Introduction to

Semiconductor Materials
 Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to
generate and control the flow of an
electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which
suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress
electrical current flow
 Conductors
• Good conductors have low resistance so
electrons flow through them with ease.
• Best element conductors include:
– Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:
– Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
– Salt water
 Conductor Atomic Structure

• The atomic structure of

good conductors usually
includes only one electron
in their outer shell.
– It is called a valence electron.
– It is easily striped from the
atom, producing current
flow.
Copper
Atom
 Insulators
• Insulators have a high resistance so current
does not flow in them.
• Good insulators include:
– Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of several
elements.
• The atoms are tightly bound to one another so
electrons are difficult to strip away for current
flow.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials that essentially can
be conditioned to act as good conductors, or
good insulators, or any thing in between.
• Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and
germanium are semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
Semiconductor Valence Orbit

• The main characteristic

of a semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence orbit.
 Crystal Lattice Structure
• The unique capability of
semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link
together to form a
physical structure called
a crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together
with one another sharing
their outer electrons.
• These links are called
covalent bonds. 2D Crystal Lattice
Structure
3D Crystal Lattice Structure
 Semiconductors can be Insulators
• If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon,
the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent insulator
since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not
free for current flow.
• Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as
intrinsic.
• Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are
tightly bound together with one another, the electrons
are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
• Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
• Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
 Doping
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity,
other atoms called impurities must be added.
• “Impurities” are different elements.
• This process is called doping.
 Semiconductors can be Conductors
• An impurity, or element
like arsenic, has 5 valence
electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
• The one electron left over
for each arsenic atom
becomes available to
conduct current flow.

A presentation of eSyst.org
 Resistance Effects of Doping
• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping,
there will be lots of extra electrons so the
resistance of the material will be low and
current will flow freely.
• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will
be fewer free electrons so the resistance will
be high and less current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount, virtually
any resistance can be achieved.
 Another Way to Dope
• You can also dope a semiconductor
material with an atom such as
boron that has only 3 valence
electrons.
• The 3 electrons in the outer orbit
do form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms
as before. But one electron is
missing from the bond.
• This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
• The hole assumes a positive charge
so it can attract electrons from
some other source.
• Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor.
– “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor.
– “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
 Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a
positive terminal that attracts
the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls
them away from their atoms
leaving the atoms charged
positively.
• Electrons from the negative
terminal of the supply enter
the semiconductor material
and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their
electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows
from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal.
 Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative
supply terminal are attracted
to the positive holes and fill
them.
• The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons
from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more
electrons.
• Current (electrons) flows
from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal.
• Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by the
movement of the holes from
positive to negative.
 In Summary
• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent
insulator.
• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to
add or subtract electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons
with vacancies called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the
lower the resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor
material can be made as conductive as desired.
Composite Materials
 Introduction
• A Composite material is a material system composed of
two or more macro constituents that differ in shape and
chemical composition and which are insoluble in each
other. The history of composite materials dates back to
early 20th century. In 1940, fiber glass was first used to
reinforce epoxy.
• Applications:
– Aerospace industry
– Sporting Goods Industry
– Automotive Industry
– Home Appliance Industry
Advanced Aerospace Application:
Lear Fan 2100 “all-composite” aircraft
Advanced Aerospace Application:
Boeing 767 (and in 777, 787 airplanes w/ the latest, full wing box is composite):
 Composite Survey
Composites

Particle-reinforced Fiber-reinforced Structural

Large- Dispersion- Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich

particle strengthened (aligned) (short) panels

Aligned Randomly
oriented Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.
Particle-reinforced
Composites
• A particle has no long dimension.
• Particle composites consist of particles of one material dispersed in
a matrix of a second material.
• Particles may have any shape or size, but are generally spherical,
ellipsoidal, polyhedral, or irregular in shape.
• They may be added to a liquid matrix that later solidifies; grown in
place by a reaction such as age hardening; or they may be pressed
together and then inter-diffused via a powder process.
• The particles may be treated to be made compatible with the matrix,
or they may be incorporated without such treatment.
• Particles are most often used to extend the strength or other
properties of inexpensive materials by the addition of other
materials.
 Fiber-reinforced Composites
• A fiber has one long dimension.
• Fiber-reinforced materials are typified by fiberglass in which there
are three components: glass filaments (for mechanical strength), a
polymer matrix (to encapsulate the filaments); and a bonding agent
(to bind the glass to the polymer).
• Other fibers include metal, ceramics, and polymers.
• The fibers can be used as continuous lengths, in staple-fiber form,
or as whiskers (short, fine, perfect, or nearly perfect single crystals).
• Fiber-reinforcement depends as much on fabrication procedure as
on materials.
 Structural Composites
• Structural composites are engineered products made from plastic,
wood, glass, or carbon fiber materials.
• The formed or extruded products have applications as outdoor deck
floors, railings, fences, landscape timbers, cladding, siding,
moulding, trim, and window or door frames.
• These low maintenance products are resistant to cracking and can
be smooth or have a simulated wood grain.
• Available in a variety of colors and sizes, structural composites are
shaped using typical woodworking tools.
 Laminar Composites
• Platelets or lamina have two long dimensions.
• Laminar composites include plywood, which is a laminated
composite of thin layers of wood in which successive layers have
different grain or fiber orientations.
• The result is a more-or-less isotropic composite sheet that is weaker
in any direction than it would be if the fibers were all aligned in one
direction.
• The stainless steel in a cooking vessel with a copper-clad bottom
provides corrosion resistance while the copper provides better heat
distribution over the base of the vessel.
 Composite Manufacturing
Processes
• There are three types of composite
manufacturing processes: open molding, closed
molding and cast polymer molding.
• There are a variety of processing methods within
these molding categories, each with its own
benefits.
 Open Molding
• In open molding, raw materials (resins and fiber reinforcements) are
exposed to air as they cure or harden.
• Tooling cost for open molds is often inexpensive, making it possible
to use this technique for prototype and short production runs.
• Open molding utilizes different processes, including hand lay-up,
spray-up, casting, and filament winding.
• Hand Lay-up
– Hand lay-up is the most common and least expensive open-
molding method because it requires the least amount of
equipment. Fiber reinforcements are placed by hand in a mold
and resin is applied with a brush or roller. This process is used to
make both large and small items, including boats, storage tanks,
tubs and showers.
• Spray-up
– Spray-up is similar to hand lay-up but uses special
equipment—most notably a chopper gun—to cut
reinforcement material into short fibers, add them to
resin and deposit the mixture (called chop) on to a
molding surface. Spray-up is more automated than
hand lay-up and is typically used to produce large
quantities.
• Filament Winding
– Filament winding is an automated process that applies resin-
saturated, continuous strands of fiber reinforcements over a
rotating cylindrical mold. It’s used for creating hollow products
like rocket motor casings, pipes, stacks, and chemical storage
tanks. Filament winding is less labor-intense than other open-
molding processes.
 Closed Molding
• In closed-molding, raw materials (fibers and resin) cure inside a two-
sided mold or within a vacuum bag (shut off from air).
• Composite materials are processed and cured inside a vacuum bag
or a two-sided mold, closed to the atmosphere.
• Closed-molding processes are usually automated and require
special equipment, so they’re mainly used in large plants that
produce huge volumes of material—up to 500,000 parts a year.
• Closed molding may be considered for two cases: first, if a two-
sided finish is needed; and second, if high production volumes are
required.
• Vacuum Bag Molding
– This manufacturing process is designed to improve the mechanical
properties of laminate (two or more layers of fiber reinforcement bonded
with a resin). A vacuum is created to force out trapped air and excess
resin, compacting the laminate. High-fiber concentration provides better
adhesion (between layers of sandwich construction). In addition,
vacuum bag molding helps eliminate excess resin that builds up when
structures are made using (open-molding) hand lay-up techniques.
• Vacuum Infusion Processing
– Vacuum infusion processing (VIP) is a technique that uses
vacuum pressure to drive resin into a laminate. Vacuum infusion
is typically used to manufacture very large structures. Vacuum
infusion produces strong, lightweight laminates and offers
substantial emissions reductions (compared to open-molding
processing and wet lay-up vacuum bagging). This process uses
the same low-cost tooling as open molding and requires minimal
equipment.
• Resin Transfer Molding
– Resin transfer molding (RTM), sometimes called liquid molding,
is a closed-molding method in which reinforcement material is
loaded into a closed mold, the mold is clamped, and resin is
pumped in (through injection ports) under pressure. This process
produces complex parts with smooth finishes on all exposed
surfaces. The process can be simple or highly automated–and
cycle times are speedy. By laying up reinforcement material dry
inside the mold, any combination of materials and orientation
can be used, including 3-D reinforcements.
• Compression Molding
– Compression molding is a manufacturing process in which
composite materials are sandwiched between two matching
molds under intense pressure and heat (from 250° to 400° F)
until the part cures. This technique is used to rapidly cure large
quantities of complex fiberglass-reinforced polymer parts.
Compression molding features fast molding cycles and high part
uniformity. The process can be automated. In addition, labor
costs are low and it provides design flexibility and nice surface
finishes.
• Pultrusion
– Pultrusion is used to form composites into long, consistent
shapes like rods or bars. Continuous strands of reinforcement
are pulled through a resin bath to saturate them, then pulled
through heated steel molds that sculpt the composites into
continuous lengths. The process operates continuously so it can
be readily automated. Labor costs are low and finished products
are very strong. Pultrusion is used to make products such as
beams, channels, pipes, tubing, fishing rods and golf club shafts.
• Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding
– Reinforced reaction injection molding (RRIM) is widely used to
make external and internal automotive parts. In this process, two
(or more) resins are heated separately and combined with milled
glass fibers. The mixture is injected into a mold under high
pressure and compressed. The resin cures quickly. RRIM
composites feature many processing advantages, including very
fast cycle time, low labor, low mold-clamping pressure and low
scrap rate. The RRIM process requires special resins and
reinforcements.
• Centrifugal Casting
– In centrifugal casting, reinforcements and resin are deposited
against the inside surface of a rotating mold. Centrifugal force
holds them in place until the material cures or hardens.
Centrifugal casting is used to produce hollow parts (like pipes
with two smooth surfaces). It’s especially well-suited for
producing structures with large diameters, such as pipes for oil
and chemical industry installations and chemical storage tanks.
Centrifugal casting is increasingly being used to produce
telephone, street light and other poles.
• Continuous Lamination
– Continuous lamination is used to make flat or corrugated sheets
and panels for products used in truck and RV sidewalls, road
signs, skylights, building panels and electrical insulating
materials. It’s a highly automated process in which fibers and
resin are combined, sandwiched between two plastic carrier
films—and guided through a conveyor process. Forming rollers
shape the sheets, and the resin is cured (in an oven or heating
zone) to form the composite panel. Panels are automatically
trimmed to the desired width and length.
 Cast Polymer Molding
• A mixture of resin and fillers are poured into a mold
(typically without reinforcements) and left to cure or
harden.
• Cast polymers are unique in the composites industry:
they typically don’t have fiber reinforcement and are
designed to meet specific strength requirements of an
application. Cast polymer molding is used to produce
parts of any shape or size.
• These molding methods sometimes use open molding
and sometimes use closed molding.
• Gel Coated Cultured Stone Molding
– Gel coat is a specialized polyester resin that is
formulated to provide a cosmetic outer surface on a
composite product, and to provide weather-ability for
outdoor products. Gel coat consists of a base resin
and additives.
• Solid Surface Molding
– Solid surface products (also known as densified
products) consist of a cast matrix without a gel-coated
surface. A vacuum can be used to remove entrapped
air in the matrix. Solid surface products offer limitless
design styles.
CONTROL OF PROPERTIES
Impurities in Steel and their
Effects
 Silicon
• Found in small quantities in all Steel ( 0.1% -
0.3%). In Specia; Steels it may be as low as
0.03% or as high as 1,0%.
• Forms a Solid Solution in Iron.
• Slightly raises the Strength and Hardness of
Steel.
• Raises the Critical Points.
• A de-oxidizing Agent.
 Sulphur
• A VERY harmful element. Efforts are made to
keep it to a minimum ( about 0.015% but it
may be as high as 0.6% in cheap steel)
• Forms iron sulphide which is a very brittle
substance. This forms as a thin film separating
the pearlite or ferrite grains, thus greatly
reducing the strength of the steel ( gives rise
"hot short or cold short")
• Manganese sulphide is stronger than iron
sulphide and provided that there is enough
manganese present the sulphur will all
combine with it in preference to the iron.
• It is common practice to add eight times
manganese required to combine with the
sulphur.
• Iron sulphide melts below the working
temperature of iron.
 Phosphorous
• Combines with Iron to form a Phosphide.
• It increases the hardness and Tensile strength of Steel.
• It SERIOUSLY affects the ductility and resistance to
shock or impact.
• Increases grain size.
• 0.04% is allowable in Structural Steel. 0.035%
Maximum in Tool Steel.

NOTE: Both Phosphorous and Sulphur tend to segregate. i.e.These two

elements tend to concentrate in the grain boundaries during freezing and in
these areas they may greatly exceed the average percentage.
 Lead
• Added to all classes of steel to improve the
machinability of the Steel.
• It is supposed to improve tool life
 Manganese
• A powerful and most effective de-oxidant.
• Has a good effect on Sulphur.
• A good element for producing perfectly sound
Steel free from internal defects such as Blow
Holes and gas cavities.
• Improves the Tenacity of Steel without
seriously affecting it's Ductility.
• Increases the depth hardness of hardened
Steel.
• With between 11% and 15% manganese an
about 1% Carbon Steel retains it's austenitic
condition even after quenching in water after
heating to 1000 deg.C. This Steel is non-
magnetic. It is also soft but posses a
remarkable resistance to abrasion.
 Tin
• This metal should be avoided. It forms a low
melting point brittle film round the grain
boundaries making the Steel practically
useless.
 Gaseous Impurities
• Oxygen, In general has a bad influence on the
properties of steel. It is rarely present in
quantities above 0.025%
• Nitrogen. Found in quantities from 0.005% to
0.3% in welds, were it is undesirable. It has a
hardening and em-brittling effect.
Intensionally added to the surface layer in
case hardening to produce an abrasive
resistant surface.
• Hydrogen. This element has a bad effect. It
produces gas cavities near the skin of castings
and ingots. Also "flakes" and hair line cracks
can be attributed too it'd presence.
 Steel
• In essence, steel is composed of iron and
carbon, although it is the amount of carbon,
as well as the level of impurities and
additional alloying elements that determines
the properties of each steel grade.
• The carbon content in steel can range from
0.1-1.5%, but the most widely used grades of
steel contain only 0.1-0.25% carbon. Elements
such as manganese, phosphorus and sulphur
are found in all grades of steel, but, whereas
manganese provides beneficial effects,
phosphorus and sulphur are deleterious to
steel's strength and durability.
 Types of Steel
• Carbon Steels
• Alloy Steels
• Stainless Steels
• Tool Steels
 Carbon Steels
• Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying
elements and account for 90% of total steel
production. Carbon steels can be further
categorized into three groups depending on their
carbon content:
• Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3%
carbon
• Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 – 0.6% carbon
• High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6%
carbon
 Alloy Steels
• Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g.
manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper,
chromium and aluminum) in varying proportions in
order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as
its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, form
ability, weldability or ductility.
• Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto
parts, transformers, power generators and electric
motors.
 Stainless Steels
• Stainless steels generally contain between 10-
20% chromium as the main alloying element
and are valued for high corrosion resistance.
With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200
times more resistant to corrosion than mild
steel. These steels can be divided into three
groups based on their crystalline structure:
• Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic
and non heat-treatable, and generally contain
18% chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8%
carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest
portion of the global stainless steel market
and are often used in food processing
equipment, kitchen utensils and piping.
• Ferritic: Ferritic steels contain trace amounts
of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less than 0.1%
carbon, along with other alloying elements,
such asmolybdenum, aluminum or titanium.
These magnetic steels cannot be hardened
with heat treatment, but can be strengthened
by cold works.
• Martensitic: Martensitic steels contain 11-17%
chromium, less than 0.4% nickel and up to
1.2% carbon. These magnetic and heat-
treatable steels are used in knives, cutting
tools, as well as dental and surgical
equipment.
 Tool Steels
• Tool steels contain tungsten,
molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying
quantities to increase heat resistance and
durability, making them ideal for cutting and
drilling equipment.
Steel products can also be divided by their
shapes and related applications:
• Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods,
rails, wires, angles, pipes, and shapes and
sections. These products are commonly used
in the automotive and construction sectors.
• Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils and
strips. These materials are mainly used in
automotive parts, appliances, packaging,
shipbuilding, and construction.
• Other Products include valves, fittings, and
flanges and are mainly used as piping
materials.
 Heat Treatment of Steels
• It is the alteration of the mechanical
properties of an alloy through the control of
thermal effects.
• Steel can be treated by intense heat to give it different
properties of hardness and softness. This depends on
the amount of carbon in the steel (only high carbon
steel can be hardened and tempered).

