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AQA A-Level Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry

Chapter 8 and 22 - Periodicity

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Name

ZIY
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Checklist

After studying this topic, you should be able to do the following: R when completed.

Specification Checklist
reference questions

Can you explain that an element is classified as s, p, d or f block according to

3.2.1.1
its position in the Periodic Table, which is determined by its proton number?

Can you explain the reasons for periodic trends in terms of the structure of
3.2.1.2
and bonding in the elements?

3.2.1.2 Can you explain periodic trends in atomic radius and first ionisation energy?

Can you explain the melting point of the elements in terms of their structure
3.2.1.2
and bonding?

3.2.4 Can you state how, and under what conditions, sodium and magnesium react
with water?

3.2.4 Can you state how the elements from sodium to sulfur react with oxygen?

3.2.4 Can you describe how the physical properties of the oxides are explained in
terms of their structure and bonding?

3.2.4 Can you state how the oxides react with water?

3.2.4 Can you describe how the structures of the oxides explain the trend in their
reactions in water?

3.2.4 Can you describe how the oxides of the elements in Period 3 react with
acids?

3.2.4 Can you describe how the oxides of the elements in Period 3 react with
bases?

3.2.4 Can you state the equations for these reactions?

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Keywords

You need to write definitions for the following as you complete the topic.

A column of the periodic table. This determines the number of electrons in the
outer shell.
Group

Energy required to remove one electron from an atom to form a ion with +1
charge

ionisation Energy

A row of the periodic table. This determines the number of shells

Period

Trends in physical and chemical properties across elements in the periodic

table.
Periodicity

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE PERIODIC TABLE (GROUPS & PERIODS)

The Periodic Table has been developed over time by many chemists including Johann Döbereiner, John
Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev, Henry Moseley and Glenn Seaborg. The purpose of the Periodic Table is to
arrange the many elements in three main ways:

1. Atomic (Proton) Number

Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table by increasing atomic (proton) number e.g. nitrogen is placed
directly after carbon as an atom of carbon has six protons in the nucleus and an atom of nitrogen has seven
protons in the nucleus.

2. Periods

Periods are the horizontal rows of elements that show trends (gradual changes) in physical and chemical
properties across the period. The periods are numbered starting from Period 1, which contains only
hydrogen and helium. These trends are repeated across each period e.g. across Period 2 the elements
change from metal to non-metal (via the metalloid boron) and this pattern is repeated across Period 3 where
the elements also change from metal to non-metal (via the metalloid silicon).

Periodicity

3. Groups

Groups are the vertical columns of elements that have similar physical and chemical properties. Atoms in
each group have the same number of outer shell electrons resulting in similar properties e.g. atoms of the
elements in Group 7 have seven outer shell electrons and react by gaining one electron to form 1- anions.

The s-, p-, d- and f- Blocks of the Periodic Table

The Periodic Table is also structured in blocks of elements, linked to sub-shells e.g. magnesium, Mg would be
described as an s-block element because the highest energy sub-shell is an s-subshell.

Mg: 1s22s2p63s2

Task 1: Write the electron configuration for the following atoms and determine what block it would be
found in with an explanation:

a) Si 1s22s2p63s2 3p4

b) Fe 1s22s2p63s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

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Placing hydrogen and helium

Hydrogen is often placed on its own. It forms singly charged positive ions like Group 1 but is not like
them since they are all reactive metals and hydrogen is a gas. It can form H- ions and bond covalently
like the halogens in Group 7. Helium is placed above the noble gases Group 0 because of its properties.
It is not a p-block element as its electronic arrangement is 1s 2.

Periodicity and Properties of Elements in Period 3

Periodicity is explained by the electron arrangements of the elements.

