Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

International Baccalaureate
MATHEMATICS
Analysis and Approaches (SL and HL)
Lecture Notes
Christos Nikolaidis
TOPIC 3
GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY
3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………… 1
3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE ...………………… 5
3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 16
3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS …………………….. 22
3.5 SIN, COS, TAN ON THE UNIT CIRCLE – IDENTITIES ………………………… 29
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS ………………………………………………………….….. 38
3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 48
Only for HL
3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS ..….………………. 61
3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………. 67
VECTORS
3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION …………………………………………. 73
3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 80
3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS …………… 87
3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 92
3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 98
3.15 KINEMATICS …………………………………………………………………………………………. 105
3.16 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ………………………………………………………….… 108
3.17 PLANES ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
3.18 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ………………………………….. 120
3.19 DISTANCES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 126
December 2022
TOPIC 3: GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY Christos Nikolaidis
3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
 3D COORDINATE GEOMETRY
We know that a point in the Cartesian plane has the form P(x,y).
In 3D space we add one more coordinate, thus a point has the
form P(x,y,z).
The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

by
dAB  (x 1  x 2 ) 2  (y1  y2 ) 2  (z 1  z 2 ) 2
while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by
x1  x 2 y1  y2 z1  z 2
M( , , )
2 2 2
EXAMPLE 1
Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find
(a) the distance between A and B

(b) the distance between O and B
(c) the coordinates of the midpoint M of the line segment [AB]
(d) the coordinates of point C given that B is the midpoint of [AC]
Solution
(a) dAB  (1  2) 2  (0  3) 2  (5  1) 2  1  9  16  26
(b) d OB  2 2  3 2  1 2  14
1 2 0 3 5 1 3 3
(c) M( , , ) i.e. M( , ,3 )
2 2 2 2 2
(d) C(3,6,-3)
Notice: the coordinates of A,B,C (B midpoint) form arithmetic sequences
x: 1,2,3
y: 0,3,6
z: 5,1,-3
1
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS
The volumes and the surface areas of 5 known solids are given
below:
Solid Volume Surface area
Cuboid
V  xyz S  2xy  2yz  2zx
Pyramid
1 S  (sum of areas
V (area of base)  (height)
3 of the faces)
Cylinder
S  2π rh  2π r
2
V  πr 2 h
Cone
S  πrL  πr2
1
V πr 2 h where
3
L  r 2  h2
Sphere
4
V πr 3 S  4π r 2
3
Notation
x, y, z : length-width-height
r: radius of circular base
h : vertical height
2
EXAMPLE 2
The volume and the surface area for the following solids
Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x
x
x x
Cube: V  xxx  x 3 S  6x 2
Cuboid of square base: V  x 2y S  2x 2  4xy
EXAMPLE 3
Given that the volume of a cylinder is 25,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the surface area in terms of r
Solution
25
(a) V  πr 2 h  πr 2 h  25  h 
π r2
25 50
(b) S  2π rh  2π r  2π r
2
 2π r 2   2π r 2
πr 2
r
EXAMPLE 4
Given that the surface area of a cylinder is 100π,
(a) express h in terms of r
(b) hence express the volume in terms of r
Solution
50 - r 2
(a) S  2π rh  2π r 2  2π rh  2π r 2  100π  h 
r
50 - r 2
(b) V  πr 2 h  πr 2  πr(50 - r 2 )  50π r - 50r 3
r
3
EXAMPLE 5
Find the volume and the surface area of a right pyramid of square
base of side 6 and vertical height 4.
Μ΄
Solution
The vertical height is h=4.
For the slant height AM we use the Pythagoras theorem on ANM.
AM 2  AN 2  NM 2  AM 2  4 2  3 2  AM  5
The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

1 1
A  ED  AM   6  5  15
2 2
1 1
The volume is V (area of base)  (height) =  6 2  4  48
3 3
The surface area is S  (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96
Notice about the angles between lines and planes:
Angle between line AM and plane BCDE = angle AMN

ˆ
Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle ADN

ˆ
Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AMN

ˆ
Angle between the planes ACB and ADE = angle MAM

ˆ  = 2× MAN
ˆ
4
3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE
 BASIC NOTIONS
For any right-angled triangle
a b
θ
B c A
we define the sine, the cosine and the tangent of angle θ by:
b opposite c adjacent
sinθ = = cosθ = =
a hypotenuse a hypotenuse
b opposite
tanθ = =
c adjacent
Clearly
sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
It also holds
Pythagoras’ theorem a 2  b 2  c2
We can easily derive the so-called Pythagorean identity
sin 2θ  cos 2 θ  1
Indeed,
2 2
b c b 2  c2 a 2
sin 2 θ  cos 2 θ         2 1
a a a2 a
5
EXAMPLE 1
C 4
sinB =
5
5 4 3
cosB =
5
θ 4
tanB =
B 3 A 3
We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem: 5 2 = 32  4 2
Every angle has a fixed sine, cosine and tangent. For example
1 3 1 3
sin30o = , cos30o = , tan30o = 
2 2 3 3
If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

(i.e. θ<90), we can find θ by using the inverse functions of our GDC:
sin-1, cos-1 and tan-1
For example,
1 1
if sinθ = then θ = sin-1 = 30o
2 2
Thus, we can find the angle B of the triangle above:

4
B= sin-1 = 53.1°
5
3 4
(Notice that cos-1 and tan-1 give the same result)
5 3
Then
C=90°–53.1° = 36.9°
For two angles A and B
A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o
A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o
6
 SIN, COS, TAN for basic angles: 0o, 30o, 45o, 60o, 90o
We mention a practical way to memorise them:
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

0 1 2 3 4
sinθ
2 2 2 2 2
For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order
For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.
Hence,
θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

1 2 3 Notice
sinθ 0 1
2 2 2 1 3

3 2 1 3 3
cosθ 1 0
2 2 2 1 2

2 2
1
tanθ 0 1 3 -
3
REMARKS:
 For an acute angle (θ < 90ο) if we know the result sinθ we can
find the angle θ itself by using the inverse function sin-1 in our
GDC. Similarly, for cosθ and tanθ. For example,
If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o