• CARBON CONTENT OF COMMON STEELS: Mild steel:

0.4% carbon, Medium carbon steel approximately 0.8%
carbon, High Carbon Steel approximately 1.2% carbon
(this steel is also known as Tool Steel and includes
Silver Steel and Gauge Plate).
• Mild steel and medium carbon steel do not
have enough carbon to change their
crystalline structure and consequently cannot
be hardened and tempered. Medium carbon
steel may become slightly tougher although it
cannot be harden to the point where it cannot
be filed or cut with a hacksaw (the classic test
of whether steel has been hardened).
• If steel is heated until it glows red and is
quenched in clean water immediately, it
becomes very hard but also brittle. This means
it is likely to break or snap if put under great
pressure. On the other hand, if the red hot
steel is allowed to cool slowly, the resulting
steel will be easier to cut, shape and file as it
will be relatively soft. However, the industrial
heat treatment of steel is a very complex and
precise science.
• In a school workshop most heat treatment of
metals takes place on a brazing hearth. A
rotating table and fire bricks are essential. The
fire bricks reflect the intense heat back on to
the metal being heated. This is achieved by
arranging the bricks in a semi-circle behind
the metal being heated. Without the bricks,
heat would escape and this would limit the
temperature that could be reached.
• Heat treatment of steel in a school workshop is
normally a two stage process. For example, if a
high carbon steel or silver steel screw driver
blade has been manufactured, at some point it
will have to be ‘’hardened’ to prevent it wearing
down when used. On the other hand it will have
to be ‘tempered’. This second heating process
reduces the hardness a little but toughens the
steel. It also significantly reduces the brittleness
of the steel so that it does not break easily. The
whole process is called ‘hardening and
tempering’.
STAGE ONE:
• The screw driver blade is heated, slowly at
first, warming up the whole blade. Then the
heat is concentrated on the area at the end of
the blade. This gradually becomes ‘red’ hot.
STAGE TWO:
• The screw driver blade is removed quickly
from the brazing heart, with blacksmiths tongs
and plunged into clean, cold water. Steam
boils off from the water as the steel cools
rapidly. At this stage the blade is very hard but
brittle and will break easily.
STAGE THREE:
• The screw driver blade is cleaned with emery
cloth and heated again on the brazing hearth.
Heat is concentrated at the end of the steel
blade. The steel must be watched very carefully
as it changes color quite quickly. A blue line of
heat will appear near the end of the blade and it
travels towards the tip as the temperature rises
along the blade. When the line of blue reaches
the tip the brazing torch is turned off. The blue
indicates the correct temperature of ‘tempering’.
STAGE FOUR:
• The screw driver blade is placed on a steel
surface, such as an anvil face. This conducts
the heat away and allows slow cooling of the
screw driver blade. When cold, the blade
should be tough and hard wearing and
unlikely to break or snap. This is due to the
tempering process.
• When heating steel on the brazing hearth,
color changes take place. These can be used to
indicate the temperature of the metal. The
table opposite is a rough guide.
• The table opposite shows the temperatures
and the associated colors required when
tempering steel for particular uses. For
instance, when making wood turning tools,
they must be heated to a brown color, whilst
tempering.
 Annealing
• Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is
heated to a specific temperature /colour and
then allowed to cool slowly. This softens the
metal which means it can be cut and shaped
more easily. Mild steel, is heated to a red heat
and allowed to cool slowly. However, metals
such as aluminium will melt if heated for too
long.
• Aluminium can be annealed but care must be
taken whilst heating. The flame should be held at
a distance to the aluminium so that it gives a
generalised heating to the metal.
• A ‘trick of the trade’ is to rub soap on to the
surface of the aluminium and then heat it on the
brazing hearth. It takes only a short time for the
soap to turn black. The brazing torch should be
turned off immediately and the aluminium
allowed to cool slowly. It is now annealed and
should be very soft and malleable.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Annealed metals
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Hardened metals are
are relatively soft and can be cut and
difficult to cut and shape. They are very
shaped more easily. They bend easily
difficult if not impossible to bend. As a rule
when pressure is applied. As a rule they
they are heated and cooled very quickly by
are heated and allowed to cool slowly.
quenching in clean, cold water.
The animation above shows that an
The animation above shows that metals that
annealed metal is usually softer and can be
have not been annealed are very difficult to
deformed more easily than metals that are
deform.
not annealed.
 Heat Treatment - Normalizing
• Normalizing is a heat treatment process for making
material softer but does not produce the uniform
material properties of annealing.. A material can be
normalized by heating it to a specific temperature
and then letting the material cool to room
temperature outside of the oven. This treatment
refines the grain size and improves the uniformity of
microstructure and properties of hot rolled steel.
• Normalizing is used in some plate mills, in the
production of large forgings such as railroad
wheels and axles, some bar products. This
process is less expensive than annealing.
 Heat Treatment - Stress Relieving
• It consists of heating the steel to a temperature below
the critical range to relieve the stresses resulting from
cold working, shearing, or gas cutting. It is not
intended to alter the microstructure or mechanical
properties significantly also a process for making
material softer. However stress relieving does not
change the material properties as does annealing and
normalizing. A material can be stress relieved by
heating it to a specific temperature that is lower than
that of annealing or normalizing and letting it cool to
room temperature inside or outside of the oven. This
heat treatment is typically used on parts that have
been severely stressed during fabrication.
• It is worth noting that many heat treatments and
welding processes cause stresses in the material that
can lead to warpage either after the heat treating
process or during subsequent machining operations.
• Of specific concern is the stress induced by welding. If
a weldment is to be machined it should almost always
be stress relieved or normalized before the machining
process. This is because machining chunks of material
from a stressed weldment redistributes the internal
stresses and can cause the part to warp. If the stresses
are first relaxed then abrupt changes in geometry after
machining are reduced.
 Heat Treatment - Quenching
• Quenching is the process for making material
harder. This method has been known for
hundreds of years but was only perfected in
the last century. The metal is heated to a
specific temperature and rapidly cooled
(quenched) in a bath of water, brine, oil, or air
to increase its hardness.
• One drawback of using this method by itself is
that the metal becomes brittle. This treatment is
therefore typically followed by a tempering
process which is a heating process at another
lower specific temperature to stress relieve the
material and minimize the brittleness problem.
The temperature chosen for the tempering
process directly impacts the hardness of the work
piece . The higher the temperature in the
tempering process, the lower the hardness.
 Carburising
• Carburizing is a process of controlled diffusion of
carbon into the surface of a component, followed by
quenching and tempering, with the objective of
increasing the component’s surface hardness. The
process is generally applicable to low carbon steels.
When conducted in a "conventional", rather than in
a vacuum furnace, we can refer to the process as
conventional carburizing.
• In this thermal process ferrous alloys are heated to
above their transformation temperature and
exposed to carbon rich medium. Processing
temperatures fall in the 1450°F - 1900°F (790°C -
1040°C) range. The diffusion of carbon into the part
and the subsequent quench leads to a part with a
hard, wear resistant surface and a tough shock
resistant core.
 Nitriding
• Carbonitriding is a process similar to
carburizing whereby ammonia is added to the
carburizing atmosphere, which results in
supplementary nitrogen diffusion into the
surface of a treated component.

Note: carbonitriding is sometimes confused

with nitrocarburizing
• Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) and boron diffusion
(boronising or boriding) both produce hard
intermetallic compounds at the surface. These
layers are intrinsically hard and do not need heat
treatment themselves.
• Nitrogen diffusion (nitriding) is often carried out
at or below the tempering temperature of the
steels used. Hence they can be hardened prior to
nitriding and the nitriding can also be used as a
temper.
 Boronising
• Boronizing is a thermochemical surface-
hardening process in which boron atoms are
diffused into the surface of a work piece to
form complex borides (such as FeB/FeB2) with
the base metal.
• There is no mechanical interface between the
complex borides and the substrate, as this is a
true diffusion process. The resulting case layer
has a hard, slippery surface capable of
performing at higher temperatures than most
surface treatments. Practically any ferrous
material can be boronized, as well as many nickel,
titanium & cobalt alloys. However, it is important
to note, the higher the content of alloy elements,
the slower the diffusion rate.
• Boronizing is used to improve the life and
performance of metal components. The boronizing
process:
– Strengthens resistance to corrosion
– Strengthens resistance to acid
– Strengthens resistance to abrasive wear
– Decreases coefficient of friction
– Increases surface hardness
• Examples of applications include pumps,
valves, and impellers. Extremely heavy
abrasion and erosion resistance properties
make it suitable for the oil, mining, and
agricultural industries.
• Boronizing is also known as boriding.
 Case Hardening
• Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of
hardening the surface of a metal object while allowing
the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus
forming a thin layer of harder metal (called the "case")
at the surface. For steel or iron with low carbon
content, which has poor to no hardenability of its own,
the case hardening process involves infusing additional
carbon into the case. Case hardening is usually done
after the part has been formed into its final shape, but
can also be done to increase the hardening element
content of bars to be used in a pattern welding or
similar process.
 Induction Hardening
• Induction hardening is a process used for the
surface hardening of steel and other alloy
components. The parts to be heat treated are
placed inside a water cooled copper coil and then
heated above their transformation temperature
by applying an alternating current to the coil. The
alternating current in the coil induces an
alternating magnetic field within the work piece,
which if made from steel, caused the outer
surface of the part to heat to a temperature
above the transformation range.
• Parts are held at that temperature until the
appropriate depth of hardening has been
achieved, and then quenched in oil, or
another media, depending upon the steel type
and hardness desired. The core of the
component remains unaffected by the
treatment and its physical properties are
those of the bar from which it was machined
or preheat treated. The hardness of the case
can be HRC 37 - 58.
• Carbon and alloy steels with a carbon content
in the range 0.40 - 0.45% are most suitable for
this process. In some cases, parts made from
alloy steels such as 4320, 8620 or 9310, like
steel and paper mill rolls, are first carburized
to a required case depth and slow cooled, and
then induction hardened. This is to realize the
benefit of relatively high core mechanical
properties, and surface hardness greater than
HRC 60, which provides excellent protection.
• While induction hardening is most commonly
used for steel parts, other alloys such as
copper alloys, which are solution treated and
tempered, may be induction hardened as well.
Applications include hardening bearing races,
gears, pinion shafts, crane (and other) wheels
and treads, and threaded pipe used for oil
patch drilling
 Induction Flame Hardening
• Flame hardening is similar to induction
hardening, in that it is a surface hardening
process. Heat is applied to the part being
hardened, using an oxy- acetylene (or similar
gas) flame on the surface of the steel being
hardened and heating the surface above the
upper critical temperature before quenching
the steel in a spray of water. The result is a
hard surface layer ranging from 0.050" to
0.250" deep.
• As with induction hardening, the steel
component must have sufficient carbon
(greater than 0.35%). The composition of the
steel is not changed; therefore core
mechanical properties are unaffected. Flame
hardening produces results similar to
conventional hardening processes but with
less hardness penetration.
• Applications for flame hardening are similar to
those for induction hardening, although an
advantage of flame hardening is the ability to
harden flat surfaces. Flat wear plates, and
knives can be selectively hardened using this
process.
 Cyaniding
• A process in which an iron-base alloy is heated
in contact with a cyanide salt so that the
surface absorbs carbon and nitrogen.
Cyaniding is followed by quenching and
tempering to produce a case with a desired
combination of hardness and toughness.
BASIC SCIENCE OF
MATERIALS
ATOMS AND ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
ATOMS
• Atoms, once thought to be the smallest building blocks of nature,
are in fact made of smaller particles.
• Most often these particles are in balance, and as such the atom is
stable and lasts nearly forever.
• Some atoms are out of balance.
• This can make them radioactive.
• Description
• Atoms are made of tiny particles called protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons clump together to form a central nucleus. The
electrons move in a cloud-like region around the nucleus.
• Stable
• Most atoms are stable. Their protons, neutrons and electrons balance.
Barring outside forces, a stable atom will stay the same indefinitely.
• Isotopes
• Every atom is a chemical element, like hydrogen, iron or chlorine. Every
element has cousins called isotopes. These have a different number of
neutrons, but are otherwise the same. Having excess neutrons may make
isotopes radioactive.
• Radioactive
• Some atoms have too many neutrons in the nucleus, which makes them unstable.
They’re radioactive, giving off particles until they become stable.
• Ions
• Atoms with extra or missing electrons are called ions. They have a positive or
negative electric charge and are responsible for many chemical reactions.
• Antimatter
• Every atomic particle has a twin anti-particle, with an opposite electric charge.
Antimatter hydrogen atoms have been formed in the laboratory, containing an
anti-proton and anti-electron. Antimatter is very rare and fragile.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• The properties of elements are primarily related to the electrons,
protons , and neutrons in the atomic structure.
ELECTRONS
• The electron is a particle having a mass of 9.107 x 10-28g, or 1/1837 of
the mass of the hydrogen atom
• It has a negative charge of -1.601 x 10-19 coulombs.
PROTON
• The proton has a mass of 1.672 x 10-24g, or 1836 times the mass of
the electron.
• It has a positive charge of +1.601 x 10-19 coulombs
NEUTRON
• The neutron has a mass of 1.675 x 10-24g, or 1839 times the mass of
the electron and is electrically neutral.
NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM
• It is composed of protons and neutrons which largely determine
the mass of the atom.
• The number of protons in the nucleus determines the stable
structure of the atom and therefore the number of electrons is
determined.
• The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of
protons in the nucleus
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
• The elements are arranged in the periodic table vertically into groups
and horizontally into periods, increasing in atomic number from left
to right in each of the periods.
• There are seven periods, a period containing hydrogen and helium,
two short periods with eight elements each, two long periods of
eighteen elements each, a very long period containing thirty-two
elements, and an incomplete period containing elements of atomic
numbers eighty-seven through ninety-eight
• The properties of the elements change systematically with increasing
atomic number.
• The elements with atomic numbers 21 through 28 in the first long
period and numbers 39 through 46 in the second long period are
designated as transition elements.
• The elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 are the rare earth
metals and the elements with atomic numbers 90 to 98 are
designated as the actinons
• The elements in the left and central portions of the periodic table are
called metals.
• Those elements appearing in the right portion are nonmetals
• Elements that have properties intermediate to the metals and
nonmetals are called metalliods
ATOMIC BONDS
• Ionic
• Is most simply illustrated in the case of sodium chloride (NaCl) in which the
sodium and chlorine are bonded by the strong electrostatic forces that act
between anions and cations
• Covalent
• Consists of a sharing of electrons between the atoms to make a molecule
• Metallic
• The bond between metals is somewhat similar to the covalent type of bond ,
but in this instance, all atoms of the metal share each other’s electrons,
forming what may be called an electron “gas,” or “cloud”. This sharing
produces the metallic bond.
• There is a complete freedom of motion of the electrons within the metal
• This relatively free movement of the electrons in the metal accounts for
electrical and thermal conductivity and the restraint to this motion by
collision accounts for the resistivity of the material.
• The magnetic characteristics of the metallic materials are probably
associated with the motions of the electrons
• The behavior of materials when subjected to the magnetic field are
placed into one of three classes:
– Ferromagnetic
– Paramagnetic
– Diamagnetic
• Ferromagnetic
– is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form
permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different
types of magnetism are distinguished.
– is the strongest type; it is the only type that creates forces strong enough to
be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism
encountered in everyday life.
• Paramagnetic
– Are magnetically more permeable than a vacuum
– they have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials
are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
– these properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and
from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic
field.
– Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and
tantalum.
• Diamagnetic
– Are less permeable than a vacuum
– these materials create a magnetic field in
opposition to an externally applied magnetic
field. It is a quantum mechanical effect that
occurs in all materials; where it is the only
contribution to the magnetism the material
is called a diamagnet.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• When the atoms of a metal combine to produce a substance of
recognizable size, they arrange themselves in a distinct pattern in
space called a space-lattice
• A lattice is a collection of points, called lattice points, which are
arranged in a periodic pattern so that the surroundings of each point
in the lattice are identical.
• A lattice is a purely mathematical construct and is infinite in extent. A
lattice may be one-, two-, or three-dimensional.
• In one dimension, there is only one possible lattice:
It is a line of points with the points separated from
each other by an equal distance, as shown in the
figure.
• A lattice is the framework that is used to replicate the atomic
arrangement of the sample.
• Lattice sites (also known as a lattice points) are identical points on a
lattice. This means that they have the same atoms on and
surrounding the point.
• A lattice site is not necessarily an atom. A lattice site can have more
than 1 atom associated with it.
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
• A group of one or more atoms located in a particular way with respect
to each other and associated with each lattice point is known as the
basis or motif.
• The basis must contain at least one atom, but it may contain many
atoms of one or more types.
• A basis is the one or more atoms that are clustered on a lattice site to
recreate the crystal structure.
• A unit cell is the 3-D cube that is repeated throughout space to create
the atomic arrangement of the sample.
• The edges of the cubes are not necessarily atomic bonds. They usually
aren’t! They are just there to make the box easier to draw.
• The unique three-dimensional
arrangements of lattice points
are known as the Bravais
lattices.
THERE ARE 7 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND 14
BRAVAIS LATTICES
• The fourteen Bravais lattices are grouped into seven crystal systems.
• The seven crystal systems are known as cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, rhombohedral (also known as trigonal), hexagonal,
monoclinic, and triclinic. Note that for the cubic crystal system, we
have simple cubic (SC), face-centered cubic (FCC), and body-centered
cubic (BCC) Bravais lattices.
Simple cubic with a basis of 1 has 1 atom per
lattice site. X X

X X
• The easiest of the structures we will look at is simple cubic.
Ball & Stick
Model X X
When counting the lattice sites or
X X
atoms in a unit cell, you must only
count the fraction in that cell. Start with the SC lattice

Each corner lattice site and atom Add a basis of 1 atom per lattice site
are only 1/8th in this unit cell. to get the unit cell

With a basis of 1 atom per lattice How the atoms

site, this structure has really fill the
1/8 * 8 = 1 lattice sites/ unit cell space
1/8 * 8 = 1 atoms/ unit cell
Figure from Callister
SC with a basis of 1 has a coordination
number of 6
• For SC structures with a basis of 1 atom per lattice
site, the atoms touch (are bonded) along the cube
edges.

• The atoms have a coordination number (number

of atoms they are bonded to) of 6.