Task 2: Name the Period 3 elements, the types of structures they have and the electron arrangements
for the following groups within the period:

 Group 1, 2, 3

Na – metallic bonding - 1s22s2 2p63s1, Mg- metallic bonding - 1s22s2 2p63s2, Al – metallic
bonding - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p1

 Group 4
Si – Giant covalent structure - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p2

 Group 5, 6,7

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P – Covalent structure - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p3 , S – Covalent structure - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p4 , Cl –
covalent structure - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p5

 Group 0
Ar- Molecular structure - 1s22s2 2p63s2 3p6

Trends in Melting and Boiling Points

Physical properties like melting and boiling points are determined by the bonding and structure of the
substance (see Chapter 3 Bonding booklet). There is a clear break in the middle of the figure between the
elements on the left (with high melting and boiling points) and those on the right (with low melting and
boiling points).

 If the structure is giant (i.e. giant metallic, giant ionic, or giant covalent) then the attractive forces
between particles are strong. This results in melting and boiling points that are high because a large
amount of energy is needed to overcome the forces.

 If the structure is simple (i.e. simple covalent) then the intermolecular forces between particles are
weak. This results in melting and boiling points are low because less energy is needed to overcome
the forces.

Figure 1: The periodic trend in the melting and boiling points of the elements in Period 3

Across each period there is a sharp decrease in melting and boiling points between Group 4 and 5.

This shows the change from: metallic forces in giant structures, to weak forces in simple structures.

The increase in melting points and boiling points of the metals is due to:

the greater the number of electrons that are on the outmost shell, the more metallic bonds that can be
created and the stronger the metal will be, which would increase both the melting point and boiling point

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The melting points and boiling points of the non-metals:

They are lower as they require they mainly have van der Waal forces that are weaker and easier to
overcome, leading them to have a lower melting point and boiling point.

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Trends in Atomic Radii of the Elements of Period 3

Figure 2: The periodic trend in atomic radii across Period 3

Task 3: Using your chemical knowledge and the figures provided to explain the trends in atomic radii:

Across a Period

The atomic radii decrease as the number of protons increase, there would be a grater nuclear charge
that would attract the electrons at the outermost shell, pulling it closer together and making the radius
smaller as a result.

Down a Group

The atomic radius would increase as there would be grater electron shielding that would reduce the nuclear
charge that would be acting on the outer electrons, overall increasing the atomic radius

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First Ionisation Energies

Figure 3: The periodic trend in first ionisation energies across Period 3

Across a period first ionisation energy shows a general increase.

Down a group first ionisation energy decreases.

Task 4: Using your chemical knowledge from Chapter 1 complete the following questions:

1. Define the term first ionisation energy. [1]

The energy required to remove one electron from each atom in 1 mole of a gaseous atom to form 1 mole of
gaseous 1+ ions.

2. Write an equation, with state symbols, to represent the first ionisation energy of carbon. [1]

X(g) -> X+(g) + e-

3. State and explain the general trend in first ionisation energy:

a) across a period. [3]

The trend is that across a period, the first ionisation energy is increasing. This is due to the number of protons
increasing, greatly increasing the nuclear charge that require a progressively higher amount of energy to
overcome in order to remove one electron from any atom.

b) down a group.

The trend is that down a group, the first ionisation energy is decreasing. This is because the outermost
electrons are further away from the nucleus. This would reduce the attractive effects of the nuclear charge,
making it more easier to lose the electrons and overall, requiring less energy to separate the electrons from
the atom.

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[4]

First Ionisation Energies of the first 36 Elements

2500

2000

1500
First Ionisation Energy (kJmol-1)

1000

500

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Atomic number

Atomic number

Figure 4: The first ionisation energies of the first 36 elements of the Periodic Table

Why is there a sharp decrease in ionisation energy from one period to the next?

Going down a group, the ionisation energy decreases. This is due to the shielding or screen effect of the
outer electrons from the nucleus and so the attraction is weaker and they are more easily removed.

Task 5: Using your chemical knowledge from Chapter 1 explain the following decreases along Period 3:

1. Magnesium to Aluminium, Group 2 to 3

2. Phosphorus to Sulfur, Group 5 to 6

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Synoptic Link: ionisation energy (Chapter 1)

Successive Ionisation Energies

If you remove the electrons from an atom one at a time, each one is harder to remove than the one before.
This means that by studying successive ionisation graphs or tables we can determine which group the
element belongs to or predict an ionisation energy value.