If cosθ = 0.3 then θ = cos-1 0.3 = 72.5o
 sinθ, cosθ, tanθ, cotθ are also defined for obtuse angles (θ> 90ο).
At the moment, it is enough to know that
supplementary angles have equal sines but opposite cosines:
e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5

cos30o = 3/2 cos 150o = - 3/2
 The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.
7
 SINE RULE - COSINE RULE
For any triangle two rules always hold:
c b
B a C
a b c
SINE RULE = =
sinA sinB sinC
COSINE RULE a 2  b 2  c2  2b c cos A
Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:
b 2  c2  a 2  2 ca cos B c2  a 2  b 2  2 ab cos C
Consider, for example, the following triangle
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:

4 3 2
 4.13  4.13  4.13
sin104.5 sin46.6 sin28.9
We can also confirm the three versions of the COSINE RULE:
42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)
32= 22+42-2(2)(4)cos 46.6 (LHS = 9 RHS = 9)
22= 42+32-2(4)(3)cos 28.9 (LHS = 4 RHS = 4)
8
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following right-angled triangle
A
90o
c b
B a C
Then
a b c b c
= =  a = =
sin90 o
sinB sinC sinB sinC
and so
b c
sinB = and sinC =
a a
as expected by the definition of sinθ
Also, a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc  cos90 o implies
a 2  b 2  c2
that is the Pythagoras’ theorem, since cos90o = 0.
Moreover
b 2  c 2  a 2  2ca  cosB  b 2  c 2  (b 2  c 2 )  2ca  cosB
 - 2c 2  2ca  cosB
c
 cosB =
a
b
as expected by the definition of cosθ. Similarly we get cosC =
a
Consequently,
SINE RULE generalizes the definition of sinθ
COSINE RULE generalizes of the definition of cosθ

and Pythagoras’ theorem
9
 THE SOLUTION OF A TRIANGLE
Any triangle has 6 basic elements: 3 sides and 3 angles.
If we are given any 3 among those 6 elements (except 3 angles!)

we are able to find the remaining 3 elements by using the sine rule
or the cosine rule appropriately.
Roughly speaking
If we know we use
(three sides) OR (two sides and an included angle) COSINE RULE
otherwise SINE RULE
In other words
we use the SINE RULE when we know an angle-opposite side pair.
EXAMPLE 3 (given three sides)
2 3
B 4 C
We use COSINE RULE
42 = 22 + 32 - 12 cosA 32 = 22 + 42 - 16 cosB
 3 = -12cosA  -11 = -16cosB
 cosA = - 0.25  cosB = 0.6875
 A = 104.5o  B = 46.6o
Finally,
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o-46.6o,
Thus
C = 28.9o
10
Notice: We may sometimes have no solutions at all. For example, if

a=10, b=3, c=2 it is not possible to construct such a triangle!
Indeed, the cosine rule gives us cosA = -7.25 which is not possible!
EXAMPLE 4 (given two sides and an included angle)
104.5o
2 3
B C
We use COSINE RULE:
BC 2 = 22 + 32 - 12 cos 104.5o = 16
Thus BC = 4
Then we know all the three sides and hence B and C can be found
as above: B = 46.6o and C = 28.9o
EXAMPLE 5 (given one side and two angles)
104.5o
3
46.60
B C
In fact, we know the third angle as well:
C = 180o-A-B = 180o-104.5o- 46.6o, thus C = 28.9o
Now we can use the sine rule twice
3 BC
=  BC = 4
sin 46.6 sin 104.5
3 AB
=  AB = 2
sin 46.6 sin 28.9
11
EXAMPLE 6 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
2 3
46.60
B C
We use the sine rule

3 2
=  sinC = 0.484
sin 46.6 sin C
Hence, C = 28.9o (by GDC)
Then
A = 180o - 46.6o - 28.9o, that is A = 104.5o
The side BC can be found either by sine or cosine rule! It is BC=4
Notice: In fact, we obtain two values for C.
C = 28.9o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 28.9o = 151.1o
(since supplementary angles have equal sines).
But C΄ = 151.1o is rejected since
B + C΄ = 46.6o + 151.1o > 180o
But this is not always the case!
 THE AMBIGUOUS CASE
If we are given two sides and a non-included angle (as above) we

may have as a solution
 Two triangles
 One triangle
 No triangle at all
12
This is because the sine rule provides two values for an unknown
angle. For example if we find sinC = 0.5 then
C = 30o (this is sin-1C)

or C΄ = 180o - 30o = 150o
and these two values may result to different solutions.
In example 6 we found only one solution. But in the following

example we will find two solutions.
EXAMPLE 7 (given two sides and a non-included angle)
5 4
300
B C
We use the sine rule:

4 5
=  sinC = 0.625
sin 30 sin C
Hence,
C = 38.7o (by GDC)
or C΄ = 180o - 38.7o = 141.3o
CASE (1): If C = 38.7o then
A = 180o - 30o - 38.7o, thus A = 111.3o
and then
BC 2  5 2  4 2  2(5 )(4)cos111.3  BC = 7.45
CASE (2): If C΄ = 141.3o then
A΄ = 180o - 30o - 141.3o, thus A΄ = 8.7o

and then
BC2  5 2  4 2  2(5 )(4)cos8.7  BC΄ =1.21
13
We may, sometimes, obtain no solution at all.
EXAMPLE 8 (given 2 sides and a non-included angle)
5 1
300
B a C
We use the sine rule:

1 5
=  sinC = 2.5
sin 30 sin C
which is impossible!
Hence, there is no such a triangle!
 JUSTIFICATION OF THE AMBIGUOUS CASE
In example 7, we were given B=30o, AB=5, AC=4 and we found

two solutions for C, and thus two possible triangles: ABC and ABC΄.
Indeed, the two triangles satisfying theses conditions are shown

below
5 4 4
300
B C΄ C
Notice that AC=4 can be placed in two different positions.
For the two possible values of angle C it holds
C+C΄=180o
(can you explain why?)
14
 THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE
c b
1
Area = bc sinA
2
B a C
Notice that two sides and an included angle are involved in the
formula!
We can derive two similar versions for this formula:
1 1
Area = ab sinC Area = a c sinB
2 2
EXAMPLE 9
Look at again the triangle in example 1:
104.5o
2 3
46.60 28.9o
B 4 C
1
Area = 2  3  sin104.5 o  2.90
2
The other two versions give the same result:

1
Area = 2  4  sin46.6o  2.90
2
1
Area = 3  4  sin28.9o  2.90
2
(you may notice little deviations on the result due to rounding!)
15
3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION
 ANGLE OF ELEVATION – ANGLE OF DEPRESSION
Suppose that an object is above the horizontal level of an observer.