Figures from Callister

CLOSEST PACKED STRUCTURES
• The term "closest packed structures" refers to the most tightly packed
or space-efficient composition of crystal structures (lattices).
• Imagine an atom in a crystal lattice as a sphere. While cubes may
easily be stacked to fill up all empty space, unfilled space will always
exist in the packing of spheres.
• To maximize the efficiency of packing and minimize the volume of
unfilled space, the spheres must be arranged as close as possible to
each other.
• These arrangements are called closest packed structures.
• The packing of spheres can describe the solid structures of crystals. In
a crystal structure, the centers of atoms, ions, or molecules lie on the
lattice points. Atoms are assumed to be spherical to explain the
bonding and structures of metallic crystals. These spherical particles
can be packed into different arrangements. In closest packed
structures, the arrangement of the spheres are densely packed in
order to take up the greatest amount of space possible.
TYPES OF HOLES FROM CLOSE-PACKING OF
SPHERES
• When a single layer of spheres is arranged into the shape of a hexagon, gaps are
left uncovered. The hole formed between three spheres is called a trigonal
hole because it resembles a triangle. In the example below, two out of the six
trigonal holes have been highlighted green.
• Once the first layer of spheres is laid down, a second layer may be placed on top
of it. The second layer of spheres may be placed to cover the trigonal holes from
the first layer. Holes now exist between the first layer (the orange spheres) and
the second (the lime spheres), but this time the holes are different. The
triangular-shaped hole created over a orange sphere from the first layer is known
as a tetrahedral hole. A hole from the second layer that also falls directly over a
hole in the first layer is called an octahedral hole.
CLOSEST PACK CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES
HEXAGONAL CLOSEST PACKED (HCP)
• In a hexagonal closest packed structure, the third layer has
the same arrangement of spheres as the first layer and covers
all the tetrahedral holes. Since the structure repeats itself
after every two layers, the stacking for hcp may be described
as "a-b-a-b-a-b." The atoms in a hexagonal closest packed
structure efficiently occupy 74% of space while 26% is empty
space.
CUBIC CLOSEST PACKED (CCP)
• The arrangement in a cubic closest packing also
efficiently fills up 74% of space. Similar to hexagonal
closest packing, the second layer of spheres is placed on
to of half of the depressions of the first layer. The third
layer is completely different than that first two layers
and is stacked in the depressions of the second layer,
thus covering all of the octahedral holes. The spheres in
the third layer are not in line with those in layer A, and
the structure does not repeat until a fourth layer is
added. The fourth layer is the same as the first layer, so
the arrangement of layers is "a-b-c-a-b-c."
COORDINATION NUMBER AND NUMBER OF
ATOMS PER UNIT CELL
• A unit cell is the smallest representation of an entire crystal. All crystal lattices are
built of repeating unit cells. In a unit cell, an atom's coordination number is the
number of atoms it is touching.
• The hexagonal closest packed (hcp) has a coordination number of 12 and contains
6 atoms per unit cell.
• The face-centered cubic (fcc) has a coordination number of 12 and contains 4
atoms per unit cell.
• The body-centered cubic (bcc) has a coordination number of 8 and contains 2
atoms per unit cell.
• The simple cubic has a coordination number of 6 and contains 1 atom per unit
cell.
CRYSTALS
• A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose
constituents, such as atoms, molecules or ions, are
arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure,
forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In
addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually
identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat
faces with specific, characteristic orientations.
• Is formed when lattices combine to form a three-
dimensional array of atoms
• Grains
– are crystals that are irregular in shape
CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCE
• Is one in which the atoms are arranged in a definite and repeating
order
AMORPHOUS MATERIALS
• Amorphous materials are ubiquitous in natural and engineered
systems. Granular fault gouge in earthquakes faults, thin film
lubricants, and bulk metallic glasses are seemingly disparate systems
which are similar in that they possess an amorphous structure.
Colloids, emulsions, window glass, dense polymers, and even
biological tissues are other examples.
• The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known
as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of
crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification.
• Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table
salt.
• Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many
microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid.
• Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and
ice.
• A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have
no periodic structure whatsoever.
• Amorphous solids are comprised of particles (atoms, grains, bubbles,
molecules) arranged so that the locations of their centers of mass are
disordered; their structure is essentially indistinguishable from a
liquid.
• Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics.
Law of Rational Indices
• The law of rational indices states that the intercepts, OP, OQ, OR, of the
natural faces of a crystal form with the unit-cell axes a, b, c (see Figure
1) are inversely proportional to prime integers, h, k, l. They are called
the Miller indices of the face. They are usually small because the
corresponding lattice planes are among the densest and have therefore
a high interplanar spacing and low indices.
CRYSTALLIZATION
• Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process of formation of
solid crystals from a homogeneous solution or melt, or more rarely
directly from a gas. This process is often used as a technique to
separate a solute from a liquid solution, bringing it into a pure
crystalline phase.
• Crystallization is a valuable process for both research and industrial
applications. Some industries are set up for the mass production of
crystals, such as the production of edible salt (in powder form), silicon
wafers, and sucrose from sugar beet. In addition, chemists and
biochemists use the pure crystals of substances to determine their
molecular structures, with techniques such as X-ray crystallography
and NMR spectroscopy.
PROCESS
• For a solute to crystallize out of a solution, the solution must be
supersaturated with the solute. This means that the solution has to
contain more solute entities (atoms, molecules, or ions) dissolved
than it would contain under the equilibrium conditions (of a saturated
solution).
• The crystallization process consists of two major
steps: nucleation and crystal growth.
• In the nucleation step, the solute molecules dispersed in
the solvent start to gather into clusters (on the nanometer scale).
• When these clusters become stable, they constitute the nuclei.
• However, when the clusters are not stable, they redissolve.
• Therefore, the clusters need to reach a critical size to become stable
nuclei.
• The critical size is dictated by the prevailing conditions, such as
temperature and supersaturation. It is at the stage of nucleation that
the atoms or molecules arrange themselves in a particular periodic
manner that defines the crystal structure.
• Crystal growth corresponds to growth of the nuclei that succeed in
achieving critical cluster size. Nucleation and growth continue to
occur simultaneously as long as the solution is supersaturated with
the solute. The solution that remains after a crystallization process is
called the mother liquor.
• Supersaturation is the driving force of the crystallization process—the
rates of nucleation and growth are driven by supersaturation within
the solution.
• Depending upon the conditions, either nucleation or growth may
predominate over the other, and as a result, crystals with different
sizes and shapes are obtained.
• (The control of crystal size and shape constitutes one of the main
challenges in industrial manufacturing, such as for pharmaceuticals.)
• Once the solution is no longer supersaturated, the solid-liquid system
reaches equilibrium and crystallization is complete, unless the
operating conditions are modified from equilibrium so that the
solution becomes supersaturated again.
• Many compounds can crystallize with different crystal structures, a phenomenon
called polymorphism.
• Each crystal polymorph is a different thermodynamic solid state.
• Crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit different physical properties,
such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between facets and facet growth rates),
melting point, and so on.
• For this reason, polymorphism is of major importance in the industrial
manufacture of crystalline products.
CRYSTALLIZATION IN NATURE
• There are many examples of crystallization in nature, some of which
are noted below.
• Examples of crystallization on the geological time scale:
• Formation of minerals, including gemstones.
• Formation of stalactites and stalagmites.
• Examples of crystallization on ordinary time scales:
• Formation of snowflakes.
• Crystallization of honey.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
• For artificial crystallization of a solute from solution, the conditions
must be adjusted such that the solution becomes supersaturated with
the solute. This can be achieved by various methods, such as:
• cooling the solution;
• evaporating part of the solvent;
• adding a second solvent that reduces the solubility of the solute (technique
known as anti-solvent or drown-out);
• changing the pH of the solution; and
• performing a chemical reaction.
APPLICATIONS
• Artificial crystallization includes two major groups of applications:
crystal production and purification.
CRYSTAL PRODUCTION
• From the perspective of the materials industry:
• To meet the demand for crystals that simulate natural crystals, there are
methods that accelerate the rate of production and crystal perfection. They
include ionic crystal production and covalent crystal production.
• To produce tiny crystals, such as those in powder or even smaller
sizes, methods include:
• Mass-production by the chemical industry, such as salt-powder production.
• Sample production of tiny crystals for the characterization of materials.
Controlled recrystallization is an important method to produce unusual
crystals that are needed to reveal the molecular structure and nuclear forces
within molecules that form crystals. Many techniques, such as X-ray
crystallography and NMR spectroscopy, are widely used in chemical and
biochemical research to determine the structures of a wide variety of
molecules, including inorganic compounds and biological macromolecules.
• Thin film production.
• Examples of the mass production of crystalline materials include:
• "Powder salt for food" industry.
• Silicon crystal wafer production.
• Production of sucrose from sugar beet, where the sucrose is crystallized out
of aqueous solution.
PURIFICATION
• Well-formed crystals are expected to be pure because each molecule or ion must
fit perfectly into the lattice as it leaves the solution.
• Impurities would normally not fit as well in the lattice, and thus remain in
solution preferentially.
• Hence, molecular recognition is the principle of purification in crystallization.
• However, there are instances when impurities are incorporated into the lattice,
thus decreasing the level of purity of the final crystalline product.
• Also, in some cases, the solvent may be incorporated into the lattice, forming
a solvate.
• In some cases, the solvent may be 'trapped' in the liquid state within the crystal,
forming what are known as inclusions.
• Depending on the nature of the crystal system, crystals of a substance consist of
only one enantiomer.
• Louis Pasteur discovered chirality when he was able to separate enantiomeric
crystals from racemic tartaric acid.
ALLOTROPY
• The ability of a substance to exist in more than one lattice form is
known as allotropy
• The change that occurs is called allotropic transformation
• Titanium is one of many metallic elements that exhibit allotropy
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

By: Engr. Marizen B. Contreras

 Copper
• Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu
(from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29.
• It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and
electrical conductivity.
• Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly
exposed surface has a reddish-orange color.
• It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a
building material, and a constituent of various
metal alloys.
Native copper
 Treatment of Copper Ores
• Copper extraction techniques refers to the
methods for obtaining copper from its ores.
• The conversion of copper consists of a series
of chemical, physical, and electrochemical
processes. Methods have evolved and vary
with country depending on the ore source,
local environmental regulations, and other
factors.
• Concentration
• Froth Floatation
• Hydrometallurgical extraction
– Sulfide ores
– Oxide ores
• Sulfide smelting
– Roasting
– Smelting
• Reverberatory furnace smelting
• Flash furnace smelting
– Converting
– Fire refining
– Electrorefining
 Zinc
• Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical
element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30.
• Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's
crust and has five stable isotopes.
• The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a
zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are
found in Australia, Asia, and the United States.
• Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore,
roasting, and final extraction using electricity
(electrowinning).
 Aluminum
• Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron
group with symbol Al and atomic number 13.
• It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal.
• Aluminium is the third most abundant element
(after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant
metal, in the Earth's crust.
• Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that
native specimens are rare and limited to extreme
reducing environments.
• The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.
• Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low
density and for its ability to resist corrosion due
to the phenomenon of passivation.
• Structural components made from aluminium
and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry
and are important in other areas of
transportation and structural materials.
• The most useful compounds of aluminium, at
least on a weight basis, are the oxides and
sulfates
 Tin
• Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for
Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50.
• Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has,
with 10 stable isotopes, the largest number of
stable isotopes in the periodic table.
• Tin is obtained chiefly from the mineral
cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.
• This silvery, malleable other metal is not easily
oxidized in air and is used to coat other metals to
prevent corrosion.
 Lead
• Lead is a chemical element in the carbon group
with symbol Pb (from Latin: plumbum) and
atomic number 82.
• Lead is a soft and malleable metal, which is
regarded as a heavy metal and an other metal.
• Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being
freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish
color when exposed to air.
• Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is
melted into a liquid.
• It is also the heaviest non-radioactive element.
• Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid
batteries, bullets and shot, weights, as part of
solders, pewters, fusible alloys, and as a radiation
shield.
• Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the
stable elements, although the next higher
element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so long
(over one billion times the estimated age of the
universe) that it can be considered stable.
 Titanium
• Titanium is a chemical element with the
symbol Ti and atomic number 22.
• It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver
color, low density and high strength.
• It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea water,
aqua regia and chlorine.
• Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium,
vanadium, and molybdenum, among other
elements, to produce strong, lightweight alloys
for aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and
spacecraft), military, industrial process (chemicals
and petro-chemicals, desalination plants, pulp,
and paper), automotive, agri-food, medical
prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental and
endodontic instruments and files, dental
implants, sporting goods, jewelry, mobile phones,
and other applications.
 Copper-Zinc Alloys
• Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the
proportions of zinc and copper can be varied
to create a range of brasses with varying
properties.
 Copper-Tin Alloys
• Bronze, alloy traditionally composed of copper and tin.
Bronze is of exceptional historical interest and still finds
wide applications.
• The proportions of copper and tin varied widely (from 67 to
95 percent copper in surviving artifacts), but, by the Middle
Ages in Europe, certain proportions were known to yield
specific properties.
• An alloy described in an 11th-century Greek manuscript in
the library of St. Mark’s, Venice, cites a proportion of one
pound copper to two ounces of tin (8 to 1), approximately
that used for bronze gunmetal in later times. Some modern
bronzes contain no tin at all, substituting other metals such
as aluminum, manganese, and even zinc.
• Bronze is harder than copper as a result of
alloying that metal with tin or other metals.
Bronze is also more fusible (i.e., more readily
melted) and is hence easier to cast. It is also
harder than pure iron and far more resistant to
corrosion. The substitution of iron for bronze in
tools and weapons from about 1000 BC was the
result of iron’s abundance compared to copper
and tin rather than any inherent advantages of
iron.
• Bell metal, characterized by its sonorous quality
when struck, is a bronze with a high tin content of
20–25 percent. Statuary bronze, with a tin
content of less than 10 percent and an admixture
of zinc and lead, is technically a brass. Bronze is
improved in hardness and strength by the
addition of a small amount of
phosphorus; phosphor bronze may contain 1 or 2
percent phosphorus in the ingot and a mere trace
after casting, but its strength is nonetheless
enhanced for such applications as pump
plungers, valves, and bushings.
• Also useful in mechanical engineering
are manganese bronzes, in which there may
be little or no tin but considerable amounts of
zinc and up to 4.5 percent manganese.
Aluminum bronzes, containing up to 16
percent aluminum and small amounts of other
metals such as iron or nickel, are especially
strong and corrosion-resistant; they are cast
or wrought into pipe fittings, pumps, gears,
ship propellers, and turbine blades.
• Besides its traditional use in weapons and
tools, bronze has also been widely used
in coinage; most “copper” coins are actually
bronze, typically with about 4 percent tin and
1 percent zinc.
 Copper-Nickel Alloys
• Cupronickel or copper-nickel is an alloy of copper that
contains nickel and strengthening elements, such
as iron and manganese. Cupronickel is highly resistant
to corrosion in seawater, because its electrode
potential is adjusted to be neutral with regard to
seawater. Because of this, it is used for piping, heat
exchangers and condensers in seawater systems, as
well as marine hardware, and sometimes for
the propellers, crankshafts and hulls of
premium tugboats, fishing boats and other
working boats.
• A more familiar common use is in silver-coloured
modern circulation coins. A typical mix is 75%
copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of
manganese. In the past, true silver coins
were debased with cupronickel. Despite high
copper content, cupronickel is silver in colour.
• Thermocouples and resistors whose resistance is
stable across changes in temperature contain the
55% copper-45% nickel alloy constantan.
• Monel metal is a nickel-copper alloy, containing a
minimum of 63% nickel.
 Copper-Silicon Alloys
• Silicon is soluble in copper up to 4 per cent at
room temperature
Copper-Silicon Alloys
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
BY: ENGR. MARIZEN B. CONTRERAS
 MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
• Engineers make things. They make them out
of materials. What do they need to know to
choose and use materials successfully?
– First, a perspective of the world of materials -
polymers, glasses, ceramics, composites and so
forth - and of processes that can shape, join and
finish them.
– Second, an understanding of the origins of these
properties and of the ways that they can be
manipulated.
– Third, they need methods for selecting from these
menus the materials and processes that best meet
the requirements of a design.
– Fourth, they need access to data for material
attributes and - since the quantity of data is large -
computer-based tools to enable their
implementation.
– And, of course, they need common sense: the
ability to use experience and knowledge of the
world at large to recognise inspired choices and to
reject those that are impractical.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• The characteristics of a material that relate to
its behavior in chemical reactions are called
chemical properties.
• The concern with chemical properties of
materials are connected with corrosion,
alloying, compound formation and so forth
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Those distinguishing qualities or
characteristics that are used to describe a
substance in the absence of external forces
are referred to as physical properties
• A description of the physical behavior of a
material would include such characteristics as
specific heat, thermal conductivity, coefficient
of expansion, color, refractive index, density,
and electrical resistivity.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Those properties which describe the behavior
of materials under the application of force are
called mechanical properties
• Such characteristics as strength, hardness,
machinability, ductility, elasticity, and
plasticity are included with this designation.
 MECHANICAL TEST
• A mechanical test may be defined as one in
which all of the variables affecting a given
property are controlled and the property in
question is measured under fixed conditions
 STRAIN
• Is the deformation caused by the application
of an external force
Δ𝐿1
• 𝜀=
𝐿
• When the material is said to be under a strain,
the material has undergone some
deformation as the result of the application of
an external force.
 STRESS
• When a material is placed in a state of strain resulting
from an external load, the atoms making up the
structure of the material are displaced somewhat from
their equilibrium positions.
• These internally distributed forces which tend to resist
deformation may be defined qualitatively as stress.
• Quantitatively, stress is defined as force per unit area.
𝑊1
• 𝜎=
𝐴
 TYPES OF STRESS
• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
 ELASTICITY
• The property of regaining the original shape
upon removal of external load is known as
elasticity
 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
• If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it
must have an instantaneous response
(deformation) to load, and the material must
return to its original shape when the load is
removed.
• Young observed that different elastic materials
have different proportional constants between
stress and strain.
 YOUNG’S MODULUS
• The ratio of stress to strain within the limit of
proportionality is known as modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus

