     

 3 
  
5  3x + 5y 

Lemma
Let A and B denote m × n matrices.
1. If A → B by elementary row operations, then row(A) = row(B).
2. If A → B by elementary column operations, then col(A) = col(B).

Lemma

Lemma
Theorem
If matrix R is a row-echelon form of A, then
1. The nonzero rows of R are a basis of row(A).

Lemma
Theorem
2. The columns of A corresponding to the columns of R that contain the
leading 1 are a basis of col(A).

Lemma
Theorem

Lemma
Theorem

Example
 
1 −1 1
Let A = 2 1 2. Find basis for row(A) and col(A).
 
3 0 3
Answer:

Example
 
1 −1 1
 
3 0 3
Answer:
   
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
−2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A → 0 3 0 → 0 1 0
  
−3R1 +R3 1/3R2
0 3 0 0 0 0

Example
 
1 −1 1
 
3 0 3
Answer:
   
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
−2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A → 0 3 0 → 0 1 0
  
−3R1 +R3 1/3R2
0 3 0 0 0 0
A basis of row(A) is {(1, −1, 1), (0, 1, 0)}.

Example
 
1 −1 1
 
3 0 3
Answer:
   
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
−2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A → 0 3 0 → 0 1 0
  
−3R1 +R3 1/3R2
0 3 0 0 0 0
A basis of row(A) is {(1, −1, 1), (0, 1, 0)}.

A basis of col(A) is {(1, 2, 3)T , (−1, 1, 0)T }.

Example
 
1 −1 1
 
3 0 3
Answer:
   
1 −1 1 1 −1 1
−2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A → 0 3 0 → 0 1 0
  
−3R1 +R3 1/3R2
0 3 0 0 0 0
A basis of row(A) is {(1, −1, 1), (0, 1, 0)}.

A basis of col(A) is {(1, 2, 3)T , (−1, 1, 0)T }.

Theorem
Let A be m × n matrix. Then
rank(A) ≤ min{m, n}.
col(A) = im(A).

Theorem
col(A) = im(A).
dim(row(A)) = dim(col(A)) = dim(im(A)) = rank(A).

Theorem
col(A) = im(A).
dim(null(A)) = n − rank(A) = the number of parameters (of the basic
solutions) of the homogeneous system AX = 0.

Theorem
col(A) = im(A).

Theorem
col(A) = im(A).

Example
Find the dimensions of the null space and the column space of the given
matrix.  
−1 2 1 3
A =  2 −3 −2 1 
 
3 −5 −3 −2
Answer:

Example
matrix.  
−1 2 1 3
A =  2 −3 −2 1 
 
3 −5 −3 −2
Answer: We have
   
−1 2 1 3 1 −2 −1 −3
2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A →  0 1 0 7 → 0 1 0 7
  
3R1 +R3 −R1
0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0

Example
matrix.  
−1 2 1 3
A =  2 −3 −2 1 
 
3 −5 −3 −2
Answer: We have
   
−1 2 1 3 1 −2 −1 −3
2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A →  0 1 0 7 → 0 1 0 7
  
3R1 +R3 −R1
0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0
Hence rank(A) = 2, and
dim(null(A)) = 4 − rank(A) = 2, dim(col(A)) = rank(A) = 2.

Example
matrix.  
−1 2 1 3
A =  2 −3 −2 1 
 
3 −5 −3 −2
Answer: We have
   
−1 2 1 3 1 −2 −1 −3
2R1 +R2  −R2 +R3
A →  0 1 0 7 → 0 1 0 7
  
3R1 +R3 −R1
0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0
Hence rank(A) = 2, and
dim(null(A)) = 4 − rank(A) = 2, dim(col(A)) = rank(A) = 2.

Example
n o
U = [x , y , z, w ] x − 2y + 3z + w = 0, 3x − 5y + z + 8w = 0

Answer:

Example
n o
U = [x , y , z, w ] x − 2y + 3z + w = 0, 3x − 5y + z + 8w = 0

" #!
1 −2 3 1
Answer: See that U = null .
3 −5 1 8

Example
n o
U = [x , y , z, w ] x − 2y + 3z + w = 0, 3x − 5y + z + 8w = 0

" #!
1 −2 3 1
Answer: See that U = null . We have
3 −5 1 8
" # " #
1 −2 3 1 −3R1 +R2 1 −2 3 1
rank = rank = 2.
3 −5 1 8 0 1 −8 5