The angle of elevation θ to the object is shown below:
Object
θ
Observer horizontal
If the object is below the level of the observer the angle of

depression θ to the object is shown below:
Observer horizontal
θ
Object
We very often see these notions in 3D shapes. For example,
The angle of elevation from A to G is the angle BAˆ G.
The angle of elevation from A to F is the angle CA

ˆ F (explain why!)
The angle of depression from H to B is the angle GHˆ B.
The angle of depression from H to C is the angle FH

ˆ C (explain why!)
16
EXAMPLE 1
An observer is situated at point A.

(a) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(b) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2  4 2  3 2  AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G  3  BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2  4 2  5 2  AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2  41  3 2  AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF  3 ˆ =25.1o
 CAF
41
17
EXAMPLE 2
P
30 45
horizontal
B A
An object P is above a hill. Two observers A and B are situated as

in the diagram above.
The angle of elevation from A is 45o.
The angle of elevation from B is 30o.
The distance between A and B is 10m.
Find the vertical height h of the object P above the ground.
Solution
Consider the triangle
P
30° 45°
B 10 A x K
h h
tan45   1 h  x
x x
h h 1
tan30     h 3  x  10
x  10 x  10 3
Therefore,
10
h 3 = h  10  h( 3  1) = 10  h   13.7 m
3 1
Notice: Another approach is to work in triangle ABP first, to find

h
AP=19.318 and then by sin 45  , we find h  13.7
19.318
18
EXAMPLE 2
An observer is situated at point A.

(c) Find the distance AG and the angle of elevation of point G.
(d) Find the distance AF and the angle of elevation of point F.
Solution
(a) We consider the triangle AGB.
By Pythagoras’ theorem,
AG 2  4 2  3 2  AG = 5
The angle of elevation is BAˆ G . Hence,
tanBA ˆ G  3  BA ˆ G =36.9o
4
(b) For point F we consider the vertical height FC and thus the
triangle AFC.
We firstly need the side AC. By Pythagoras theorem in ABC
AC 2  4 2  5 2  AC = 41
Now, by Pythagoras’ theorem in AFC,
2
AF 2  41  3 2  AF = 50
The angle of elevation is CAˆ F . Hence,
tanCA ˆF  3 ˆ =25.1o
 CAF
41
19
 NAVIGATION - BEARING
When we navigate on a map we should have in mind the four main

directions
North, East, South, West
as well as the four intermediate directions as shown below.
The angle between any consecutive directions is 45o.
Thus, for example,
 if two persons walk towards the North and East directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 90o.
 if two persons walk towards the North and Southeast directions

respectively the angle between their directions is 135o.
Another keyword in navigation is the bearing. Suppose that a

moving body goes from point A to point B.
The bearing of the course AB is the clockwise angle

between the North direction and AB.
The following diagram will clarify this notion.
20
According to the diagram:

North
North
50o
the bearing of the course AB is 50o

the bearing of the course BA is 230o (explain why!)
EXAMPLE 3
A car travels:
from point A to point B in bearing 50o,
then from point B to point C with bearing 1500,
then goes back to point A with bearing 270o.
The distance AC is 10km.
Draw a diagram to show the details find the distances AB and AC.
Solution
B 1500
500 300
500 300
A 10 km C
According to the diagram Â = 40o, B̂ = 80o, Ĉ = 60o
Then, by using the sine rule

10 AB BC
 
sin80 sin60 sin40
we find AB = 8.79km and BC = 6.53km
21
3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS
The values of the angles can be represented well on the following

trigonometric circle:
90o
120o 60o
135o 45o
150o 30o
+
0o
180o
360o
210o 330o
225o 315o
240o 300o
270o
In fact, each value on the circle indicates the angle between the
corresponding radius and the positive x-axis radius (red arrow).
The angle formed after a complete circle is 360°.
The angle formed after half a circle is 180°.
However, after completing a full circle (1st period) we can continue

counting:
361°, 362°, 263° and so on
The next full circle (2nd period) finishes at 2×360° = 720°.
Similarly, we can move clockwise, considering negative angles:
-1°, -2°, -3° and so on
For example, 270° can also be seen as -90°.
Therefore, an angle may have any value from - ∞ to +∞.
22
 DEGREES AND RADIANS

Consider the following circle of radius r =1 (unit circle).
θ
A
O
The circumference of the circle is 2πr = 2π.
Start from point A and move anticlockwise. What is the length of

the arc AB?
If θ = 0ο then AB=0
If θ= 360ο then AB=2π (full circle)
If θ= 180ο then AB=π (semicircle)
If θ= 90ο then AB=π/2 (quarter of a circle)
Thus, an alternative way to measure the angle θ=AÔB is to

measure the corresponding arc AB. The new unit of measurement
is called radian.
DEGREES (deg) RADIANS (rad)
90o π/2
180o 0o π 0
O 360o O 2π
270o 3π/2
23
Let us see the basic angles, in degrees and radians, on the

trigonometric circle.
π/2
2π/3 90o π/3
6 120o 60o
3π/4 π/4
135o 45o
5π/6 π/6
150o 30o
+
π 0o 0
180o
360o 2π
210o 330o
7π/6
11π/6
225o 315o
5π/4 7π/4
240o 300o
4π/3 270o 5π/3
3π/2
We can also move in the opposite direction (clockwise) and consider