𝜎 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴∆𝐿
 POISSON’S RATIO
• In the axial tension test, as the material is
elongated, there is a reduction of the cross
section in the lateral direction.
• In the axial compression test, the opposite is
true.
• The ratio of the lateral strain, ɛl , to the axial
strain, ɛg .
 HOOKE’S LAW
• States formally that within the elastic range of
materials, stress is proportional to strain
• The ratio of the stress to strain within the limit
of proportionality is known as the modulus of
elasticity, or Young’s modulus, which may be
written symbolically
𝜎 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= =
𝜀 𝐴∆𝐿
Example:
• A cube made of an alloy with dimensions of
50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm is placed into a
pressure chamber and subjected to a pressure
of 90 MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the
alloy is 100 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.28,
what will be the length of each side of the
cube, assuming that the material remains
within the elastic region?
Solution:
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the
stiffness of the material, but it only applies in the
linear region of the curve.
• If a specimen is loaded within this linear region,
the material will return to its exact same
condition if the load is removed. At the point that
the curve is no longer linear and deviates from
the straight-line relationship, Hooke's Law no
longer applies and some permanent deformation
occurs in the specimen. This point is called the
"elastic, or proportional, limit".
• From this point on in the tensile test, the
material reacts plastically to any further
increase in load or stress. It will not return to
its original, unstressed condition if the load
were removed.
 BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• Also called the volume modulus
• It is the ratio of the uniform, triaxial stress to
the change in volume
𝐸
𝐸𝑣 =
3(1 − 2𝜇)
 MODULUS OF RUPTURE
• The modulus of rupture of a material is
computed strength which does not bear a
specific relationship to the maximum stress
the material will sustain before fracture, but
provides a value from which the maximum
twisting moment in torsion or the maximum
bending moment in bending that a cylindrical
shaft or a beam can resist.
 PLASTICITY
• Is the property of a material by virtue of which
permanent deformation can occur.
• It is the opposite of elasticity
• A dislocation is an imperfection in the crystal
structure
• Twinning is a process that results in an
alteration of the orientation of one part of a
crystal in relation to the other part of the
same crystal.
• The plane that separates the parts of different
orientation is called the twinning plane.
 TENSION TEST
• It is probably the most fundamental type of
mechanical test you can perform on material.
Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive,
and fully standardized. By pulling on
something, you will very quickly determine
how the material will react to forces being
applied in tension. As the material is being
pulled, you will find its strength along with
how much it will elongate.
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS IN
TENSION
 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material can
be subjected without any deviation from the
proportionality of stress and strain is called
the proportional limit.
 ELASTIC LIMIT
• The maximum stress to which a material may
be subjected without the occurrence of any
permanent strain remaining upon complete
release of the stress is called the elastic limit.
 RESILIENCE
• The capacity of a material to absorb energy
within the elastic range is known as resilience.
• This is potential energy which can be
recovered upon removal of the stress
• Quantitatively, the amount of energy per unit
volume which the material will possess when
subjected to the elastic limit stress is called
the modulus of resilience
 YIELD POINT
• Stress at which strain increases without
accompanying increase in stress. Only a few
materials (notably steel) have a yield point,
and generally only under tension loading.
 YIELD STRENGTH
• A value called "yield strength" of a material is
defined as the stress applied to the material at
which plastic deformation starts to occur
while the material is loaded.
 ULTIMATE STRENGTH
• The maximum stress to which a material may
be subjected before failure occurs is called the
ultimate strength.
• If this property is determined in tension it is
known as the ultimate tensile strength.
• If this property is determined in compression
it is known as the ultimate compressive
strength
 ELASTOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
• Materials that do not undergo plastic
deformation prior to failure are said to be
brittle.
• Materials that display appreciable plastic
deformation are ductile.
• Ductile materials are preferred for
construction.
• When a brittle material fails, the structure can
collapse in a catastrophic manner.
• On the other hand, overloading a ductile
material will result in distortions of the
structure, but the structure will not
necessarily collapse.
 DUCTILITY
• Extent to which a material can sustain plastic
deformation without rupture.
• Elongation and reduction of area are common
indices of ductility.
Example:
• A rod made of aluminum alloy, with a gauge
length of 100 mm, diameter of 10 mm, and
yield strength of 150 MPa, was subjected to a
tensile load of 5.85 kN. If the gauge length was
changed to 100.1 mm and the diameter was
changed to 9.9967 mm. calculate the modulus
of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio.
Solution:
P 5850 N
   74.5MPa

A  5 10 m 

3 2

Since the applied stress is well below the yield strength,

the material is within the elastic region.
L (100.1  100)
a    0.001
L 100
 74.5
E   74,500MPa  74.5GPa
 a 0.001
change in diameter 9.9967  10
l    0.00033
diameter 10
  l 0.00033
v   0.33
a .001
 REDUCTION OF AREA
• Ductility may also be indicated by the
reduction of area of a specimen at the point of
fracture.
• The reduction of area is expressed as the ratio
of the decrease in area of the necked-down
section of the test specimen to the original
area on a percentage basis.
 TOUGHNESS
• The word toughness is a qualitative term
meaning difficult to break.
• It usually implies resistance to shock
• Modulus of toughness
– Is a measure of the total energy-absorbing
capacity of the material and includes the energy
of both the elastic and plastic deformation
FRACTURE IN BRITTLE AND DUCTILE
MATERIALS
• In ductile materials, fracture occurs through
the grains of the material. The failure is
therefore referred to as transcrystalline.
• If, however, the grains themselves are much
stronger than the material at the grain
boundaries, fracture may occur at the grain
boundary. Failure under this condition is
called intercrystalline failure and the material
is said to be brittle.
 BEND TESTING
• Bend testing measures the ductility of
materials. Terms associated with bend testing
apply to specific forms or types of materials.
• For example, materials specifications
sometimes require that a specimen be bent to
a specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel
products).
• Bend testing provides a convenient method
for characterizing the strength of the
miniature components and specimens that are
typical of those found in microelectronics
applications.
 COMPRESSION TEST
• A compression test determines behavior of
materials under crushing loads. The specimen
is compressed and deformation at various
loads is recorded.
• Compressive stress and strain are calculated
and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is
used to determine elastic limit, proportional
limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some
materials, compressive strength.
 MALLEABILITY
• If a material can be severely deformed
plastically in compression without fracture, the
material is said to be malleable
• It is that quality of a material by virtue of which
it may be plastically compressed
 HARDNESS
• Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a
fundamental physical property.
• It is defined as the resistance to indentation,
and it is determined by measuring the
permanent depth of the indentation.
• More simply put, when using a fixed force
(load) and a given indenter, the smaller the
indentation, the harder the material.
• Indentation hardness value is obtained by
measuring the depth or the area of the
indentation using one of over 12 different test
methods.
 HARDNESS TESTING
CONSIDERATIONS
• The following sample characteristics should be
consider prior to selecting the hardness
testing method to use:
– Sample Size
– Cylindrical Samples
– Sample Thickness
– Scales
– Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
BRINELL TEST
ROCKWELL TEST
DIAMOND PYRAMID HARDNESS
SCLEROSCOPE TEST
MICROHARDNESS TEST
• Microhardness testing is a method of
determining a material’s hardness or resistance
to penetration when test samples are very small
or thin, or when small regions in a composite
sample or plating are to be measured.
• The microhardness test can measure surface to
core hardness on carburized or case-hardened
parts (case depths), as well as surface conditions
such as grinding burns, carburization or
decarburization.
 RELATION OF STRENGTH TO
HARDNESS
• The difference between strength and hardness is
that the strength refers to the force that is
present between the bonds. Strength attributes
to how strong or weak the force between the
bonds.
• Hardness refers to the nature of the force, which
basically is how rigid or flexible the bonds
between particles.
 STRAIN HARDENING
• Strain hardening is generally defined as
heating at a relatively low temperature after
cold-working. During strain hardening the
strength of the metal is increased and ductility
decreased.
• If a low-carbon steel is cold-worked, or
strained passed the yield point, then aged for
several days at room temperature, it will have
a higher yield stress after the aging. This
happens because during the aging carbon or
nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations,
reanchoring them.
• Not everything can be strain aged, or
recovered at low temperatures. The low
carbon steel is just an example. Different
materials will show different behaviors during
recovery.
RECRYSTALLIZATION
 FACTORS AFFECTING
RECRYSTALLIZATION
• The severity of plastic deformation
• The grain size prior to plastic deformation
• The temperature at which plastic deformation
occurs
• The time for which the plastically deformed
metal is heated to attain recrystallization
• The presence of dissolved or undissolved
elements
• Hot working
– Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures
above recrystallization temperature
• Cold working
– Is defined as plastic deformation at temperatures
below recrystallization temperature
 FATIGUE
• Permanent structural change that occurs in a
material subjected to fluctuating stress and
strain. However, in the case of glass, fatigue is
determined by long-term static testing and is
analogous to stress rupture in other materials.
In general, fatigue failure can occur with stress
levels below the elastic limit.
 ENDURANCE LIMIT
• In fatigue testing, the maximum stress which
can be applied to a material for an infinite
number of stress cycles without resulting in
failure of the material.
 ENDURANCE STRENGTH
• A measure of the ability of a material or
structural element to carry a load without
failure when the loading is repeated a definite
number of times.
 FATIGUE FAILURE
• Failures which take place as a result of
repeated or alternating stresses
 FACTORS AFFECTING ENDURANCE
PROPERTIES
• Surface finish
• Size factor
• Reliability factor
• Temperature factor
• Load factor
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON
PROPERTIES
• Loss of metal as a result of oxidation or
exposure to contaminating media
• The formation of surface cracks resulting from
cyclic thermal stresses
• The change in the properties of the material
with increasing temperature
 CREEP
• creep (sometimes called cold flow) is the
tendency of a solid material to move slowly or
deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses.
• It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to
high levels of stress that are still below the yield
strength of the material.
• Creep is more severe in materials that are
subjected to heat for long periods, and generally
increases as they near their melting point.
• Creep always increases with temperature.
 STRESS RUPTURE
• A preliminary evaluation of the elevated
temperature properties of materials may be
secured by means of stress rupture test
• This test is satisfactory for many applications
where the intended operating life of the part
in which the material is to be used is limited
or for applications in which a considerable
amount of deformation may be tolerated.
 DYNAMIC LOADING
• A static load is the effect of gravity on an
object or structure.
• A dynamic load is the forces that move or
change when acting on a structure.
• Example of a dynamic load: Force of wind or
the weight of a truck
• Example of a static load: Weight of a bridge
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
• Allowable Stress
– Is that stress below which it is known that failure
will not take place
– Under static conditions, the allowable stress
would be the elastic limit; under repeated stress,
the allowable stress would be the endurance limit
• Working Stress
– Is the actual stress under which the material is
expected to operate
• Factor of Safety
– The ratio of allowable stress to working stress
– The choice of the factor of safety to be employed
depends upon the following variables:
• Variations of the properties of the materials
• The uncertainties of computations of stress,
magnitude, and stress contribution on the basis of
assumptions that have been necessary in the theory
employed.
• Quality of the manufacturing operations
• Dangers of personal injury from failure of the part or of
undue financial loss
• The necessity of maintaining economy of material and
of minimizing weight
• The influence of uncertainties such as may be
experienced in corrosion and unforeseen types of
loading
• Extent of inspection
 NONMECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• It refers to characteristics of the material,
other than load response, that affect
selection, use and performance.
• Density- is the mass per unit volume of
material
• Unit Weight- is the weight per unit volume of
material
• Specific gravity- ratio of the mass of a
substance relative to the mass of an equal
volume of water at specified temperature.
• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion- the
amount of expansion per unit length due to
one unit of temperature increase is a material
constant   linear coefficient of thermal expansion
L
L V  volumetric coefficent of thermal expansion
L  T
L  change in the length of the specimen
L T  change in temperature
V L  original length of the specimen
V  T
V  change in the volume of the specimen
V V  original volume of the specimen
Example:
• A steel bar with a length of 3 m, diameter of
25 mm, modulus of elasticity of 207 Gpa, and
linear coefficient of thermal expansion of
0.000009 m/m/C is fixed at both ends when
the ambient temperature is 40C. If the
ambient temperature is decreased to 15c,
what internal stress will develop due to this
temperature change? Is this stress or tension?
Solution:
L   L  T  L
 0.000009  (25)  3  0.000675m
  L L   0.000675 3  0.000225
  E
 0.000225  20700  46.575MPa
The stress will be tension: in effect, the length of
the bar at 15˚C without restraint would be
2.999325m and the stress would be zero.
Restraining the bar into longer condition requires a
tensile force.
 CORROSION AND DEGREDATION
• Crystalline materials deteriorate through a
corrosion process.
• Polymers deteriorate by degradation.
• The selection of material should consider both
how the material will react with the
environment and the cost of preventing the
resulting degradation.
 ABRASION AND WEAR
RESISTANCE
• Is of less importance than in other fields of
engineering.
• Resistance to abrasion and wear, is, therefore,
an important property of aggregates used in
pavements
 SURFACE TEXTURE
• Is of importance to engineers.
• A certain level of surface texture is needed in
the pavement surface to provide adequate
friction resistance and prevent skidding
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
• The material must satisfy the strength
requirements
• The material must be capable of being
fabricated into the desired form
• The cost of the material must be low
• The material must be available for use at the
required time
CERAMICS
CERAMIC HISTORY
• Archeologists have uncovered human-made ceramics that date back to at
least 24,000 BC.
• These ceramics were found in Czechoslovakia and were in the form of animal
and human figurines, slabs, and balls.
• These ceramics were made of animal fat and bone mixed with bone ash and
a fine claylike material.
• After forming, the ceramics were fired at temperatures between 500-800°C
in domed and horseshoe shaped kilns partially dug into the ground with
loess walls.
• While it is not clear what these ceramics were used for, it is not thought to
have been a utilitarian one.
• The first use of functional pottery vessels is thought to be in 9,000 BC.
• These vessels were most likely used to hold and store grain and other foods.
• It is thought that ancient glass manufacture is closely related to
pottery making, which flourished in Upper Egypt about 8,000 BC.
• While firing pottery, the presence of calcium oxide (CaO) containing
sand combined with soda and the overheating of the pottery kiln
may have resulted in a colored glaze on the ceramic pot.
• Experts believe that it was not until 1,500 BC that glass was produced
independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate items.
• Since these ancient times, the technology and applications of
ceramics (including glass) has steadily increased.
• We often take for granted the major role that ceramics have played in
the progress of humankind
CERAMICS
• Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic
materials that are essential to our daily lifestyle.
• Ceramic and materials engineers are the people who design
the processes in which these products can be made, create
new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for
ceramic products in everyday life.
• Ceramics are all around us.
• This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks,
plates, glass, and toilets.
• Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz
tuning forks-the time keeping devices in watches), snow
skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is
applied to them), automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic
engine parts found in racecars), and phone lines.
• They can also be found on space shuttles, appliances
(enamel coatings), and airplanes (nose cones).
• Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be
dense or lightweight.
• Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and
hardness properties; however, they are often brittle in
nature.
• Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials, objects allowing electricity to pass
through their mass, or insulators, materials preventing the
flow of electricity.
• Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic
properties.
• Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay,
earthen elements, powders, and water and shaping them
into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is
fired in a high temperature oven known as a kiln.
• Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-
like substances known as glazes.
• A wide-ranging group of materials whose ingredients are
clays, sand and felspar.
CLAYS
Contain some of the following:
• Silicon & Aluminium as silicates
• Potassium compounds
• Magnesium compounds
• Calcium compounds

Sand contains Silica and Feldspar or Aluminium Potassium

Silicate.
COMPARISON METALS & CERAMICS
Metals Ceramics
TYPES OF CERAMICS
• Whitewares
• Refractories
• Glasses
• Abrasives
• Cements
BONDED CLAY CERAMICS
• Made from natural clays and mixtures of clays and added
crystalline ceramics.
• These include:
• Whitewares
• Structural Clay Products
• Refractory Ceramics
WHITEWARES

• Crockery
• Floor and wall tiles
• Sanitary-ware
• Electrical porcelain
• Decorative ceramics
REFRACTORIES

• Firebricks for furnaces and ovens.