Figure 5 below is a graph showing ionisation energy against the number of ionisations (number of electrons
removed) for a Period 3 element, aluminium.

Figure 5: The Successive Ionisation Energies for Aluminium

We can see that after removing three electrons there is a sharp increase in ionisation energy after which
there is a gradual increase. The sharp rise in ionisation energy between the third and fourth electrons shows
us that after three electrons are removed there is a new inner main energy level as it takes much more
energy to remove the fourth electron. This allows us to determine that the element must be in Group 3.
Aluminium has an electronic configuration of 1s 22s22p63s23p1. The gradual increase is due to the increased
nuclear charge with the same shielding effect of electrons within this energy level.

Task 6: Sketch out the shapes of the successive ionisation graphs for magnesium and chlorine:

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1. Reactions of Period 3 Elements

The Elements

 Sodium, magnesium and aluminium:

 Silicon:

 Phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine:

 Argon:

Synoptic links: Trends in the properties of elements of Period 3 (Chapter 8).

The physical and chemical properties of Group 2 (Chapter 9)

Bonding (Chapter 3)

Balanced equations (Chapter 2)

There are several important reactions of Period 3 elements:

(a) Reaction with Water

Sodium and magnesium are the only metal elements that react with water.

Sodium: the reaction is vigorous, the sodium floats on the surface and fizzes rapidly as it melts due to highly
exothermic reaction. A strongly alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide is formed (pH 13-14).

Magnesium: the reaction is very slow at room temperature and the resulting solution is less alkaline is it is
sparingly soluble (pH 10).

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Chlorine: will dissolve in water:

(b) Reaction with Oxygen

All the elements in period 3 (except argon) are relatively reactive. Their oxides can be prepared by direct
reaction of the element with oxygen in an exothermic reaction.

Sodium

Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to produce white solid sodium oxide:

Magnesium

Magnesium burns in air with a bright white flame to produce white solid magnesium oxide:

Aluminium

Aluminium will burn with a bright white flame if its turned into a powder then lowered into a jar of oxygen
to produce white solid aluminium oxide:

Silicon

Silicon will burn with a bright white flame and white smoke form the oxide if it is heated strongly in oxygen.

Phosphorus

Red phosphorus must be heated before it will react with oxygen but white phosphorus spontaneously ignites
in air and the white smoke of phosphorus pentoxide is given off.

Red and white phosphorus are allotropes of phosphorus; the same element with the atoms arranged
differently.

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Sulfur

Sulfur powder will burn with a blue flame to form the colourless gas sulfur dioxide

2. Reactions of the OXIDES of elements in Period 3

Physical Properties

It is important that you understand the link between physical properties and bonding.

Metal Oxides: NaO2, MgO, Al2O3

Giant ionic lattices with high melting points for Na 2O (1275 ºC), MgO (2900 ºC), and Al2O3 (2040 ºC),
Na2O and MgO have ionic bonding
Al2O3 has ionic bonding but has some covalent character also. This is due to aluminium forming a very
small Al3+ ion with a large positive charge. It can approach the O 2- ion and distort its electron cloud.

Non-Metal Oxides: SiO2

Giant covalent (macromolecular) structure with high melting point (1610 ºC) due to covalent bonds
being broken.
Covalent bonding

Non-Metal Oxides: P4O10, SO3, SO2

Molecular structures with low melting points (only weak intermolecular forces to overcome)
P4O10 (580 ºC), SO3 (17 ºC) and SO2 (-75 ºC) due to increased van der Waals in larger molecules
Covalent bonding

Synoptic link: the above reactions are redox reactions (Chapter 7).

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(a) Reaction of Oxides with water

(i) Basic Oxides: Na2O and MgO

Sodium oxide reacts with water to give strongly alkaline sodium hydroxide solution (pH 14):

Magnesium oxide reacts with water to give magnesium hydroxide solution (pH 9):

(ii) Insoluble Oxides

Aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide are both insoluble in water (pH 7).

(iii) Acidic Oxides: P4O10, SO2 and SO3

Phosphorus pentoxide reacts violently to produce and acidic solution of phosphoric (V) acid (pH 1-2).