negative angles:
-π -180o 0o 0
-150o -30o
-5π/6 -π/6
-135o -45o
-3π/4 -π/4
-120o -60o
-2π/3 -90o -π/3
-π/2
24
NOTICE:
The ratio between degrees and radians is given by
degrees 180 0

radians π
EXAMPLE 1
Let θ1 =300, θ2 =800, θ3 =270. Transform in radians.
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
30 o 180 0 30π π
For θ1:   180x = 30π  x = = rad
x π 180 6
80 o 180 0 80π 4π
For θ2:   180x = 80π  x = = rad
x π 180 9
27 o 180 0 27π
For θ3:   180x = 27π  x = =0.471rad
x π 180
EXAMPLE 2
π 4π
Let θ1 = rad, θ2 = rad, θ3 =2 rad. Transform in degrees.
3 9
deg
We use the ratio :
rad
x 180 0 180π
For θ1: =  πx =  x = 60ο
π/3 π 3
x 180 0 4  180π
For θ2: =  πx =  x = 80ο
4π /9 π 9
x 180 0 360
For θ3: =  πx = 360  x = =114.6ο
2 π π
NOTICE (not necessary to remember though!!!)
180 π
1 rad = = 57.3o 1o = = 0.0174 rad
π 180
25
 THE ANGLE VALUES OF A POINT ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
Consider the point on the unit circle corresponding to 30ο.
Let’s start from 0ο and move anticlockwise. We pass through 30ο

and after completing a full circle, we pass through the same point
at 30ο+360ο =390ο
and then again at 30ο+360ο×2 =750ο
and so on.
In other words, we add (or subtract) multiples of 360ο:
In this way, the same point has infinitely many angle values:
30ο+360οk where kZ
Working in radians, we add multiples of 2π, so that the point has

the infinitely many angle values:
π
+2kπ where kZ
6
Thus, for k = … -1, 0, 1, 2, … we obtain the values
…, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, … [in degrees]

11π π 13π 25π
…,  , , , , … [in radians]
6 6 6 6
Therefore, any point θ on the circle has infinitely many values:
26
 ARCS AND SECTORS
Consider a circle of radius r. Let θ be the angle shown below

measured in radians!
B
r
θ
O
A
The length of the arc AB is given by L=rθ
1 2
The area of the sector OAB is given by A= r θ
2
In particular, if we consider θ=2π (complete circle), we obtain
L = rθ = 2πr (the circumference of the circle)

1 2
A = r θ = πr2 (the area in the circle)
2
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the following sector of a circle with r=5m and θ=0.6rad:
0.6
Then
Length of arc: L = rθ = 5(0.6) = 3
1 2 1 2
Area of sector: A = r θ = 5 (0.6) = 7.5 m2
2 2
Perimeter of sector: L+r+r = 3+5+5 = 13m
27
EXAMPLE 4
3
30o
A
O
Let r =3cm and θ=30ο. Find

a) the length of the arc AB b) the area of the sector OAB
c) the distance AB d) the area of the triangle OAB
Solution
π
First of all we have to transform θ in radians: θ =
6
π π
a) L = rθ = 3 = = 1.57 cm
6 2
1 2 1 2π 3π
b) Asector = r θ= 3 = = 2.36 cm2
2 2 6 4
c) For AB we use COSINE RULE:
π
AB2 = 32+32-2.3.3cos  AB = 2.41154 = 1.55 cm
6
1 . π
d) Atriangle = 3 3sin = 2.25 cm2
2 6
Notice in the example above

 length of arc AB > length of side AB : 1.57 > 1.55
 area of sector OAB > area of triangle OAB : 2.36 > 2.25
as expected!
Furthermore, the area of the segment between side AB and arc AB
is the difference Asector-Atriangle =2.36-2.25=0.11.
In general,
1 2
Asegment = r (θ-sinθ)
2
(can you explain why?).
28
3.5 SIN, COS, ΤΑΝ ON THE UNIT CIRCLE
 sinθ AND cosθ
Consider again the unit circle (radius r =1) on the Cartesian plane.
y P(x,y)
θ
-1 O x 1
-1
Let P(x,y) be a point on the circle,

OP = r = 1
θ = angle between OP and x-axis
Then
opposite y adjacent x
sinθ = = =y and cosθ = = =x
hypotenuse 1 hypotenuse 1
Thus, if we think the angle θ as a point on the circle:
sinθ θ
sinθ = y coordinate of θ
cosθ = x coordinate of θ cosθ
29
This description helps us to define sinθ and cosθ not only for angles
within 00θ 900, but for any value of θ on the circumference.
900< θ <1800 1800< θ <2700 2700< θ <3600

2nd quadrant 3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
θ sinθ
cosθ cosθ
cosθ
sinθ sinθ
θ θ
Let us move the y-axis (which shows sinx) to the left of the circle:
sinθ
1 900
0.5 1500 300
0 1800 00 or 3600
-0.5
2100 3300
-1
2700
sinθ is the y-coordinate of θ

θ 00 300 900 1500 1800 2100 2700 3300 3600
sinθ 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0
This diagram explains why supplementary angles have equal sines.
30
Let us move now the x-axis (which shows cosx) under the circle:
900
1200 600
1800 00
3600
2400 3000
2700
cosθ
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
cosθ is the x-coordinate of θ

θ 00 600 900 1200 1800 2400 2700 3000 3600
cosθ 1 0.5 0 - 0.5 -1 - 0.5 0 0.5 1
This diagram explains why opposite angles have equal cosines.
NOTICE
As we have said, any point on the circle represents infinitely many
angle values. In that sense, all these angles have the same sine and
the same cosine.
For example, the point of 300 also represents the values
300+3600k: …, -330ο, 30ο, 390ο, 750ο, …
Check by your GDC:

sin300 = 0.5 cos300 = 3/2
sin3900 = 0.5 cos3900 = 3/2
sin7500 = 0.5 etc cos7500 = 3/2 etc
A similar observation applies when θ is in radians!