• Have high Silicon or Aluminium oxide content.
• Brick products are used in the manufacturing plant for iron
and steel, non-ferrous metals, glass, cements, ceramics,
energy conversion, petroleum, and chemical industries.
REFRACTORIES

• Used to provide thermal protection of other materials in

very high temperature applications, such as steel making
(Tm=1500°C), metal foundry operations, etc.
• They are usually composed of alumina (Tm=2050°C) and silica
along with other oxides: MgO (Tm=2850°C), Fe2O3, TiO2, etc.,
and have intrinsic porosity typically greater than 10% by
volume.
• Specialized refractories, (those already mentioned) and BeO,
ZrO2, mullite, SiC, and graphite with low porosity are also
used.
AMORPHOUS CERAMICS
(GLASSES)
• Main ingredient is Silica (SiO2)
• If cooled very slowly will form crystalline structure.
• If cooled more quickly will form amorphous structure
consisting of disordered and linked chains of Silicon and
Oxygen atoms.
• This accounts for its transparency as it is the crystal
boundaries that scatter the light, causing reflection.
• Glass can be tempered to increase its toughness and
resistance to cracking.
GLASS TYPES
• Three common types of glass:
• Soda-lime glass - 95% of all glass, windows containers etc.
• Lead glass - contains lead oxide to improve refractive index
• Borosilicate - contains Boron oxide, known as Pyrex.
GLASSES

• Flat glass (windows)

• Container glass (bottles)
• Pressed and blown glass (dinnerware)
• Glass fibres (home insulation)
• Advanced/specialty glass (optical fibres)
CERAMIC PROPERTIES
• The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by
the types of atoms present, the types of bonding between the atoms,
and the way the atoms are packed together.
• This is known as the atomic scale structure.
• Most ceramics are made up of two or more elements. This is called a
compound.
• For example, alumina (Al2O3), is a compound made up of aluminum
atoms and oxygen atoms.
• The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond.
• The two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are
covalent and ionic. For metals, the chemical bond is called the
metallic bond.
• The bonding of atoms together is much stronger in covalent and ionic
bonding than in metallic.
• That is why, generally speaking, metals are ductile and ceramics are
brittle.
• Due to ceramic materials wide range of properties, they are used for
a multitude of applications. In general, most ceramics are:
• hard,
• wear-resistant,
• brittle,
• refractory,
• thermal insulators,
• electrical insulators,
• nonmagnetic,
• oxidation resistant,
• prone to thermal shock, and
• chemically stable.
CERAMIC PROCESSING
• Ceramic processing is used to produce commercial products
that are very diverse in size, shape, detail, complexity, and
material composition, structure, and cost.
• The purpose of ceramics processing to an applied science is
the natural result of an increasing ability to refine, develop,
and characterize ceramic materials.
• Ceramics are typically produced by the application of heat upon
processed clays and other natural raw materials to form a rigid
product.
• Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and minerals
as a starting material must undergo special processing in order to
control purity, particle size, particle size distribution, and
heterogeneity.
• These attributes play a big role in the final properties of the
finished ceramic.
• Chemically prepared powders also are used as starting materials
for some ceramic products.
• These synthetic materials can be controlled to produce powders
with precise chemical compositions and particle size.
• The next step is to form the ceramic particles into a desired shape.
• This is accomplished by the addition of water and/or additives
such as binders, followed by a shape forming process.
• Some of the most common forming methods for ceramics include
extrusion, slip casting, pressing, tape casting and injection
molding.
• After the particles are formed, these "green" ceramics undergo a
heat-treatment (called firing or sintering) to produce a rigid,
finished product.
• Some ceramic products such as electrical insulators, dinnerware
and tile may then undergo a glazing process.
• Some ceramics for advanced applications may undergo a
machining and/or polishing step in order meet specific
engineering design criteria.
PRESSED GLASS PROCESSING

Softened
Gob
BLOW MOLDING

Softened
glass
PLATE GLASS DRAWING PROCESSES
TEMPERED GLASS
Small Scratches

• The strength of glass can be

enhanced by inducing
compressive residual
stresses at the surface.

• The surface stays in

compression - closing small
scratches and cracks.
HARDENING PROCESSES
• Tempering:
• Glass heated above Tg but below the softening point
• Cooled to room temp in air or oil
• Surface cools to below Tg before interior
• when interior cools and contracts it draws the exterior into
compression.

• Chemical Hardening:
• Cations with large ionic radius are diffused into the surface
• This strains the “lattice” inducing compressive strains and stresses.
ARMOURED GLASS

• Many have tried to gain

access with golf clubs and
baseball bats but
obviously the glass
remains intact ! From
time to time a local TV
station intends to show
videos of those trying to
get at the cash!!
LEADED GLASS
CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS

• Good electrical insulators and refractories.

• Magnesium Oxide is used as insulation material in heating
elements and cables.
• Aluminium Oxide
• Beryllium Oxides
• Boron Carbide
• Tungsten Carbide.
• Used as abrasives and cutting tool tips.
ABRASIVES

• Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.)

• Synthetic abrasives (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina,
etc.) are used for grinding, cutting, polishing, lapping, or
pressure blasting of materials
CEMENTS
• Any of various calcined mixtures of clay and limestone, usually mixed
with water and sand, gravel, etc., to form concrete, that are used as a
building material.
• Used to produce concrete roads, bridges, buildings, dams.
ADVANCED CERAMICS
• Advanced ceramic materials have been developed over the past half
century
• Applied as thermal barrier coatings to protect metal structures, wearing
surfaces, or as integral components by themselves.
• Engine applications are very common for this class of material which
includes silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide (SiC), Zirconia (ZrO2) and
Alumina (Al2O3)
• Heat resistance and other desirable properties have lead to the
development of methods to toughen the material by reinforcement with
fibers and whiskers opening up more applications for ceramics
ADVANCED CERAMICS

• Structural: Wear parts, bioceramics, cutting tools, engine

components, armour.
• Electrical: Capacitors, insulators, integrated circuit packages,
piezoelectrics, magnets and superconductors
• Coatings: Engine components, cutting tools, and industrial
wear parts
• Chemical and environmental: Filters, membranes, catalysts,
and catalyst supports
TURBOCHARGER

Ceramic Rotor
CERAMIC BRAKE DISCS
MCLAREN MERCEDES BENZ
 SILICON CARBIDE

• Automotive
Components in Silicon
Carbide
• Chosen for its heat and
wear resistance
SILICON CARBIDE

Body armour and other

components chosen for
their ballistic properties.
CERAMIC ARMOUR

• Ceramic armour systems are used to protect military personnel and

equipment.
• Advantage: low density of the material can lead to weight-efficient
armour systems.
• Typical ceramic materials used in armour systems include alumina,
boron carbide, silicon carbide, and titanium diboride.
• The ceramic material is discontinuous and is sandwiched between a
more ductile outer and inner skin.
• The outer skin must be hard enough to shatter the projectile.
• Most of the impact energy is absorbed by the fracturing of the ceramic
and any remaining kinetic energy is absorbed by the inner skin, that also
serves to contain the fragments of the ceramic and the projectile
preventing severe impact with the personnel/equipment being
protected.
• Alumina ceramic/Kevlar composite system in sheets about 20mm thick
are used to protect key areas of Hercules aircraft (cockpit
crew/instruments and loadmaster station).
• This lightweight solution provided an efficient and
removable/replaceable armour system. Similar systems used on
Armoured Personnel Carrier’s.
CERAMIC - COMPOSITE ARMOR

Ceramic-
Outer hard Discontinuous
skin

Projectile

Personnel
and
Equipment

Inner
ductile
skin

Ceramic Armor System

WOOD
WOOD
Can you name any types of wood?
pine, oak, ash, teak, mahogany, maple, sycamore, birch, beech, walnut,
cherry, zebrawood, balsa…….

pine oak beech walnut maple zebrawood mahogany ash

Can you think of words that describe wood?

warm, smooth, strong, flexible, strong, hard, soft, rough, ….
WOOD
• It is a hard, fibrous structural tissue found in the
stems and roots of trees and other woody plants.
• It has been used for thousands of years for
both fuel and as a construction material.
• It is an organic material, a natural composite
of cellulose fibers (which are strong in tension)
embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists
compression.
• Wood is sometimes defined as only the
secondary xylem in the stems of trees, or it is defined
more broadly to include the same type of tissue
elsewhere such as in the roots of trees or shrubs.
• Wood may also refer to other plant materials with
comparable properties, and to material engineered
from wood, or wood chips or fiber.
• The Earth contains about one trillion tons of
wood, which grows at a rate of 10 billion tons
per year.
• As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable
resource, woody materials have been of
intense interest as a source of renewable
energy.
• Dominant uses were for furniture and building
construction.
PROPERTIES OF
WOOD
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
• Physical properties are defined as, “The
properties which are determined without any
change in size, shape, and chemical
composition of wood.”
• COLOR OF WOOD:
– The color of the wood is very important from the practical point
of view or decorative point of view eg walnut. Distinctive
coloration of wood is due to various extractives present in cell
wall of heartwood. The color of the wood may be changed due
to the following reasons:
• Many timbers darken with age.
• Some timber is changing color by the impact of sunlight
• Moist heat applied during kiln seasoning change color of wood and
turn lighter colored to darker.
• The color of wood also changes by applying different chemical on it.
• The color of wood may be changed due to any fungal attack on timber.
Due to fungus attack, bluish or brownish stains appears commonly in
the sapwood.
• The color of wood also changes when we observe tree from down to
upward direction.
• LUSTER:
– The luster of wood may be defined as, “Property of
wood elements and its contents which they have the
tendency to reflect light.”
– Mulberry, Farash, Conocarps usually give a shiny
surface. Importance of color is from a decorative point
of view and use for the identification of wood.
– Following factors affect the luster of wood:
• Angle of observation
• The plane of light falling
• The ability of cell wall to reflect to reflect the light.
• ODOR AND TASTE:
– Many timbers have the characteristic odor, which is more
effective during fresh conditions. But gradually disappears with
the passage of time.
– Perhaps the most outstanding properties are the resinous odor
of pines; spicy aroma of sandalwood, deodar, teak, juniper, etc.
– Similarly, Quercus and walnuts have also objectionable odor
which gradually disappears with the passage of time.
– The taste of wood is greatly related to the odor probably traced
to the same constituents.
– Both properties compel us to use wood in proper place.
– Bad smelling wood should not be used as food containers.
– The flavor of tobacco greatly changes along with storage.
– Quality gradually improves the passage of time.
• DENSITY OF WOOD:
– Density may be defined as, “mass per unit volume.”
– Density is obtained by dividing weight/mass by volume.
• Density = weight / volume
– While weight is determined by balance; while volume can
be calculated by multiplying length, breadth, and height.
– The unit of density is gm/cubic cm.
– The density of irregular shapes may be found by following
two methods:
• With the help of volume meter
• With the help of weight, balance, beaker
• Classification of Density:
– When density or specific gravity is 36 wood called very light
– When density or specific gravity is = 0.36 wood is called light.
– When density or specific gravity is 0.36 – 0.05, wood is moderately
heavy.
– When density or specific gravity is > 0.05, wood is heavy.
• HARDNESS:
• Hardness is defined as, “the resistance offered by the
wood to indentation (to make a dent)”
• Resistance is checked against a hard steel rod called
as Janka which is the type of electronic device. The
standardized wood sample is of the following size.
• 10cm × 2cm × 2cm
• For determination of hardness two methods are
generally used:
• Janka Method (for wood determination)
• Brinell method of matters
• WOOD MOISTURE RELATION:
– We can classify wood into four groups whenever
we take into consideration moisture contents:
• Oven Dry
• Kiln Dry
• Air Dry
• Greenwood having a moisture content of 25-50%
• THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY:
– The ability of the wood sample to conduct heat is called the
Conductivity.
– Wood conduct heat comparatively slowly (due to the porous nature),
it is one of the properly due to which timber is used in building
material, furniture, and other materials.
– A wooden wall allows much less heat to pass through it than iron,
concrete, brick or stone wall.
– The rate of flow of heat within a wood depends upon the direction of
fiber/ grain and density of the wood material.
– Under the similar condition, 2-3 time more heat is conducted parallel
to the grain as compared to across the or perpendicular to the grain.
– In the piece of wood (A) there is 2-3 times more heat conduction than
the piece of wood (B)
– In other words, there is more heat conduction parallel to the grain
than across the grain.
• HEAT/ CALORIFIC VALUE OF WOOD:
– It is the process in which the quantity of heat
produced by complete combustion of unit mass
wood substance.
– The wood with excessive moisture contents has
less calorific value and vice versa.
• LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION:
– “The minimum amount of heat required to evaporate
the unit mass of water”.
– In the wood of excessive moisture contents (EMC), the
most of the heat is utilized to evaporate the moisture
content within the wood and this phenomenon is
known as lowering the heat of combustion.
• The case I: In the air dry wood, the evaporation of moisture
along with the combustion with the release of gases takes
place.
• Case II: In the oven dry wood the combustion takes place
with the maximum release of heat (due to minimum
moisture contents within it).
• Conditions affecting the heat value of wood:
• The chief conditions that affect the heat value of wood are:
– Dryness of wood: Moisture contents affect the heat/ calorific value of
wood
– Anatomical structure: Porous wood burns more readily than dense
wood. A steady heat is given by dense wood than porous wood.
– Soundness: Unsound wood (means the wood attacked by insects or
fungi) give less heat than sound wood. This unsound or decayed wood
takes fire readily and burns slowly without flame.
– Presence of extraneous substance: The presence of extraneous/
inflammable/ organic substances such as resin, etc increase the
combustibility of wood.
– Size of a piece of wood: Smaller the piece of wood used the quicker
the combustion process and greater heat is given out in short time,
and vice versa.
• Hardwoods are better fuel-wood than softwood.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
• The properties which are observed by applying an
external force.
• The mechanical properties of wood are also called as
strength properties.
TESTS OF BENDING STRENGTH:
• COMPRESSION: • Uses:
• Compression may be • Props
defined as a set of force • Spokes of wheel
acting on a similar piece of • Botted timber
wood equal in magnitude • Furnisher
and acting in the similar • Tool handles
direction • Railway sleepers
• Compression may be of two • Sleepers
kinds depending on grain • Rollers
direction • Wooden wedges
• Compression parallel to grain • Bearing blocks
• Compression perpendicular
to the grain
• IMPACT BENDING/ TOUGHNESS/ DYNAMIC PROPERTY:
– Impact bending is defined as, “resistance by a wood sample to
certain shocks.”
– Two kinds of energies are present:
• Striking energy
• Residual energy
– Uses:
• Beam
• Frames
• Bones
• Crates
• Spokes
• Tool handles
• TENSION:
• SHEARS:
– Shear is defined as, “resistance offered by the wood
sample to slipping or sliding of one position upon other.”
– Shear is found parallel to grain and perpendicular to grain
as well.
– Maximum shear = max load / area = kg/ cm2
• CLEAVAGE:
– Cleavage is defined as, “resistance offered by the wood sample to
splitting.”
– Standardized size for this test is 4.5cm × 2cm × 2cm is a cross section
– Max load at the time of cleavage is found. The splitting force is applied
at a rate of .04mm/s and resistance to cleavage expressed force per
unit width.
– Cleavage = maximum load / width
• Uses:
• Bolted timber
• Bones or crates
• Floors
• Furnisher making
• Screwing
• Tool handles
• NAIL OR SCREWING RESISTANCE:
– It may be defined as, “resistance offered by the wood sample to
withdraw a nail or screw from its surface.”
– First of all nail or screw is penetrated into a wood sample of following
dimension 15cm * 5cm * 5cm and then withdraw by force in kg or
Newton.
– Resistance depending upon the shape of the nail
– Precaution: put nail always at a right angle
– Moisture content affects greatly to the nail strength property
– NWR is directly proportional to the density
– Factors affecting NWR (Nail Withdraw Resistance):
• Shape of nail
• The depth of nail driven into the wood
• Direction of loading
• Moisture content percentage
• Density
• FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF WOOD:
– Density of wood
– Moisture content percentage
– Time of loading
– Temperature
– Direction of grain
– Locality
– Percentage of early and late wood
– Ring width
 SOFTWOODS
• Softwoods are the wood and lumber which
are milled from conifer trees.
• Scientifically known as Gymnosperms, Conifer
trees are any trees which have needles and
produce cones.
• Examples of popular softwood trees used in
woodworking, construction, and furniture are
Pine, Cedar, Fir, Spruce, and Redwood.
This type of timber is produced from trees that do
not lose their leaves (coniferous).

Leaves are easily

Softwood trees grow much quicker than the identified as being
hardwood ones, they are therefore cheaper to buy thin and narrow.

and far more available. Softwood is used for

construction of houses and furniture, and outdoor
uses such as fencing.

The term softwood does not mean that the timber

is soft , as pitch pine is one of the most difficult
timbers to work with, yet is a member of this group

Some photograph courtesy of photolibrary wales

• Are Softwoods Softer Than Hardwoods?
– Contrary to popular belief, softwoods are not
named softwoods because they are “soft”. While
it is true that some varieties of hardwoods are
very hard and therefore more challenging to work
with, the distinction between hardwood and
softwood has little to do with the actual softness
or whether one wood is harder to work with.
There are many hardwoods which are softer than
softwoods.
• How Are Softwoods Like Pine, Cedar, Spruce, Fir and
Redwood Used?
– Most softwoods are strong and commonly used in many
different building applications. Spruce, Pine, and Fir (SPF)
are commonly sold under as dimensional SPF lumber at
home improvement centers. These woods are often used
in framing new construction, as well as building utility style
structures.
– Many of these woods, particularly softwoods from the
cypress family are renowned for their ability to resist rot
and insects. This makes trees such as cedar and redwood
ideal for exterior projects, such as decking and outdoor
furniture.
 building
Uses of soft woods construction
furniture

packaging

Some images courtesy of IKEA

garden fencing/shed
 HARDWOODS
• Hardwoods come from any trees which do not produce
needles or cones.
• These trees are most commonly are known as
deciduous trees, more scientifically known as
angiosperms.
• Hardwoods are trees which produces leaves and seeds.
• Common hardwood species include oak, maple, cherry,
mahogany, and walnut.
• Hardwood species are not always necessarily stronger
than softwoods, but many species are well known for
their beautiful and distinct wood grain patterns.
This type of timber is produced from broad
leaf trees that lose their leaves in winter –
a deciduous tree. The photograph opposite
is of an oak tree which grows in this
country.

Uses - Oak is a hardwood and is used to

make expensive furniture/flooring and
strong framed structures.