This ionises so the solution is acidic:

Sulfur dioxide is fairly soluble in water and reacts to give an acidic solution of sulfuric (IV) acid (pH 2-3):

This ionises so the solution is acidic:

Sulfur trioxide reacts violently with water to produce sulfuric (VI) acid (pH 0-1):

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The overall pattern is that metal oxides form alkaline solutions on water and on-metal oxides form acidic
ones while those in the middle do not react.

The behaviour of the Period 3 oxides reactions can be explained by their bonding and structure:

 Sodium and magnesium oxide are composed of ions. O 2- is a very strong base (H+ acceptor) so
readily reacts with water to produce OH - ions which is strongly alkaline.
 Magnesium oxide has stronger electrostatic forces of attraction between its ions therefore is less
soluble than sodium oxide.
 Aluminium oxide is ionic but the bonding is too strong for the ions to be separated.
 Silicon dioxide is a giant macromolecule and water will not affect this structure.
 Phosphorus oxides and sulfur oxides and covalent molecules which can react with water to form acid
solutions.

(b) Reaction of Oxides with Acids and Bases

(i) Sodium oxide and Magnesium oxide (basic) react with acids:

Sodium oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to give a salt and water:

Magnesium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to give magnesium chloride:

(ii) Aluminium oxide is amphoteric:

Aluminium oxide reacts both with acids and alkalis:

Acid:

Alkali:

(iii) Silicon dioxide, phosphorus pentoxide and sulfur dioxide react with bases:

Silicon dioxide will react as weak acid with strong bases, for example concentrated NaOH:

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Phosphorus pentoxide will react with sodium hydroxide with each hydrogen being replaced by a sodium ion:

Sulfur dioxide will react with NaOH to form NaHSO3 followed by Na2SO3:

Self-Assessment using Kerboodle:

1. Complete Periodicity: On your marks Parts 1 and 2 for Chapter 8

2. 8.1 Revision Podcast: Periodicity
3. Complete Periodicity: On your marks Parts 1 and 2 for Chapter 22

https://www.kerboodle.com/app/courses/15240/modules/Resources#

Stretch and Challenge

WebQuest Task

You are very familiar with the Periodic Table providing patterns of behaviour that make our study of
chemistry simpler. You will know trends in reactivity in vertical groups and be aware of trends in properties
across horizontal periods.

Do other relationships exist and if so, how helpful are they? One belief is that diagonal relationships also
exist across the table. For example, between Period 2 and 3, it is suggested that relationships exist thus:

So, magnesium and its compounds are similar to lithium and its compounds. Aluminium and boron should
also show similarities.

Task: You are to carry out some research to find evidence for any such pattern, analyse data and present
your work to your teacher and peers in the class.

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Revision Summaries for the Reactions of Period 3 Elements

Reaction with Water: description and equation

1.

2.

Reaction with Oxygen: description and equation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Melting
Oxide State Structure Reaction with Water Equation pH Nature of oxide
point (ºC)

Na2O 1275

MgO 2900

Al2O3 2040

SiO2 1610

P4O10 580

SO2 -75

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Revision Summaries for the Reactions of Period 3 Oxides with Water

Revision Summaries for the Reactions of Period 3 Oxides with Acids and Alkalis

Oxide Reaction with acid Reaction with alkali Nature of oxide

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P4O10

SO2

SO3

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Additional Questions 1: Periodicity Essay

Q1. (a)     Explain why certain elements in the Periodic Table are classified as p-block elements.

Illustrate your answer with an example of a p-block element and give its electronic configuration.

(3)

(b)     Explain the meaning of the term periodicity as applied to the properties of rows of elements in the
Periodic Table. Describe and explain the trends in atomic radius, in electronegativity and in conductivity for
the elements sodium to argon.
(13)

(Total 16 marks)
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Additional Questions 2: Periodicity Exam Questions AS

1. a) Complete the table below for the elements Mg, Si and P, [3]

element structure bonding

Mg

Si

b) Explain why silicon has a much higher melting point than phosphorus.