π
All values + 2kπ : have the same sine and cosine
6
31
We understand that
-1  sinθ  1 -1  cosθ  1
sinθ
+ + - +
0
- - - +
-1
cosθ
-1 0 1
 tanθ
Consider now the unit circle below and an additional vertical axis
passing through point A (it is tangent to the circle!)
O 1
A
Then
opposite AB
tanθ = = =AB
adjacent 1
32
Thus, the value on this axis indicates the value of the tangent:
tanθ
3 =1.73
900
1
600
450 1 = 0.58
3
300
0
θ 00 300 450 600 900
tanθ 0 1/ 3 1 3 +
Again, this description helps us to define tanθ not only for angles θ
within 00 θ 900 .
tanθ
1
1350 450
1800 0
2250 3150
-1
x 00 450 1350 1800 2250 3150 3600
tanθ 0 1 -1 0 1 -1 0
It is clear that diametrically opposite angles have equal tangents.
33
NOTICE
 Not only θ, but all values
θ  180k ο (in degrees)
θ  kπ (in radians)
have equal tangents (we just add or subtract semicircles).
 It is obvious that tanθ is not defined for θ=900 or θ=-900. In
fact, tanθ is not defined for
π
90 ο  180k ο (in degrees)  kπ (in radians)
2
For any other value of θ,
-
 < tanθ < +

+

tanθ
- +
0
+ -
-

It is worthwhile to notice that for opposite angles, θ and –θ
-θ
cos(-θ) = cosθ [even function]

sin(-θ) = -sinθ [odd function]
tan(-θ) = -tanθ [odd function]
34
 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
The trigonometric numbers are interconnected by some relations

known as trigonometric identities.
We have already seen the fundamental Pythagorean identity
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
Thus, for example. if we know sinθ we can find cosθ (provided we

know the quadrant of θ).
The following identities are known as double angle identities.
They connect the trigonometric numbers of 2θ with those of θ.
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ
cos2θ = 2cos2θ- 1 2tanθ

sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ tan2θ =
1- tan 2 θ
cos2θ = 1-2sin2θ
[only for HL]
EXAMPLE 1
3
Let sinθ = . Find
5
cosθ, tanθ, sin2θ, cos2θ, tan2θ
if
(a) θ < 90o (acute)
(b) 90o < θ < 180o (obtuse)
Solution
By the fundamental identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1, we obtain
2
3 9 16
cos2θ = 1- sin2θ = 1-   = 1- = ,
5  25 25
thus
4
cosθ = 
5
4 4
If θ is acute (1st quadrant) cosθ = , if θ is obtuse cosθ =-
5 5
35
(a) Since θ < 90o

4
cosθ =
5
sinθ 3
tanθ = = ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 =
5 5 25
2 2
4 3 7
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ =   -  =
5  5  25
sin2θ 24
tan2θ = = .
cos2θ 7
(b) Since 90o<θ<180o
4
cosθ =-
5
sinθ 3
tanθ = =- ,
cosθ 4
3 4 24
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ = 2 (- ) = -
5 5 25
2 2
 4 3 7
cos2θ = cos2θ-sin2θ =    -   =
 5  5  25
sin2θ 24
tan2θ = = - .
cos2θ 7
NOTICE
Consider the double angle identity
sin2θ = 2sinθcosθ
That means
sin30o = 2sin15ocos15o
sin100o = 2sin50ocos50o
or
sin4θ = 2sin2θcos2θ
sin10θ = 2sin5θcos5θ
Similar variations can be obtained by the other identities, e.g.
cos30o = 1-2sin215o
cos4θ = 1-2sin22θ
36
NOTICE
If we divide the Pythagorean identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 by cos2θ,
we obtain
1
tan2θ + 1 =
cos 2 θ
This identity connects tanθ with cosθ. Τhus, all three trigonometric
numbers sinθ, cosθ, tanθ are interconnected.
However, we can easily obtain this interconnection by using the
right-angled triangle method:
2
For example, let θ be an angle in the first quadrant with sinθ = .
3
We construct a right-angled triangle to represent this information.
3
2
By using the Pythagorean identity, we find the third side: 5
Thus, we know all three trigonometric numbers:
2 5 2
sinθ = . cosθ = . tanθ = .
3 3 5
In fact, this method provides the absolute value of the

trigonometric numbers. If θ belongs to another quadrant we must
take care of the sign () as well.
For example, in the example above, if θ is in the 2nd quadrant, it is
2
still sinθ = , but we know that cosθ and sinθ are negative. So
3
5 2
cosθ = - . tanθ = -
3 5
37
3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
 Remember that
SAME SIN SAME COS SAME TAN
π-θ θ θ θ
1800-θ θ θ θ
-θ
θ±1800
-θ
θ±π
Consider for example the equation

1
sinx =
2
1 1
We know that sin30o = . But also sin150o =
2 2
These two values give the complete set of solutions:

x=30o+360k,
x=150o+360k, (kZ)
(the two formulas above are known as general solution).
We usually ask for the solutions within a particular domain
Methodology:
1
Equation: sinx =
2
Think: sinx = sin30o [you may skip this step]
General solution: x=30o+360k,

x=150o+360k,
Particular solutions: Try for k = 0,±1,±2, … to find
solutions within the given domain
38
In general, for the following equations,
sinx=a
cosx=a
tanx=a
we find the principal solution θ and express them in the form
sinx=sinθ
cosx=cosθ
tanx=tanθ
The general solutions are given below:
EQUATION IN DEGREES IN RADIANS
x= θ + 360οk x=θ +2kπ

sinx=sinθ
x=(180ο-θ) + 360οk x=(π-θ) + 2kπ
x= θ + 360οk x= θ + 2kπ
cosx=cosθ
x=-θ + 360οk x=-θ + 2kπ
tanx= tanθ x=θ + 180οk x=θ + kπ
EXAMPLE 2
1
Solve the equations: (a) sinx= , 0°  x  360°
2
1
(b) cosx= , 0°  x  360°
2
Solution
1
(a) sinx=  sinx=sin30°
2
150o 30o
General solution: x=30o + 360ok
x=150o + 360ok
Within the given domain:
The 1st equation gives only x=30o (for k=0)
The 2nd equation gives only x=150o (for k=0)
39
1
(b) cosx=  cosx=cos60° 60o
2
General solution: x=60o + 360ok
x=-60o + 360ok
-60o
Within the given domain:
The 1st equation gives only x=60o (for k=0)
The 2nd equation gives only x=300o (for k=1)
In the following example, let us see an equation under three

different domains.
EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation tanx=1
(a) for 0°  x  360°
(b) for -180°  x  180°
(c) for -180°  x  450°
Solution
tanx=1  tanx=45o 45o
General solution: x=45o + 180ck
(a) Within 0°  x  360° we obtain
x=45o x=225o
(b) Within -180o  x  180o
x=-135o x=45o
(c) Within -180o  x  450o
x=-135o x=45o x=225o x=405o
40
NOTICE
Particularly for the equations
sinx=0 and cos x=0
90o
180o 0o
-90o
there exist two different approaches for the general formula.