The term hardwood does not mean that the

timber is hard. For example balsa is used
for modelling, it is a hard wood but it is one
of the softest timbers to work with. Model aircraft made
from balsa
Mahogany – reddish in colour,
always looks good when
varnished or waxed.

Beech – creamy pinkish

colour, its close grain makes it
very suitable for kitchen
utensils, as water does not
have too great an effect on it.
• There are also some woods which are
considered to be hardwoods that are not
deciduous trees, such as Bamboo and Palm.
• These plants are scientifically known as
monocotyledons, but have many of the same
characteristics of hardwoods and so are often
classified as such.
• Bamboo and Palm can sometimes fall under
the next classification of engineered wood.
Examples of Hardwood
 Engineered Wood: Manufactured
Wood Products
• Engineered wood does not occur naturally in
the environment but instead are
manufactured.
• These boards are generally made with wood
which is manipulated to have certain qualities
or features.
• Also known as composite wood, these
products are often made from the waste
wood of sawmills.
• Engineered wood is often treated through chemical or
a heat process to produce a wood product which can
meet certain sizes that would be difficult to achieve
from nature.
• Popular examples of engineered woods include
Plywood, Oriented Strand Board, Medium Density
Fiber Board, and Composite Board.
• Wood veneers can also sometimes be classified as
engineered wood, since it often needs to be
manipulated either through specialized cutting
techniques or joining pieces together to achieve a
specific size or wood grain patterning.
These are manmade boards, which are made by gluing wood
layers or wood fibers together.

Examples of manufactured boards are:

Plywood is a widely used manufactured timber.

Can you think of advantages and disadvantages of using
plywood?

The photograph opposite shows MDF sheets as they are

purchased. What does MDF stand for ? Any thoughts regarding its
use ?

Manufactured board is mainly used for kitchen and

bedroom furniture and shelving.
 carve it…

you can ……
layer it …

Bend it …..

turn it …..
slot it together it …..

Do you recognise any of these buildings/structures? Jules Tattersall

 WOOD TREATMENT
• Wood treatment refers to protecting wood
from damage caused by insects, moisture, and
decay fungi.
THREE PRIMARY METHODS OF WOOD
TREATMENT
• creosote pressure-treated wood
• pentachlorophenol pressure-treated wood
• inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood.
• The pressure-treating process is done by
commercial facilities and made available to
users in the final wood product.
• Copper napthenate, zinc napthenate, and
tributyltin oxide are other wood treatment
options that can be site applied.
• All of these treatment processes involve
dangerous chemicals .
• Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is the most
popular wood treatment product available today.
• The chemicals are inert within the material and
offer protection from moisture and decay fungi.
• The chemicals do not penetrate into the
heartwood effectively so a sealer is advisable on
cut ends of CCA treated wood.
• Although CCA treated wood is sawn on jobsites,
hardly anyone seals the cuts.
• All pressure treated products require adherence
to safety precautions approved by the EPA.
• The toxicity of the chemicals used in wood
treatment has led to research into less toxic
methods such as the use of borates derived from
the natural element boron (borax).
• Borates (from boron) are used in wood in New
Zealand and Australia and offer insect protection
and fire retarding benefits to wood.
• Full-scale commercial introduction of borates in
the U.S. awaits resolution of the leaching
problem of borates.
• Since borates are water soluble, water dilutes them
and leaves the wood unprotected from decay after a
period of time. In a location unexposed to water, they
are effective in preserving wood; site applied borate
products are available.
• Ammoniacal copper quatenary (ACQ) is a new wood
preservative currently being introduced. This material
employs preservative components that are listed in
EPA’s classification as “General Use” pesticides. This is a
less toxic material that CCA and it performs similarly.
Before we use wood, what should we think about ?

Wood - sustainability considerations.

A tree absorbs CO2 as it grows and stores the

carbon as wood. When it reaches maturity it
stops absorbing extra carbon. Eventually, if not
cutdown, it will die and gradually give off CO2
as it rots.

If it is cut down and the wood is used for

products such as furniture or buildings this locks
up the carbon in the timber for the lifetime
of the product.

If the tree is replaced the new tree will start

absorbing more CO2.

photograph courtesy photolibrary wales/ Simon Moorhouse

Wood - sustainability considerations.
How does using wood affect
Climate Change?

If you use solid timber there is very

little processing.
Energy is used to plant and then fell
the trees, move them, saw and
plane the timber and then transport
it.
The further it is transported the more
energy is used.

photographs courtesy photolibrary wales

Wood - sustainability considerations.

Manufactured boards use

more energy to produce.
They can use the waste
from milling solid timber.
They mostly use adhesives,
and the formaldehyde that is
used in MDF is a health
risk.

photographs courtesy photolibrary wales

Wood - sustainability considerations.
Other ecological impacts
Some tropical hardwoods have huge
impacts. Mahogany trees grow in amongst
a variety of other trees and plants. Cutting
down the mahogany causes the
destruction of a whole area of rainforest
which cannot regrow easily.

Does it’s use harm other people?

If we add to Climate Change that affects
everyone in the World but particularly the
poor who are most affected by drought
and flooding. If we destroy areas of
rainforest that affects the lives of the
people who live in the forest.

photographs greengoldforestry.com
Wood - sustainability considerations.
Can we keep on using as much
as we like?
The planet has a limited amount of
land to grow food and trees so there
is a limit to the amount of timber we
can use. However, the amount
that is used in the production of the
paper that comes into the average
house each year will be a far bigger
impact than the timber in your school
project. But the products we do
design and make should be well
made, so they can be used for a
number of years.
photographs courtesy www.cites.org
grown, processed, sawn and crafted
Wood - sustainability considerations.

One of the most important

things about woodland is that
trees store carbon
dioxide. If we cut them
down faster than they can be
replaced then we reduce
that CO2 store.

photographs courtesy photolibrary wales

Can you think of wood products that can be recycled?

newspapers cardboard industrial paper

Christmas trees furniture

photographs courtesy photolibrary wales

PLASTICS
INTRODUCTION TO PLASTIC
• Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic
organic compounds that are malleable and therefore can be molded into solid objects.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials that involves permanent deformation
without breaking. Polymers’ name is derived from their flexible and plastic properties.

• Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain
other substances. They are usually synthetic and most commonly derived from
petrochemicals. However, today’s focus on the environment has led to a growing number
of plastics to be derived from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or
cellulosic from cotton linters.

• Plastics have been adopted in a significant, and ever-expanding, range of products thanks
to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water.
They can be found in products as simple as paperclips or as complex as planes.
• A large source of diverse plastic material is available across a
widespread manufacturing spectrum.
• One of the most recent and exciting manufacturing domains is in 3D Printing.
As new applications for 3D Printing are discovered almost daily, a diverse
array of plastic objects have already been produced using the 3D Printing
process.
• These objects can be found in prototyping labs, toys, mechanical gearboxes,
medical prosthetics, and many more.
• Plastics are generally classified by the chemical structure of the
polymer's backbone and side chains; some important groups in these
classifications include:
• Acrylics
• Polyesters
• Silicones
• Polyurethanes
• Halogenated plastics
EARLY AND MODERN PLASTICS
Plastic materials were first used at around 2000BC.
Plastics can occur naturally in trees or even milk; amber is
an example (a resin from trees and insects). Amber was
used by early Egyptians to make jewellery and is still used
for this purpose today.

Today, numerous different plastics are

available. Some are still made from natural
materials but most modern plastics are
manufactured from chemicals obtained from
crude oil. Plastics manufacturers convert
chemicals into plastics.
OIL - THE RAW MATERIAL FOR PLASTICS
Pump
Pipeline
We obtain crude oil from
Oil well under ground, either on
land or at sea.

Layers of After it has been pumped, it

rock is heated in a fractioning
tower and broken down
into chemicals.
Gas
The chemicals consist of
Oil nitrogen, carbon, chlorine,
sulfur and water.
CATEGORIES OF PLASTICS
• Natural plastics - these are naturally occurring materials that can be said to be plastics
because they can be shaped and molded by heat.
• An example of this is amber, which is a form of fossilized pine tree resin and is often used in
jewelry manufacture.
• Semi synthetic plastics - these are made from naturally occurring materials that have
been modified or changed but mixing other materials with them.
• An example of this is cellulose acetate, which is a reaction of cellulose fiber and acetic acid and is
used to make cinema film.
• Synthetic plastics - these are materials that are derived from breaking down, or
’cracking’ carbon based materials, usually crude oil, coal or gas, so that their molecular
structure changes. This is generally done in petrochemical refineries under heat and
pressure, and is the first of the manufacturing processes that is required to produce most
of our present day, commonly occurring plastics.
• Synthetic and semi synthetic plastics can be further divided into two other categories.
These two categories are defined by the ways in which different plastics react when
heated.
COMPOSITION
• Most plastics contain organic polymers.
• The vast majority of these polymers are based on chains of carbon
atoms alone or with oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen as well.
• The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a
large number of repeat units together.
• To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups
"hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the
monomers before the monomers are linked together to form the
polymer chain).
BIODEGRADABILITY
• Biodegradable plastics break down (degrade) upon exposure to
sunlight (e.g., ultra-violet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria,
enzymes, wind abrasion, and in some instances, rodent, pest, or
insect attack are also included as forms
of biodegradation or environmental degradation.
• Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the
surface, whereas other modes will only be effective if certain
conditions exist in landfill or composting systems.
• Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to
degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown
of the plastic.
• Some researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that
synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such
as Biopol, is expensive at present.
• Companies have made biodegradable additives to enhance the
biodegradation of plastics.
BIOPLASTIC
• Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the
finiteness of petrochemical reserves and threat of global warming,
bioplastics are being developed.
• Bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials
such as cellulose and starch.
CRYSTALLINE VS AMORPHOUS
• Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in
molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the
temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are
overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above
which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially
increased).
• The so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene,
polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters
and some polyurethanes.
• Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its
copolymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.
WHY DESIGN WITH PLASTICS?
• Light weight, high weight to strength • Relatively low cost compared to
ratio, particularly when reinforced metals and composites

Density Cost
WHY DESIGN WITH PLASTICS?
• Corrosion resistance
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity, insulator
• Easily formed into complex shapes, can be formed, casted and joined.
• Wide choice of appearance, colors and transparencies
DISADVANTAGES OF USING PLASTICS
• Low strength
o
• Low useful temperature range (up to 600 F)
• Less dimensional stability over period of time (creep effect)
• Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over time
• Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
• Poor machinability
POLYMERS
• The earliest synthetic polymer was developed in 1906, called Bakelite.

• The development of modern plastics started in 1920s using raw material

extracted from coal and petroleum products (Ethylene). Ethylene is called a
building block.
• Polymers are long-chain molecules and are formed by polymerization
process, linking and cross linking a particular building block (monomer, a unit
cell).
• The term polymer means many units repeated many times in a chainlike
structure.
• Most monomers are organic materials, atoms are joined in covalent bonds
(electron-sharing) with other atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
sulfur, chlorine,….
 POLYMER’S STRUCTURES
Bonding – monomers are linked together by covalent bonds, forming a polymer chain (primary bonds).
The polymer chains are held together by secondary bonds. The strength of polymers comes in part from
the length of polymer chains. The longer the chain, the stronger the polymer. More energy is needed to
overcome the secondary bonds.
Linear polymers Branched polymers

A sequential structure resulting in thermoplastics
like nylon, acrylic, polyethylene. A linear polymer
may contain some branched and cross-linked
chains resulting in change in properties.
Side branch chains are attached to the main chain
which interferes with the relative movement of the
molecular chains. This results in an increase in strength,
deformation resistance and stress cracking resistance.
Lower density than linear chain polymers.
Cross-linked polymers
Three dimensional structure, adjacent chains are linked by covalent
bonds. Polymers with cross-linked chains are called thermosetting
plastics (thermosets), epoxy and Silicones.

Cross-linking is responsible for providing hardness, strength, brittleness and

better dimensional stability.

Network polymers
A three dimensional network of three or more covalent
bonds. Thermoplastic polymers that have been already
formed could be cross-linked to obtain higher strength.
Polymers are exposed to high-energy radiation.
ADDITIVES IN PLASTICS
• Additives are added to polymers in order to obtain or improve certain
properties such as strength, stiffness, color, resistance to weather and
flammability.
• Plasticizers are added to obtain flexibility and softness, most common use
of plasticizers are in PVC.
• Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) and oxygen cause polymers to become stiff
and brittle, they weaken and break the primary bonds. A typical treatment
is to add carbon black (soot) to the polymer, it absorbs radiation.
Antioxidants are also added to protect against degradation.
• Fillers such as fine saw dust, silica flour, calcium carbide are added to
reduce the cost and to increase harness, strength, toughness, dimensional
stability,…..
• Colorants are added to obtain a variety of colors. Colorants are either
organic (dye) or inorganic (pigments). Pigments provide greater
resistance to temperature and sunlight.
• Flame retardants such as chlorine, phosphorus and bromine, are
added to reduce polymer flammability. Teflon does not burn and
nylon and vinyl chloride are self-extinguishing.
• Lubricants such as mineral oil and waxes are added to reduce friction.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS
• Thermoplastics
• As the temperature is raised above the melting point, the secondary bonds
weaken, making it easier to form the plastic into any desired shape. When
polymer is cooled, it returns to its original strength and hardness. The process
is reversible. Polymers that show this behavior are known as
thermoplastics.
• Thermosetting Plastics (thermosets)
• Thermosetting plastics are cured into permanent shape. Cannot be re-melted
to the flowable state that existed before curing, continued heating for a long
time leads to degradation or decomposition. This curing (cross-linked)
reaction is irreversible. Thermosets generally have better mechanical,
thermal and chemical properties. They also have better electrical resistance
and dimensional stability than do thermoplastics.
 The word ‘plastic’
What does
means the
‘easily
word ‘plastic’
shaped or
Thermoplastic plastics: mean?
moulded’.
Formed by heat

Soften when heated

Made of long
polymer chains with
few cross links

Can be reheated
and reshaped
Mostly recyclable
Thermosetting plastics:

Initially set by heat

Consist of polymer Cannot be reshaped

chains with strong once set
bonds between
each chain

Strong and durable Common in powder

or resin forms
THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS

The majority of common plastics are thermoplastics.

Thermoplastics can be heated and reshaped because
of the ways in which the molecules are joined together.
Heat
This can be repeated many times (as long as no
damage is caused by overheating).
Harden Soften

Cool
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
Thermosetting plastics are those which are set with heat and have little elasticity.
Once set, they cannot be reheated and reformed.
Burn
They are heated and moulded during
manufacture.
Once cooled, they will not soften again when Heat
heated. This breaks the potentially unending cycle
that thermoplastic plastics are capable of.
Harden Soften
If heated too much, they burn.

Cool
 USES OF PLASTICS (THERMOPLASTICS)

Here are some

common products
made from
thermoplastics. Polystyrene
Can you say which High density
Polypropylene polythene Low density polythene
type of
thermoplastic
each one is made
of? ABS
Acrylic

What other uses do these thermoplastics have?