[2]

2. The atomic radii of the elements Li to F and Na to Cl are shown in the table below.

ELEMENT Li Be B C N O F

ATOMIC RADIUS / nm 0.134 0.125 0.090 0.077 0.075 0.073 0.071

ELEMENT Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

ATOMIC RADIUS / nm 0.154 0.145 0.130 0.118 0.110 0.102 0.099

a) Using only the elements in this table, select:

i) An element with both metallic and non-metallic properties.

[1]

ii) The element with the largest first ionisation energy.

[1]

iii) An element with a giant molecular/covalent structure.

[1]

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b) Explain what causes the general decrease in atomic radii across each period.

[3]

3. In this question you are provided with information about ionisation energies of elements. You are also
provided with some additional information that will help you answer part b).

a) Define the term first ionisation energy.

[1]

b) The table shown below provides data on elements in Period 2 of the Periodic Table.

ELEMENT Li Be B C N

NUMBER OF 3 4 5 6 7
PROTONS

ELECTRON 1s22s1 1s22s2 1s22s22p1 1s22s22p2 1s22s22p3

CONFIGURATION

1st IONISATION 520 900 801 1086 1402

ENERGY / kJ mol-1

Describe and explain the general trend in first ionisation energies shown by the elements Li-N.

[3]

4. In the Periodic Table, describe and explain the trend in atomic radii shown by Group 2 elements Be-Ra.

[3]

Total 26 marks

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Additional Questions 3: Periodicity Exam Questions AS

Q1. The elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine and argon are in the p block of the Periodic Table.

(a)     State why these elements are classified as p block elements.

(1)

(b)     State the trend in atomic radius from phosphorus to chlorine and explain the trend.

Trend

Explanation

(3)

(c)     In terms of structure and bonding, explain why sulfur has a higher melting point than
phosphorus.

(3)

(d)     In terms of atomic structure, explain why the van der Waals’ forces in liquid argon are very
weak.

(2)

(Total 9 marks)

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Q2.         The following table gives the melting points of some elements in Period 3.
 
Element Na Al Si P S

Melting point / K 371 933 1680 317 392

(a)  State the type of structure shown by a crystal of silicon.

Explain why the melting point of silicon is very high.

(3)

(b)  State the type of structure shown by crystals of sulfur and phosphorus.

Explain why the melting point of sulfur is higher than the melting point of phosphorus.

(3)

(c)  Draw a diagram to show how the particles are arranged in aluminium and explain why
aluminium is malleable.
(You should show a minimum of six aluminium particles arranged in two dimensions.)

(3)

(d)     Explain why the melting point of aluminium is higher than the melting point of sodium.

(3)
(Total 12 marks)

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 Q3.          The following diagram shows the first ionisation energies of some Period 3 elements.

(a) Draw a cross on the diagram to show the first ionisation energy of aluminium.

(1)

(b)  Write an equation to show the process that occurs when the first ionisation energy of
aluminium is measured.

(2)

(c)  State which of the first, second or third ionisations of aluminium would produce an ion with the
electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

(1)

(d)  Explain why the value of the first ionisation energy of sulfur is less than the value of the first
ionisation energy of phosphorus.

(2)

(e)  Identify the element in Period 2 that has the highest first ionisation energy and give its
electron configuration.

Element

Electron configuration
(2)

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(f)   State the trend in first ionisation energies in Group 2 from beryllium to barium.
Explain your answer in terms of a suitable model of atomic structure.

Trend

Explanation

(3)

(Total 11 marks)

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Additional Questions 4: Periodicity Questions A2

Questions
1. Describe the reactions of Period 3 elements (from sodium to sulfur) with oxygen in terms of oxidation and
reduction.

Include symbol equations for the formation of the compounds and comment on any changes in oxidation
number in your answer.

(Total 24 marks, 4 marks for each element)

2. Explain the physical properties of the oxides in Period 3 in terms of their structure and bonding.

Include:
 the type and strength of the bonding involved
 the melting and boiling points of the compounds
 whether the compounds conduct electricity
 the pH of the solution formed if the compounds react with water.
(20 marks)

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