(a) For sinx=0
x = 0°+360°k x = 0+2kπ
sinx=0
x = 180°+360°k x = π+2kπ
Since the two basic solutions are diametrically opposite, we

may merge the two general solutions into one:
sinx=0 x = 180°k x = kπ
(b) For cosx=0
x = π +2kπ
x = 90°+360°k 2
cosx=0
x = -90°+360°k x =  π +2kπ
2
Since the two basic solutions are diametrically opposite, we

may merge the two general solutions into one:
cosx=0 x = 90°+180°k x = π +kπ

2
(c) Practically,
solutions of sinx=0 solutions of cosx=0
..., -180°, 0°, 180°, 360° , … ..., -90°, 90°, 270° , 450° …
..., -π, 0, π, 2π, 3π, ... ..., - π , π , 3π , 5π , ...

2 2 2 2
41
The general solutions of the basic trigonometric equations are

presented below.
General solution
Equation Basic solution
in degrees in radians
π
x  2kπ
1 π x  30  360 k 6
sinx  30 =
2 6 5π
x  150  360 k x  2kπ
6
π
x  2kπ
2 π x  45  360k 4
sinx  45 =
2 4 3π
x  135  360 k x  2kπ
4
π
x  2kπ
3 π x  60  360k 3
sinx  60 =
2 3 2π
x  120  360 k x  2kπ
3
π
x  2kπ
x  30   360k 6
sinx  
1
- 30 = - π
2 6 5π
x  150  360 k x  2kπ
6
π
x  2kπ
x  45  360k 4
sinx  
2 - 45 = - π
2 4 3π
x  135  360 k x  2kπ
4
π
x  2kπ
3 π x  60  360k 3
sinx   - 60 = -
2 3 2π
x  120  360 k x  2kπ
3
Extreme cases
π π
sinx  1 90 = x  90  360k x  2k π
2 2
π π
sinx  1
- 90 = - x  90  360k x  2k π
2 2
For sinx  0
sinx  0 0 x  180k x  kπ
42
General solution
1 π π
cosx  60 = x  2kπ
2 3 x  60  360k 3
2 π π
cosx  45 = x  45  360k x  2kπ
2 4 4
3 π π
cosx  30 = x  30  360k x  2kπ
2 6 6
1 2π 2π
cosx   120 = x  2kπ
2 3 x  120   360 k 3
2 135 =
3π 3π
cosx   x  135  360k x  2kπ
2 4 4
3 5π 5π
cosx   150 = x  2kπ
2 6 x  150  360k 6
Extreme cases
cosx  1 0 = 0 x  360k x  2k π
cosx  1 180 = π x  180  360k x  π  2k π
For cosx  0
π π
90 = x kπ
cosx  0 2 x  90  180k 2
General solution
60 = π π
tanx  3 x  60  180 k x  kπ
3 3
45  = π π
tanx  1 x  45   180k x  kπ
4 4
30 = π π
tanx  1/ 3 x  30  180k x  kπ
6 6
tanx  0 0 = 0 x  180k x  kπ
-30 = π π
tanx  1/ 3  x  30  180k x  kπ
6 6
-45 = π π
tanx  1  x  45   180k x  kπ
4 4
-60 = π π
tanx   3  x  60   180k x  kπ
3 3
43
Let us see some slightly different equations of this form.
EXAMPLE 4
3
Solve the equation sin2x= ,
2
(a) in the domain 0o  x  360o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain 0  x  2π (in radians)
Solution
(a) sin2x= sin60°

The general solution is
2x=60o+360ok  x=30o+180ok (1)
2x=120o+360ok  x=60o+180ok (2)
(1) gives x=30o x=210o (2) gives x=60o x=240o
π
(b) sin2x=sin .
3
π π π + 6kπ
2x= +2kπ  x= + kπ= (1)
3 6 6
2π π π + 4kπ
2x= +2kπ  x= + kπ  (2)
3 3 3
π 7π π 4π
(1) gives x= x= (2) gives x= x=
6 6 3 3
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation cos3x=0, -180o  x  180o
Solution
cos3x=cos900.
3x=90o+180ok  x=30o+60ok
Therefore x=30o x=90o x=150o x=-30o x=-90o x=-150o
44
EXAMPLE 6
2
Solve the equation cos2x= 0  x  2π
2
Solution
π
cos2x=cos
4
π π π +8π
Hence 2x= +2kπ  x= +kπ = (1)
4 8 8
π π -π +8π
2x=  +2kπ  x=  +kπ = (2)
4 8 8
π 9π 7π 15π
(1) gives x= , x= (2) gives x= , x= .
8 8 8 8
EXAMPLE 7
Solve the equation tan3x= 3
(a) in the domain -180o  x  180o (in degrees)
(b) in the domain -π  x  π (in radians)
Solution
(a) tan3x=tan60o
Hence 3x=60o+180ok  x=20o+60ok
For k=0,1,2, ... we obtain x=20o , x=80o , x=140o
For k=-1,-2, ... we obtain x=-40o, x=-100o , x=-160o
(c) tan3x=tan60o
π π kπ π  3kπ
Hence 3x= +kπ  x= + 
3 9 3 9
π 4π 7π
For k=0,1,2, ... we obtain x= , x= , x=
9 9 9
2π 5π 8π
For k=-1,-2, ... we obtain x=- , x=- , x=-
9 9 9
45
More complicated trigonometric equations usually reduce to simple