 USES OF PLASTICS (THERMOSETS)

Epoxy
Thermosets resin Phenol
have different
formaldehyde
qualities to
thermoplastics. Melamine
formaldehyde Urea
formaldehyde

GRP
APPLICATION OF THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
• Thermoset plastics offer enhanced high-performance combination of thermal stability,
chemical resistance, and structural integrity.
• Thermoset components are used extensively in a wide range of industries – and are used
for applications in the automotive, appliance, electrical, lighting, and energy markets due
to excellent chemical and thermal stability along with superior strength, hardness, and
moldability.
• Thermoset plastic composites are capable of meeting the specifications of a wide range
of production materials at a very low cost.
• Their use allows for an assortment of small and large parts to be fabricated with high
production volume while maintaining their repeatability consistently from batch to
batch.
• Thermosets provide an alternative process when complex and geometric shapes cannot
be achieved through metal fabrication or the use of thermoplastics but can be
manufactured in a mold.
• Thermoset plastics maintain their stability in all environments and temperatures.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMOSETS
• The use of thermoset plastics has a number of advantages. Unlike
thermoplastics, they retain their strength and shape even when
heated. This makes thermosetting plastics well-suited to the
production of permanent components and large, solid shapes.
Additionally, these components have excellent strength attributes
(although they are brittle), and will not lose significant strength when
exposed to higher operating temperatures.
• Thermosets plastics have gained in popularity among manufacturers,
who have switched to their use as a lower cost replacement for metal
components.
• The benefits that thermoset plastics can offer over their metal
counterparts include:
• Available molded-in tolerances
• Choice of color and surface finishes
• High strength-to-weight ratio and performance
• Outstanding dielectric strength
• Low thermal conductivity and microwave transparency
• Resistance to corrosion effects and water
• Lower tooling/set-up costs
• Reduced production costs over fabrication using metals
DISADVANTAGES OF THERMOSETS
• There are certain disadvantages to the use of thermosets whereas the
material properties are not as developed as those of thermoplastics.
• The low initial viscosity of materials results in flash and the need for
secondary operations. Also, low tensile strength and ductility tend to
result in parts that require designs with thick walls. The compounds
used in thermosets are reactive systems, which can impact the useful
shelf life. Batch processes may exhibit greater variation and less
consistency from lot-to-lot. High levels of some filler in the materials
may result in excessive tool wear. The product quality is dependent
upon the degree of crosslinking established during the molding cycle.
TYPE OF THERMOSETS & THERMOSET
MATERIALS LIST
• Thermosetting polymers are built from • RTM Thermosetting Plastics (Fiberglass-
various types of material that serve key reinforced):
roles and applications in the plastics • Polyester
fabrication industry. • Vinyl Ester
• The two thermoset molding compound • Polyimides
processes are Reaction Injection Molding • Other Types of Thermosets and Thermoset
(RIM) and Resin Transfer Molding (RTM). Resins:
• Specific types of thermoset materials that • Epoxy (e.g., carbon fiber epoxy resin)
are in use within the plastics fabrication • Phenolics
industry include the following: • Bismaleimide (BMI)
• Fluoropolymers
• RIM Thermosetting Plastics: • Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
• pDCPD (polydicyclopentadiene) • Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
• Polyurethanes • Melamine
• Polyureas • Silicone
• Structural Foams • Urea Formaldehyde
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOPLASTICS
• In polluted, acidic, environments such as may be found in modern cities, steel piping
systems are often vulnerable to rust or corrosion and therefore need special provisions
for corrosion protection. The cost associated with protecting steel piping systems that
are exposed to these harsh environments can be expensive. Thermoplastics are
considered to be a favorable substitute to minimize these costs. Certain properties of
thermoplastics that make them a suitable substitute material are:
• Their ability to withstand corrosive materials and corrosive environments.
• Being able to carry materials of extreme temperatures (hot or cold).
• Their capacity to handle virtually any type of fluid transport application.
• Common materials used to produce these pipes are PVC or CPVC. Additional materials
include polypropylene, PVDF, ABS, nylon, and polyethylene. Polyethylene gas tanks are
used to transport natural gas for use in residential and commercial applications.
• Other common applications for thermoplastics include high-pressure polyethylene to
encapsulate rigid objects like electrical equipment. Low-pressure polyethylene is very
elastic and ideal for insulating electrical cables. Polyamide is most commonly associated
with the production of ropes and belts.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
THERMOPLASTICS
• The primary advantage of thermoplastics is their wide range of applications.
Thermoplastics are high strength, lightweight materials and have relatively low
processing costs. Additionally, thermoplastic components are relatively easy to
manufacture with high volume and precision.
• The primary disadvantage of using thermoplastics instead of materials such as
metal is their relatively low melting point. Certain types of low-quality
thermoplastics can melt when they're exposed to the sun for extended periods.
Furthermore, thermoplastics can have poor resistance to organic solvents,
hydrocarbons, and highly polar solvents.
• Thermoplastics are susceptible to creep, which occurs when the material
stretches and weakens under exposure to long-term stress loads. The
susceptibility to creep is further exacerbated by the lower melting temperature of
the material. Other types of thermoplastics, such as composites, can fracture
instead of becoming deformed under high-stress conditions.
TYPES OF THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS
• Types of thermoplastics commonly employed for manufacturing include polyethylene
(PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS), which often is used for packaging.
Other groups of thermoplastics are acrylics, fluoropolymers, polyesters, polyimides, and
nylons. All of these types can be melted down repeatedly and re-shaped into different
forms. For example, a foam cup is a thermoplastic material man be re-melted and
fabricated into a dish.
• Some of the most common thermoplastic materials in use include:
• Polycarbonate
• Acetal Copolymer Polyoxymethylene
• Acetal Homopolymer Polyoxymethylene
• Acrylic
• Nylon
• Polyethylene
• Polypropylene
• Polystyrene
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Teflon
GENERIC PLASTIC MATERIALS
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is a terpolymer produced by polymerizing styrene
and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. Most applications can withstand
temperatures of between -20–80°C (-4–176°F). Common applications include electronic
equipment cases such as computer monitors, printers, and keyboards as well as drainage
pipes.
• Polyamide (PA) or nylon occur both naturally, for example with wool and silk, and
synthetically as nylons, aramids, and sodium poly(aspartate). Synthetic polyamides are
commonly implemented in the textile, automotive, carpet, and sportswear industries for
their durable and strong properties. The transportation manufacturing industry is
estimated to consume 35% of worldwide polyamide (PA) globally. Some key applications
include fibers, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line, and low-strength machine parts in
engines or gun frames.
• Polycarbonates (PC) belong to the thermoplastic carbonate-containing polymer group.
Their strong, tough properties and the transparency of some grades makes them suitable
for engineering. Additionally, their flexible properties make them easy to work, mold,
and thermoform, therefore polycarbonates (PC) can be found in many applications such
as compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses.
• Polyester (PES) can occur naturally, for example in the cutin of plant cuticles, and
synthetically through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural
polyesters, and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic
polyesters are not. Polyesters can be found extensively in the clothing and textile
industries.
• Polyethylene (PE) is the most common plastic with an annual global production
of approximately 80-million tons. It is mainly used the packaging sector for plastic
bags, plastic films, geomembranes, and containers (including bottles).
• High-density polyethylene (HDPE), also known as polyethylene high-density
(PEHD) is a thermoplastic derived from petroleum with a high strength-to-density
ratio. It is mainly used in detergent bottles, milk jugs, molded plastic cases, plastic
bottles, corrosion-resistant piping, geomembranes, and plastic lumber. When
used for pipes, it is sometimes called alkathene or polythene.
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene.
First produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), its manufacture employs the
same method today. Also, its implementation remains widespread in outdoor furniture,
siding, floor tiles, shower curtains, and clamshell packaging despite competition from
more modern polymers.
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), commonly abbreviated PET or PETE is the most
common thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family. It is mainly used in fibers
for clothing, containers for liquids and foods, thermoforming for manufacturing, and in
combination with glass fiber for engineering resins. Brand names include: Dacron,
Terylene, or Lavsan.
• Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a rugged and corrosion-resistant
addition polymer that belongs to the thermoplastic polymer group. After polyethylene, it
is the second-most widely produced synthetic plastic. It is used in a broad spectrum of
applications such as packaging, labeling, textiles, stationary, plastic parts, reusable
containers, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer
banknotes.
• Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene and
can be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and relatively brittle
and is an inexpensive resin per-unit weight. It is naturally transparent but can be colored.
As one of the most widely used plastics, being produced in the millions of tons per year,
it is commonly used for foam peanuts for packaging, food containers, plastic tableware,
disposable cups, plates, cutlery, compact-disc (CD) and cassette boxes.
• High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) is a graft copolymer produced by mixing polystyrene
with the stretchier polybutadiene rubber during polymerization, which results in high-
impact polystyrene (HIPS), often called “high-impact plastic” in advertisements. It
commonly injection molded to produce toys, refrigerator liners, food packaging, and
vending cups. One brand name is Bextrene.
• Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of organic units joined by carbamate
(urethane) links. Although most polyurethanes are thermosetting polymers that do not
melt when heated, thermoplastic polyurethanes are also available. Common applications
include: cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings and printing
rollers. It is the most commonly used plastic in automobiles.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is also known as PVC, poly vinyl or vinyl and is the
world’s third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer after polyethylene
and polypropylene. PVC is available in either a rigid (RPVC) or flexible form.
Common applications for RPVC include plumbing pipes, gutters, doors, window
frames, and bank or membership cards. Common applications for flexible PVC
include shower curtains, flooring, imitation leather, signage, phonograph records,
inflatable products, and the various applications where it replaces rubber.
SERIES OF STEPS IN PLASTIC
MANUFACTURING PROCESS
RAW MATERIAL EXTRACTION
• The first step in the production of plastic objects is extracting the raw
material that is derived from natural gas or refined crude oil. The
drilling is done by heavy machinery to take out raw material from the
underground.
• The collected raw material is sent through the pipes for the refinery
process. To make pellets of pure plastic, heating of oil and gas is
performed. After that refined polyethylene chain are integrated which
is called polymerization to get god clarified plastic.
SETTING & PREPARATION OF MOLD &
PRINTERS
• In the next phase, molds are prepared according to the desired design
of plastic products. The settings of molds and printers tools are the
most significant step, as they help to produce objects according to
specification. They are adjusted manually or sometimes by robotics.
The heated & melted plastic is then injected into these molds to give
shape. It is important to control the temperature of plastic heating
during the melting process.
MAIN TECHNICAL PROCESSING
• This major practical step contains the mass production of parts by using specialized
machines. The master processing includes multiple activities depending on what type of
methodology is implemented for assembling of plastic;
• Blow Molding: A heated plastic tube is blown to make hollow plastic parts. It is popular for making
plastic bottles, toys, and automotive components.
• CNC Machining: CNC stands for Computer numerical control. The CNC is a subtractive process that
involves grinding, cutting, boring, and drilling of solid plastic blocks, rods, and bars.
• Vacuum Forming: Variety of plastic shapes ii formed by vacuum forming method. In vacuum
forming plastic is heated, stretched over the mold surface, and then vacuum force is applied.
• Polymer Casting: The resin is liquefied by heat. The melted rubber is filled closed in the mold and
curd at room temperature. After cooling cured plastic is pulled out from the mold.
• Injection Molding: Molten thermoplastic is poured into the mold and pressed by shot chamber
through a screw.
• 3D Printing: It creates a three-dimensional physical model of objects with the help of a
computerized printer.
• Extrusion: Extrusion means applying pressure or force on the die to form a shape
• Rotational Molding: Rotational plastic crates hollow plastic products by rotating on two axes.
COOLING & REMOVAL OF PLASTIC
• Once the plastic parts are formed they are de-molded after cooling
down. The solid part is ejected and sent for final processing.
FINISHING & TESTING OF PARTS
• In the end, solid parts are painted, sprayed, and the final color coating
is done. Smooth finishing is performed manually or by automatic
machines. After that, quality control procedures are executed and
damaged products are discarded.
THE PLASTIC FORMING &
MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
TOP 7 TECHNIQUES
PLASTIC INJECTION MOLDING
• Plastic injection molding accounts for about 80% of the durable plastic items we
find every day. Injection molding uses a mold or die made from aluminum or
steel. The mold consists of a core side and a cavity side that is placed into a plastic
injection molding machine. This machine heats the raw plastic resin pellets until
they’re molten, injects them into the empty cavity of the mold under great
pressure, and then opens to eject the finished part.
• The advantage of PIM is that millions of identical parts can be made quickly, with
excellent surface finish and at low cost. Molds however can be expensive and
complex, depending on the part geometry. Careful engineering design of the
mold is required to prevent defects and optimize part quality and processing
speed.
ROTATIONAL (ROTO) MOLDING
• Rotational molding also uses a core and cavity mold tool, but the manufacturing
process is quite different.
• Plastic powder is poured into the cavity of the mold, and the mold placed in an
oven. While being heated, the mold is slowly rotated on two axes. Gravity is used
to stick the plastic to the tool walls and build up the correct thickness.
• Then, the mold is removed from the oven and slowly cooled to prevent warpage.
Full cooling can take several minutes, after which the tool is opened and the part
removed for the next cycle.
• Rotational molding is ideal for making large, hollow or concave shapes, often for
outdoor use like canoes and tubs. The finished parts are stress-free and have no
seams so they’re strong, and the tools are relatively simple and inexpensive to
make. The downside is that tools don’t last more than a few thousand cycles
before they need to be replaced, and the part finish quality is average at best so
it’s not suited for precision forming.
EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING
• This is the most common way to make thin-walled, inexpensive
containers like disposable drinking cups or bottles. It’s fast and the
tools are easy to make, but the parts cannot be very complex or made
with high precision.
• Molten plastic in the form of a large droplet, called a parison, is
placed into a two-piece clamshell mold. After the mold closes, the
parison is inflated like a balloon until it fills the empty cavity. Because
the walls of the mold are water- cooled, the plastic quickly solidifies
and the bottle can be ejected.
INJECTION BLOW MOLDING
• During injection blow molding, gas pressure is used to force molten
resin into a mold cavity. The process is easily controlled and
repeatable, and is commonly used for transparent plastic drinking
bottles. It makes for excellent surface quality but it’s not ideal for thin
walls.
• PET (polyethelene terephthalate) or PEEK (polyether-ether-ketone)
are the typical choices resin choices for drinking bottles, due to their
clarity and durability, and because they are rated as safe for
consumables. They are also easily recycled.
REACTION INJECTION MOLDING (RIM)
• RIM is most often used in the automotive industry because it produces
lightweight parts that have a rigid skin. This skin is easily painted to make
body panels, dashboards and other car parts. However, thermoforming
plastics won’t work in this process. Instead this process requires
thermosetting plastic.
• Thermosetting plastics undergo an irreversible chemical reaction inside the
mold. This usually causes them to expand like a foam, filling a mold cavity.
When the chemical reaction is done the plastic sets into its final form.
• Tooling costs for prototypes are relatively low, while production tooling is
moderately expensive. The main cost is in the material, bearing in mind
that the resulting part must always be finished, usually with a urethane-
based gel coat or by painting, so the process is more labor intensive which
increases the piece price.
VACUUM CASTING
• Vacuum casting is a great choice for making a small number of high-
quality rapid prototypes without a big investment in tools or material.
• A master model of any rigid solid (often this is a 3D printed master
pattern) is placed into a sealed box that’s then filled with a flexible
urethane or silicone. When the master is removed, a cavity is formed
inside the mold that can now be filled with plastic resin to form a
copy of the original. Vacuum pressure is used to pull air out of the
mold so that it fills completely with no air bubbles.
• In this process, the surface finish quality and detail are excellent and
pourable resins can imitate many engineering grades of plastic. But
the molds are not durable and will degrade after 20 or so copies.
THERMOFORMING
• This is a type of vacuum forming, where thin or thick gauge plastic
sheet is placed over a die, heated to a temperature that allows the
material to become pliable, then is stretched over the surface of the
die while vacuum pressure pulls the sheet down and into its final
shape.
• This process can also be done with simple dies and very basic
equipment. It’s often employed with samples and prototypes of thin-
walled, hollow-bodied parts. In industry, it’s used for plastic cups,
lids, boxes and plastic clamshell packaging, as well as for auto body
parts in thicker gauge material. Only thermoforming plastics are
suitable for this process.
COMPRESSION MOLDING
• The raw material is pre-heated and placed inside the open cavity of a
die. A cap or plug is used to close the die and apply heat and
pressure, causing the plastic to cure. This process is great for rubber
keypad switches, gaskets, O-rings and other soft, pliable thin-walled
parts.
• It’s relatively inexpensive and wastes little material, although
controlling the consistency of the finished piece can be difficult and
much care needs to be taken in the preparation of the initial mold
design.
ALLOY SYSTEMS

Engr. Marizen B. Contreras

 Alloys
• Two definitions
– Combination of two or
more elements
– Combination of two or
more metallic elements

• Metallurgical
• Commercial
 Alloys
• Two Commercial
Classifications
– Ferrous – Iron as
base metal
– Nonferrous – No
iron in
composition
 Alloy
• An alloy is a mixture of two elements, one of
which is a metal. Alloys often have properties
that are different to the metals they contain. This
makes them more useful than the pure metals
alone. For example, alloys are often harder than
the metal they contain.
• Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which
distorts the regular arrangements of atoms. This
makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over
each other, so alloys are harder than the pure
metal
• Some familiar examples of alloys include
brass, bronze, pewter, cast and wrought iron, steel,
coin metals, and solder .
• Alloys are usually synthetic materials, developed by
scientists for special purposes.
• They generally have specially desirable properties
quite different from the metals from which they are
made.
 A summary of three common alloys, the
metals they contain, and their typical uses

alloy main metal(s) in typical use

alloy
amalgam mercury dental fillings

brass copper and zinc hinges, electrical

plugs
solder lead and tin joining metals
 Stainless steel is a mixture
of iron and chromium.