Example
n o
U = [x , y , z, w ] x − 2y + 3z + w = 0, 3x − 5y + z + 8w = 0

" #!
1 −2 3 1
3 −5 1 8
" # " #
1 −2 3 1 −3R1 +R2 1 −2 3 1
rank = rank = 2.
3 −5 1 8 0 1 −8 5
" #
1 −2 3 1
Hence dim(U) = 4 − rank = 4 − 2 = 2.
3 −5 1 8

Example
n o
U = [x , y , z, w ] x − 2y + 3z + w = 0, 3x − 5y + z + 8w = 0

" #!
1 −2 3 1
3 −5 1 8
" # " #
1 −2 3 1 −3R1 +R2 1 −2 3 1
rank = rank = 2.
3 −5 1 8 0 1 −8 5
" #
1 −2 3 1
Hence dim(U) = 4 − rank = 4 − 2 = 2.
3 −5 1 8

Example
Find the dimension of
n o
U = (x + y , x − 2y , 3x ) x , y ∈ R

Answer:

Example
n o
U = (x + y , x − 2y , 3x ) x , y ∈ R

   
1 1 1 1
Answer: See that U = im 1 −2 = col 1 −2.
   
3 0 3 0

Example
n o
U = (x + y , x − 2y , 3x ) x , y ∈ R

   
1 1 1 1
Answer: See that U = im 1 −2 = col 1 −2. We have
   
3 0 3 0
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
 −R1 +R2  −1/3R2
dim(U) = rank 1 −2 = rank 0 −3 = rank 0 1 = 2.
   
−3R1 +R3 −R2 +R3
3 0 0 −3 0 0

Example
n o
U = (x + y , x − 2y , 3x ) x , y ∈ R

   
1 1 1 1
Answer: See that U = im 1 −2 = col 1 −2. We have
   
3 0 3 0
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
 −R1 +R2  −1/3R2
dim(U) = rank 1 −2 = rank 0 −3 = rank 0 1 = 2.
   
−3R1 +R3 −R2 +R3
3 0 0 −3 0 0

Example
Let A be a 3 × 6 matrix and let dim(null(A)) = 2. Which of the following
statements are true?
(i) All bases of the col(A) have four vectors.
(ii) dim(row(A)) = 1.

Example
Answer:

Example
Answer: We have dim(null(A)) = 6 − rank(A) = 2. Hence rank(A) = 4.

(i) True. Since dim(col(A)) = rank(A) = 4. Hence all bases of the
col(A) have four vectors.

Example

(ii) False. Since dim(row(A)) = rank(A) = 4.

Example

(ii) False. Since dim(row(A)) = rank(A) = 4.

Example
Let A is a 100x 350 matrix. Which of the following statements are true?
(i) dim(Null(A)) must be at least 250.
(ii) dim(row(A)) + dim(col(A)) = 450.
Answer:

Example
Answer:
(i) True. Since dim(Null(A)) = 350 − rank(A) = 4. Moreover,
rank(A) ≤ min{100, 350} = 100. Thus,
dim(Null(A)) = 350 − rank(A) ≥ 250 .

Example
Answer:
rank(A) ≤ min{100, 350} = 100. Thus,
dim(Null(A)) = 350 − rank(A) ≥ 250 .
(ii) False. Since dim(row(A)) + dim(col(A)) ≤ 200.

Example
Answer:
rank(A) ≤ min{100, 350} = 100. Thus,
dim(Null(A)) = 350 − rank(A) ≥ 250 .
(ii) False. Since dim(row(A)) + dim(col(A)) ≤ 200.

Exercises
Section 5.1: 1, 2, 3, 4 (page 267-268)
Section 5.2: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7abcfg (page 278)
Section 5.3: 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 12 (page 286-287)
Section 5.4: 1, 2, 3, 7 (page 294-295)

Linear Algebra Chapter 5 H

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Linear Algebra Chapter 5 H

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Chapter 5.

The Vector Space Rn

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 1 / 46

2 Independence and Dimension

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We consider Rn as a set of all matrices of size n × 1 that has two

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 4 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 5 / 46

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Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 5 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And

since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 6 / 46

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And

since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And

since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ U1

since 2(x1 + x2 ) + 5(y1 + y2 ) = (2x1 + 5y1 ) + (2x2 + 5y2 ) = 0. And

since 2ax1 + 5ay1 = a(2x1 + 5y1 ) = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 7 / 46

the set of all solutions of homogeneous system Ax = 0.

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Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 8 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 8 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46

Chapter 5. The Vector Space Rn 9 / 46