equations as above.
EXAMPLE 8
Solve the equation sin2x=sinx, 0o  x  360o
LHS, sin2x, can be simplified by using the double angle formula.
sin2x=sinx  2sinxcosx=sinx
 2sinxcosx-sinx=0
 sinx(2cosx-1)=0
 sinx=0 or 2cosx-1=0
 sinx=0 or cosx=1/2
We solve the two simple equations
 sinx=0  x=0o , or x=180o or x=360o
 cosx=1/2  x= 60o or x=300o
Hence, the equation has five solutions 0o, 60o, 180o, 300o, 360o .
REMARKS:
 If the equation is given in radians under the restriction 0  x  2π
we obtain
sinx=0  x=0, or x=π or x=2π
cosx=1/2  x= π/3 or x= 5π/3
Thus the five solutions are 0, π/3, π, 5π/3 and 2π
 If 180o  x  180o we obtain x=0o , x=±60o , x=±180o
 If -π  x  π we obtain x=0, x=±π/3, x=±π
An interesting case is the following where the trigonometric

equation has a quadratic form.
46
EXAMPLE 9 (Quadratic form)
Solve the equation 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0, 0xπ
If you let y=cosx, the given equation has the form 2y2-3y+1=0
The roots of this equation are y=1 and y=1/2
Thus
 cosx=1. This equation has only one solution: x=0
 cosx=1/2. This equation has only one solution: x=π/3
Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
EXAMPLE 10
Solve the equation 3(1-cosx)=2sin2x, 0xπ
(We wish to have only cosx or only sinx. Hence, we use the
Pythagorean identity to substitute sin2x by 1-cos2x)
3(1-cosx)=2(1-cos2x)  3-3cosx=2-2cos2x
 2cos2x-3cosx+1=0
This is in fact the equation in example 8 above.

Therefore, there are two solutions: x=0, x=π/3
B
Equations of the form Asinx=Bcosx, take the form tanx=
A
EXAMPLE 11
Solve the equation 3 sinx=cosx, 0  x  2π
1
It takes the form tanx= .
3
π
The general solution is x= +κπ
6
There are two solutions: x=π/6, and x=7π/6.
47
3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
 f(x) = sinx
Let us construct the graph of this function in the traditional way,

that is in the Cartesian plane Oxy.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 0 1 0 -1 0
We have:
Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [since ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
For functions of this form we also define
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1 (distance between max and central line)
Period: T= 2π (the length of a complete cycle)
Notice that
ymax  ymin
Amplitude = ymax-central value (it is also )
2
Period=2π means that the curve is repeated every 2π units
Use your GDC to see the graph and compare with the curve above
Set V-Window: x from -2π to 2π

y from -2 to 2
48
 f(x) = cosx
Let us now construct the graph of this function.
π 3π
x 0 π 2π …
2 2
f(x) 1 0 -1 0 1
Again Domain: x R
Range: y  [-1,1] [ymin=-1 and ymax=1]
Central line: y = 0
Amplitude = 1
Period: T= 2π
NOTICE:
 For both functions y=sinx and y=cosx, the horizontal distance
between two consecutive max = 2π (one period)

between two consecutive min = 2π (one period)
between consecutive max and min = π (half a period)
 Use your GDC to see the graph in degrees. Period = 360°
Set V-Window: x from -360° to 360°

y from -2 to 2
49
 f(x) = tanx
Next, we construct the graph of y=tanx.

π π π π
x - - 0 …
2 4 4 2
f(x) - -1 0 1 -
We have:
π 3π
Domain: x  R- {  ,  ,…}
2 2
Range: y R [there is no min, no max, no amplitude]
Central line: y=0
Period: T =π
π π
Vertical asymptotes: x= , x=  , etc
2 2
NOTICE
Remember our discussion about asymptotes in Topic 2.
A vertical line x=a is an asymptote of the graph y=f(x) if
 the function is not defined at x=a, and

 for values of x very close to a the value of y=f(x)
approaches +  or - 
50
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF sinx AND cosx
Consider the function f(x) = sinx + 2.

Its graph is a vertical translation of sinx, 2 units up:
Clearly, Central line: y=2

Range: y  [1,3] [ymin=1 and ymax=3]
Amplitude=1 and Period: T=2π remain the same.
Consider the function f(x) = 3sinx.

Its graph is a vertical stretch of sinx with scale factor 3:
Clearly, Amplitude = 3
Range: y  [-3,3] [ymin=-3 and ymax=3]
Central line: y=0 and Period: T=2π remain the same
Notice: the amplitude of f(x)=-3sinx is still 3
51
Consider the function f(x) = sin2x.

Its graph is a horizontal stretch of sinx with scale factor 1/2:
Now, Period: T = π
Central line: y=0, Amplitude=1, Range: y[-1,1] remain the same
In general, the function
f(x) = AsinBx + C
with A>0, is obtained by three transformations on sinx:

a vertical stretch with scale factor A,
a horizontal stretch with scale factor 1/B,
a vertical translation by C units (up or down),
(If A<0 we also have a reflection in x-axis at the beginning)

Consequently, for the new function f(x):
C is the central value. The central line is y=C
|A| is the amplitude

2π 2π
T= Is the period. Hence B 
B T
Notice:
 f(x) ranges between the values C±A
 Similar observations apply for f(x) = AcosBx +C
52
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of f(x) = AsinBx + C, is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
 Central line at y=15, so C=15