Brass is an alloy of copper

and zinc.
• Wood's metal is a mixture of about 50 percent
bismuth, 10 percent cadmium, 13 percent tin,
and 27 percent lead that melts at 70°C (160°F).
This low melting point makes Wood's metal
useful as a plug in automatic sprinkler systems.
Soon after a fire breaks out, the heat from the
flames melts the Wood's metal plug, releasing
water from the sprinkler system
• Babbitt metal is composed of 90% tin, 7%
antimony, 3% copper. It is used in bearings
because of its low measure of friction with
steel
• Bell metal is composed of 77% of copper and
23% tin and is used in casting of bells
• Coin metal is composed of 75% copper and
25% nickel
• Duralumin is made up of 95% aluminum, 4%
copper, less than 1% manganese and 0.5%
magnesium. It is used in aircraft, boats,
railroad cars and machinery because of its
high strength and resistance to corrosion
• Monel is a group of nickel alloys, primarily composed
of nickel up to 67% and copper, with small amounts
of iron, manganese, carbon and silicon. It is stronger
than pure nickel and are resistant to corrosion by
many agents, including rapidly flowing seawater.
They can be fabricated readily by hot and cold
working, machining and welding.
• Nichrome is made up of nickel, chromium and often
iron. It is typically used in resistance wire and some
dental restorations.
• Phosphor bronze is bronze with small amount of
phosphorus. The phosphorus is added as deoxidizing
agent during melting.
• Solder is made up of 50% lead and 50% tin and is
used to join two metals.
• Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5%
by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of other
metals, usually copper.
• Pewter is a malleable metal alloy, traditionally 85-
99% tin, with the remainder consisting of copper,
antimony, bismuth and sometimes, less commonly
today, lead.
 Smart alloys - higher
• Smart alloys have unusual properties. Nitinol is an
alloy of nickel and titanium, and is known as a shape
memory alloy. If nitinol is bent out of shape, it
returns to its original shape when it is either heated
or an electric current is passed through it. This
property makes it useful for making spectacle frames
- they return to their original shape if they are put in
hot water after bending them.
States of Matter
• Solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and Bose-Einstein
condensates (BEC) are different states that have
different physical properties.
• Each of these states is also known as a phase.
• Elements and compounds can move from one phase
to another when specific physical conditions change.
• For example, when the temperature of a
system goes up, the matter in the system
becomes more excited and active. If enough
energy is placed in a system, a phase change
may occur as the matter moves to a more
active state.
 Solids
▪ Particles of solids are tightly packed, vibrating about
a fixed position.
▪ Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume.
▪ Crystalline solids – molecules are arranged in a
geometric pattern (ex. Table salt)
▪ Amorphous solids – molecules do not have a set
pattern of arrangement (ex. Gels)
 Solid Mixtures
• Solids can be made of many things. They can have
pure elements or a variety of compounds inside.
When you have a solid with more than one type of
compound, it is called a mixture. Most rocks are
mixtures of many different compounds. Concrete is a
good example of a man-made solid mixture.
• Granite is a mixture. It is made of little pieces of
quartz, mica, and other particles.
• Because all of the little pieces are spread
through the rock in an uneven way, scientists call
it a heterogeneous mixture.
• Heterogeneous mixtures have
different concentrations of compounds in
different areas of the mixture.
• For example, there might be a lot of quartz and
very little feldspar in one part of the granite, but
only a few inches away those amounts might flip.
 Example

• Particle Movement Examples

25
 Liquids
▪ Particles of liquids are tightly packed, but are
far enough apart to slide over one another.
▪ Liquids have an indefinite shape and a definite
volume.
 Example
• Particle Movement Examples
 Gases
▪ Particles of gases are very far apart and move
freely.
▪ Gases have an indefinite shape and an
indefinite volume.
 Gases
• Particle Movement Examples

Particles of a gas move randomly

and must be contained from all
surfaces.
 Plasma
▪ A plasma is an ionized gas.
▪ A plasma is a very good conductor of electricity and is
affected by magnetic fields.
▪ Plasma, like gases have an indefinite shape and an
indefinite volume.
▪ In a plasma the electrons have been stripped
away from the central nucleus. Therefore, a
plasma consists of a sea of ions and electrons
and is a very good conductor of electricity and
is affected by magnetic fields. Electrons are
separated from their respective nucleus when
enough heat is applied. In a controlled
thermonuclear fusion research, plasmas are
heated to over 100 million degrees.
Plasma

The negatively
charged electrons
(yellow) are freely
streaming through
the positively
charged ions (blue).
Examples
 Bose-Einstein Basics
• The Bose-Einstein state of matter
was the only one created while your
parents were alive. In 1995, two
scientists, Cornell and Weiman,
finally created the condensate.
• When you hear the
word condensate, think
about condensation and the way
gas molecules come together and
condense and to a liquid. The
molecules get denser or packed
closer together.
• Two other scientists, Satyendra Bose and Albert
Einstein, had predicted it in the 1920s, but they
didn't have the equipment and facilities to make it
happen at that time. Now we do.
• If plasmas are super hot and super excited atoms,
the atoms in a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) are
total opposites. They are super unexcited and super
cold atoms
• The BEC happens at super low temperatures. We
have talked about temperature scales
and Kelvin. At zero Kelvin (absolute zero) all
molecular motion stops.
• Scientists have figured out a way to get a
temperature only a few billionths of a degree
above absolute zero. When temperatures get
that low, you can create a BEC with a few special
elements. Cornell and Weiman did it with
rubidium (Rb).
• Two examples of Bose-Einstein condensates include
superfluids, such as cold liquid helium, or
superconductors, such as the nucleons inside a
neutron star.
• Mechanical Mixture
– In a combination such as of that of water and
mercury, the two components are not soluble in any
proportions, and therefore two layers are formed, the
mercury below and water above.
• Phase
– It may be defined as a homogeneous physically
distinct portion of a system
• System
– Is that portion of objective space within specified
boundaries which is being considered
• Phase Rule
– The number of phases which can be in equilibrium
with each other in a given system is governed by a
thermodynamic law known as the phase rule
– The phase rule allows us to predict the number of
stable phases that may exist in the equilibrium for
a particular system
The phases that may exist in a solid
alloy can be classified as follows:

• Elements • Solid Solutions

– Pure metals – Combinations of pure
– Metalloids metals
• Chemical Compounds – Combinations of metals and
metalloids
– Combinations of pure
– Combinations of metals and
metals
nonmetals
– Combinations of metals and
metalloids
– Combinations of metals and
non-metals
 Compounds
• Pure substances that are the unions of two or more
elements. They can be broken into simpler
substances by chemical means.
• Those compounds that have the same ratio of
number of free electrons to number of atoms exhibit
similar characteristics are called electron compounds
 Solid Solutions
• solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a
solvent.

• Such a mixture is considered a solution rather than a

compound when the crystal structure of the solvent
remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and
when the mixture remains in a single homogeneous
phase.

• The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal

lattice substitutionally, by replacing a solvent
particle in the lattice, or interstitially, by fitting into
the space between solvent particles.
• Both of these types of solid solution affect the
properties of the material by distorting the crystal
lattice and disrupting the physical and electrical
homogeneity of the solvent material.
• Some mixtures will readily form solid solutions over a
range of concentrations, while other mixtures will
not form solid solutions at all.
• The propensity for any two substances to form a
solid solution is a complicated matter involving the
chemical, crystallographic, and quantum properties
of the substances in question.
• Solid solutions, in accordance with the Hume-
Rothery rules, may form if the solute and
solvent have:
– Similar atomic radii (15% or less difference)
– Same crystal structure
– Similar electronegativities
– Similar valency
• Hume-Rothery rules
– The conditions that an alloy or ceramic system
must meet if the system is to display unlimited
solid solubility.
– The Hume-Rothery rules are necessary but are not
sufficient for materials to show unlimited solid
solubility.
 Structural Constituents
• a constituent of the micro-structure of an alloy
characterized by a homogeneous average
chemical composition and a uniform distribution
and shape of the grains forming the constituent
of the alloy’s phases.
• A structural constituent manifests itself during a
phase transformation, and the microstructure
can be made up of one or more such
constituents.
• A structural constituent can be formed by
crystallites (grains) of one or several phases.
• The properties of an alloy depend not only on the
relative quantity of its phases but also on the
presence of specific structural constituents, that is,
on the shape, degree of dispersion, and arrangement
of the grains of various phases.
 Eutectic
• A eutectic is defined as an intimate mechanical
mixture of two or more phases having a definite
composition and a definite freezing or melting
point.
• The proportion of constituents in an alloy or
other mixture that yields the lowest possible
complete melting point. In all other proportions,
the mixture will not have a uniform melting
point; some of the mixture will remain solid and
some liquid. At the eutectic, the solidus and
liquidus temperatures are the same.
• Eutectoid
• When the solution above the transformation point is solid,
rather than liquid, an analogous eutectoid transformation can
occur. For instance, in the iron-carbon system,
the austenite phase can undergo a eutectoid transformation
to produce ferrite and cementite, often in lamellar structures
such as pearlite and bainite. This eutectoid point occurs at
727 °C (1,341 °F) and about 0.76% carbon.
 austenite

– It is a metallic, non magnetic solid solution of carbon

and iron that exists in steel above the critical
temperature of 1333F
– Its face-centered structure allows it to hold a high
proportion of carbon in solution.
– As it cools, this structure either breaks down into a
mixture of ferrite and cementite (usually in the
structural forms pearlite or bainite) or undergoes a
slight lattice distortion known as martensitic
transformation.
 ferrite
• Ferrite is a body-centered cubic form of iron,
in which a very small amount (a maximum of
0.02% at 1333°F) of carbon is dissolve.
 cementite
• Cementite is iron carbide with the formula Fe3C and
an orthorhombic crystal structure. It is a hard. Brittle
material, essentially a ceramic in its pure form. It
forms directly from the melt in the case of white cast
iron.
• In carbon steel, it either forms from austenite during
cooling or from martensite during tempering.
 martensite
• Martensite is a body-centered tetragonal form of
iron in which some carbon is dissolved. It forms
during quenching, when the face centered cubic
lattice of austenite is distorted into the body-
centered tetragonal structure without the loss of its
contained carbon atoms into cementite and ferrite
 pearlite
• Pearlite
– It is a lamellar structure consisting of alternating bands of
ferrite and cementite.
– It exists in equilibrium in carbon steels at normal
temperatures.
– This microconstituent is produced as a result of
transformation above 550C
 Solidification
• Solidification of metal requires that a sufficient
number of atoms shall exist in the proper
arrangement to form a crystal which will grow
• The growth of a crystal possessing a cubic lattice is
normal to the cube planes in three mutually
perpendicular directions. This preferential method of
growth leads to a skeletal type of development
which is called dendritic
Dendritic formation in aluminum

High magnification of
shrink area in an
aluminum casting
showing dendrites
Solidification of a metal
The Iron–Carbon Diagram
The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram
• This is one of the most important alloys for
structural applications. The diagram Fe—C is
simplified at low carbon concentrations by
assuming it is the Fe—Fe3C diagram.
Concentrations are usually given in weight
percent. The possible phases are:
– a-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
– g-austenite (FCC) Fe-C solution
– d-ferrite (BCC) Fe-C solution
– liquid Fe-C solution
– Fe3C (iron carbide) or cementite. An intermetallic
compound.
 The Influence of Other Alloying
Elements
• Alloying strengthens metals by hindering the motion
of dislocations. Thus, the strength of Fe–C alloys
increase with C content and also with the addition of
other elements.
Function of Alloy Elements in Steel
• To increase hardenability
• To increase resistance to softening on tempering
• To increase resistance to corrosion
• To improve high temperature properties
• To increase resistance to abrasion
• To strengthen ferrite
 Properties of Alloys
• The properties of an alloy depend upon two factors:
– The properties of the phase or phases of which it is
composed.
– The manner in which the several phases are associated to
form the aggregate.
 Ferrous Metals
• As the most abundant of all commercial metals,
alloys of iron and steel continue to cover a broad
range of structural applications. Iron ore is
readily available, constituting about 5% of the
earth's crust, and is easy to convert to a useful
form. Iron is obtained by fusing the ore to drive
off oxygen, sulfur, and other impurities. The ore
is melted in a furnace in direct contact with the
fuel using limestone as a flux. The limestone
combines with impurities and forms a slag,
which is easily removed.
 Cast Iron
• Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more than
2% carbon as the main alloying element. In addition
to carbon, cast irons must also contain from 1 to 3%
silicon which combined with the carbon give them
excellent castability.
• Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature
than steel and is more fluid and less reactive with
molding materials. However, they do not have
enough ductility to be rolled or forged.
• The precipitation of carbon (as graphite) during
solidification is the key to cast iron's distinctive
properties. The graphite provides excellent
machinability (even at wear-resisting hardness
levels), damps vibration, and aids lubrication on
wearing surfaces (even under borderline lubrication
conditions).
• Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with
carbon (C) as the main alloying element. Steels
contain less than 2% and usually less than 1% C,
while all cast irons contain more than 2% C.
About 2% is the maximum C content at which
iron can solidify as a single phase alloy with all of
the C in solution in austenite. Thus, the cast irons
by definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and
always have more than one constituent in their
microstructure.
• In addition to C, cast irons also must contain
appreciable silicon (Si), usually from 1–3%, and thus
they are actually iron-carbon-silicon alloys. The high
C content and the Si in cast irons make them
excellent casting alloys.
 Carbon Steel
• Carbon steel is a malleable, iron-based metal
containing less than 2% carbon (usually less than
1%), small amounts of manganese, and other
trace elements.
• Steels can either be cast to shape or wrought
into various mill forms from which finished parts
are formed, machined, forged, stamped, or
otherwise shaped. Carbon steels are specified by
chemical composition, mechanical properties,
method of deoxidation, or thermal treatment.
 Alloy Steel
• Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying
elements -- other than carbon and the commonly
accepted amounts of manganese, copper, silicon,
sulfur, and phosphorus -- are known as alloy steels.
• Alloying elements are added to change mechanical
or physical properties.
• A steel is considered to be an alloy when the
maximum of the range given for the content of
alloying elements exceeds one or more of these
limits:
– 1.65% Mn, 0.60% Si, or 0.60% Cu; or when a definite range
or minimum amount of any of the following elements is
specified or required within the limits recognized for
constructional alloy steels: aluminum, chromium (to
3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium,
tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other element added to
obtain an alloying effect. Technically, then, tool and
stainless steels are alloy steels.
 Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel is the generic name for a number of
different steels used primarily for their resistance to
corrosion.
• The one key element they all share is a certain
minimum percentage (by mass) of chromium: 10.5%.
• Although other elements, particularly nickel and
molybdenum, are added to improve corrosion
resistance, chromium is always the deciding factor.
• The vast majority of steel produced in the world is
carbon and alloy steel, with the more expensive
stainless steels representing a small, but valuable
niche market.
• Stainless steels are commonly divided into five
groups:
• martensitic stainless steels
• ferritic stainless steels
• austenitic stainless steels,
• duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
• precipitation-hardening stainless steels
• Martensitic stainless steels, typified by types
410/420/440, containing about 12Cr and 0.1C
wt% as the basic composition. They are not as
corrosion resistant as the other classes, but are
extremely strong and tough as well as highly
machineable, and can be hardened by heat
treatment. They contain 11.5 to 18% chromium
and significant amounts of carbon. Some grades
include additional alloying elements in small
quantities.
Ferritic stainless steels contain larger amounts of Cr
which stabilizes the ferritic phase. Ferritic stainless
steels are highly corrosion resistant, but far less
durable than austenitic grades and cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. They contain
between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little
nickel, if any. Typical applications may include
appliances, automotive and architectural trim (i.e.,
decorative purposes), as the cheapest stainless
steels are found in this family (type 409).
• Austenitic stainless steels, such as type 304
typically contain 18Cr and 8Ni wt% (aka 18/8
stainless).. Austenitic stainless steels comprise
over 70% of total stainless steel production.
• They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a
minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel
and/or manganese to retain an austenitic
structure at all temperatures from the cryogenic
region to the melting point of the alloy.
• Other standard grades have different preferred
applications; for example, type 316 which contains
up to 3 wt% Mo, offers an improved general and
pitting corrosion resistance, making it the material of
choice for marine applications and coastal
environments.
• Duplex stainless steels are two-phase alloys based
on the Fe-Cr-Ni system. The specific advantages
offered by duplex stainless steels over conventional
300 series stainless steels are strength
(approximately twice that of austenitic stainless
steels), improved toughness and ductility (compared
to ferritic grades), and a superior chloride SCC
resistance and pitting resistance.
• The high yield strength offers designers the use of
thin-wall material (which can lead to major
reductions in weight) with adequate pressure-
containing and load-bearing capacity. Duplex
stainless steels have found widespread use in a range
of industries, particularly the oil and gas,
petrochemical, and pulp and paper industries.
• Specialist grades include the precipitation hardened
or oxide dispersion strengthened alloys.
 Tool Steels
• Tool Steels' defining properties include resistance to
wear, stability during heat treatment, strength at high
temperatures, and toughness. To develop these
properties, tool steels are always heat treated. Because
the parts may distort during heat treatment, precision
parts should be semifinished, heat treated, then finished.
Tool steels are classified into several broad groups, some
of which are further divided into subgroups according to
alloy composition, hardenability, or mechanical
similarities.
• Type W - Water-hardening, or carbon, tool steels rely on
carbon content for their useful properties.
• Type S - Shock-resisting tool steels are strong and tough,
but not as wear resistant as many other tool steels.
• Types O, A, and D Cold-work tool steels include oil and
air-hardened types are often more costly but can be
quenched less drastically than water-hardening types.
Type O steels are oil hardening; Type A and D steels are
air hardening (the least severe quench), and are best
suited for applications such as machine ways, brick mold
liners, and fuel-injector nozzles. The air-hardening types
are specified for thin parts or parts with severe changes
in cross section -- parts that are prone to crack or distort
during hardening. Hardened parts from these steels have
a high surface hardness; however, these steels should not
be specified for service at elevated temperatures.
• Type H - Hot-work steels serve well at elevated
temperatures.
• Types T (tungsten alloy) and M (molybdenum
alloy) - High-speed tool steels make good cutting
tools because they resist softening and maintain a
sharp cutting edge at high service temperatures.
• Type L - A special-purpose, low-cost, low-alloy, tool
steel often specified for machine parts when wear
resistance combined with toughness is important.
• Type F - Carbon-tungsten alloys (Type F) are shallow
hardening and wear resistant, but are not suited for
high temperatures or for shock service.
• Type P - A mold steel are designed specifically for
plastic-molding and zinc die-casting dies.
 HSLA Steel -
• High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) steels have a higher
strength-to-weight ratio than conventional low-carbon
steels for only a modest price premium. Because HSLA
alloys are stronger, they can be used in thinner sections,
making them particularly attractive for transportation-
equipment components where weight reduction is
important. HSLA steels are usually low-carbon steels with
up to 1.5% manganese, strengthened by small additions
of elements, such as columbium, copper, vanadium or
titanium and sometimes by special rolling and cooling
techniques.
 Designations for Steel

• Carbon • Nickel-chromium-
• Nickel molybdenum
• Nickel-Chrome • Silicomanganese
• Molybdenum
• Chromium
• Chromium-vanadium
• Tungsten
• Nickel
– It increases the strength and toughness of the steel
and extremely good resistance to corrosion
• Chromium
– Used to combine hardness obtained by quenching
with high strength and high elastic limit
– It also imparts corrosion-resisting properties to steel
• Manganese
– Possesses a combination of extreme hardness and
ductility
• Molybdenum
– Good strength properties, especially resistance to
repeated stresses
• Vanadium
– It assists in the degasification of steel in the molten state,
preventing the occlusion of gases in castings
• Tungsten
– High magnetic reluctance
• Silicon
– High elastic limit
• Chrome-Nickel
• Increased tensile strength, elastic limit, endurance
limit, toughness and ductility