 Amplitude = 5, so A=5
2π 2π π
 Period T= 8, hence B  = =
T 8 4
π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 5sin( x) + 15
4
EXAMPLE 2
The graph of f(x) = AcosBx +C is given below (A>0). Find A,B,C.
ymax  ymin
 Central line at =5, so C=5
2
 Amplitude = ymax-C =15, so A=15
2π 2π
 Period Τ= π, hence B  = =2
T π
Therefore, the equation of the function is f(x) = 15cos(2x) + 5
53
We distinguish four basic types of trigonometric functions:
sinx -sinx cosx -cosx
y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept y-intercept

central/going up central/going down max min
Notice that the amplitude is always positive but the coefficient A of

sinx or cosx can be positive or negative.
EXAMPLE 3
Express the following graph as a trigonometric function.
We can easily find that
Central line: y=5 hence C=5
Amplitude = 15
2π
Period: T=π =2
hence B=
π
The function of type –sinx (y-int central/going down), so A=-15
Therefore, the equation of the function is
f(x) = -15sin(2x) + 5
54
Conversely, if we are given a trigonometric function we can easily

draw the graph
EXAMPLE 4
Draw the graph of the function f(x) = 5sin2x+7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution
Central value = 7
Amplitude = 5
max=12, min=2 (since f(x) ranges between 7±5)
2π
Period T = = π
2
Thus, we have to draw two periods.
The function is of type sinx (y-intercept central/going up).
The graph is
Finally, remember the horizontal transformations f(x-a):
sin(x-D)
translation D units to the right
cos(x-D)
Therefore, for the functions
f(x) = Asin[B(x-D)] + C f(x) = Acos[B(x-D)] + C
A,B,C are determined as above.

D shows a horizontal translation.
55
Practically, the value of D depends on the type of the function.
When we see a graph we spot the points shown below!
D1 for type sinx
D2 for type cosx
D3 for type -sinx
D4 for -cosx
The value of D is the x-coordinate of the corresponding point above
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph of a trigonometric function given below.
14 y
12
10
2
x
π/4 π/2 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2
Central value = 7, thus C =7

Amplitude = 5, thus |A|=5
Period T = π , thus B=2π/π = 2
The most appropriate form is of type -cosx (y-intercept min).
f(x)= -5cos2x+7
However, the same function can be expressed as

π
[type sinx] f(x)= 5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
π
[type cosx] f(x)= 5cos[2(x- )]+7
2
3π
[type -sinx] f(x)= -5sin[2(x- )]+7
4
56
 TRANSFORMATIONS OF tanx
In a similar way,
f(x) = AtanBx +C
is a transformation of tanx. For the new function
|A| is the scale factor of a vertical stretch

π
T= is the period
B
C is the new central value (units up or down)
EXAMPLE 6
f(x)= 10tan4x +30
central value= 30
NO min, NO max (A=10 simply shows a vertical stretch of tanx)

π
Period =
4
Finally,
tan(x-D) translation D units to the right or to the left
Therefore, for a function of the form
f(x) = Atan[B(x-D)] +C
A,B,C are determined as above,

D shows a horizontal translation of tanx
57
58

Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topic 3. Geometry and Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Baccalaureate

3.1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY ……………………………………………………… 1

3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE ...………………… 5

3.3 APPLICATIONS IN 3D GEOMETRY – NAVIGATION ……..…………………….. 16

3.4 THE TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE – ARCS AND SECTORS …………………….. 22

3.5 SIN, COS, TAN ON THE UNIT CIRCLE – IDENTITIES ………………………… 29

3.6 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS ………………………………………………………….….. 38

3.7 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………………………. 48

3.8 MORE TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS ..….………………. 61

3.9 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………. 67

3.10 VECTORS: GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION …………………………………………. 73

3.11 VECTORS: ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION ………..……………………………….. 80

3.12 SCALAR (or DOT) PRODUCT – ANGLE BETWEEN VECTORS …………… 87

3.13 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 2D …..…………………………………………….. 92

3.14 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE IN 3D ………………………………………………… 98

3.15 KINEMATICS …………………………………………………………………………………………. 105

3.16 VECTOR (or CROSS) PRODUCT ………………………………………………………….… 108

3.17 PLANES ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113

3.18 INTERSECTIONS AMONG LINES AND PLANES ………………………………….. 120

3.19 DISTANCES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 126

3.1 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY

The distance between two points A(x1,y1,z1) and B(x2,y2,z2) is given

while the midpoint of the line segment AB is given by

Let A(1,0,5) and B(2,3,1). Find

(a) the distance between A and B

 VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS OF KNOWN SOLIDS

Solid Volume Surface area

Cube of side x Cuboid of square base x

The area of the triangle AED (and any side triangle) is

The surface area is S  (area of square base)+4A = 62+4×( 15 ) =96

Notice about the angles between lines and planes:

Angle between line AM and plane BCDE = angle AMN

Angle between line AD and plane BCDE = angle ADN

Angle between the planes ADE and BCDE = angle AMN

Angle between the planes ACB and ADE = angle MAM

3.2 TRIANGLES – THE SINE RULE - THE COSINE RULE

For any right-angled triangle

We can easily derive the so-called Pythagorean identity

We can also confirm Pythagoras’ theorem: 5 2 = 32  4 2

If we know the sine, the cosine or the tangent of an acute angle θ

Thus, we can find the angle B of the triangle above:

For two angles A and B

A and B are called complementary if A + B = 90o

A and B are called supplementary if A + B = 180o

We mention a practical way to memorise them:

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

For cosθ we obtain the same values in the opposite order

For tanθ we simply divide sinθ by cosθ.

θ 0o 30o 45o 60o 90o

If sinθ = 0.5 then θ = sin-1 0.5 = 30o

supplementary angles have equal sines but opposite cosines:

e.g. sin30o = 0.5, sin 150o = 0.5

 The values of sinθ and cosθ range between -1 and 1.

 SINE RULE - COSINE RULE

For any triangle two rules always hold:

COSINE RULE a 2  b 2  c2  2b c cos A

Notice: There are two more versions of the cosine rule:

Consider, for example, the following triangle

We confirm by GDC that the SINE RULE holds:

We can also confirm the three versions of the COSINE RULE:

42 = 32+22-2(3)(2)cos 104.5 (LHS = 16 RHS = 16)

32= 22+42-2(2)(4)cos 46.6 (LHS = 9 RHS = 9)

22= 42+32-2(4)(3)cos 28.9 (LHS = 4 RHS = 4)