11.

1 The Function of Respiration

Most of the cells of your body need a continual supply of oxygen (02) to carry out cellular respiration.
This process releases energy from glucose inside cells and produces carbon dioxide as a waste product.
The resulting chemical energy is used to perform cellular activities. The main function of the respiratory
system is to ensure that oxygen is brought into the body and made available to each cell that needs it,
and that carbon dioxide can leave each cell and be removed from the body. Respiration is the general
term that is used to describe this overall process.

Respiration and Gas Exchange

There are several stages in human respiration, and each stage has specialized structures to facilitate it

Respiration: all of the processes involved in bringing oxygen into the body, making it available to each
cell, eliminating carbon dioxide as waste.

The 4 stages of human respiration: breathing/internal respiration, external respiration, internal

respiration and cellular respiration.

Inspiration Respiration: (breathing in, or inhaling) and expiration (breathing out, or exhaling).
Inspiration moves air from outside the body into the lungs inside the body. Expiration moves air from
the lungs back to the outside of the body.

External Respiration: is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between inspired air inside the
lungs and the blood.

 This stage of the respiratory process performs the vital function of gas exchange. Gas exchange
is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the blood, and the elimination of carbon dioxide from
the blood to the lungs.

Internal Respiration: involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the
body’s tissue cells.

Cellular Respiration: involves a series of energy-releasing chemical reactions that take place within the
cells to provide energy for all cellular activity.

*When hemoglobin carries oxygen, it is called oxyhemoglobin, and when carbon dioxide is carried it is
called Carbino hemoglobin.

*Some oxygen is carried in the plasma.

*The carbon dioxide in the plasma can form bicarbonate ions and carbonic acid.
Respiratory Surfaces

There are two main requirements for respiration.

 The area of an animal's body where gases are exchanged with the environment, called its
respiratory surface, must be large enough for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide to
occur quickly enough to meet the body's needs.
 Respiration must take place in a moist environment, so that the oxygen and carbon dioxide are
dissolved in water.
 Instead of using lungs, some animals exchange gases through their outer body surface, gills,
or trachea. As with nutrients, the gases involved in respiration are transported to and from
the cells of an animal's body by the circulatory system. To increase the efficiency of
respiration, all organisms use ventilation. Ventilation is the process of moving an oxygen-
containing medium (water or air) over the respiratory surface (such as the gills, trachea, or
lungs).
Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments

 Aquatic environments contain oxygen in the form of dissolved gas.

 Many aquatic organisms, such as fish, lobsters, clams, and mollusks take in oxygen through gills.
 Gills are physical adaptations that enable organisms to carry out gas exchange in aquatic
environments.
 A fish exchanges gases by taking water into its mouth and ventilating (or pumping) it over the
gills. As water flows across the gills, dissolved oxygen in the water diffuses into the blood
circulating through the surrounding capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide diffuses from
the blood, across the gill tissue, into the water and is carried out of the fish's body when the
water passes out of the gill openings.
 Another adaptation used by fish is a counter-current exchange mechanism. Oxygen diffuses
along a gradient, called a diffusion gradient, meaning that the oxygen molecules move from a
region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Because blood and water flow in
opposite directions, the diffusion gradient of the oxygen is kept high.

Gas Exchange on Land

 Air-breathing vertebrates require a specialized respiratory system that allows air to move from
the outside of the body to inside of the body where gas exchange can occur in the lungs.
 Air does not just flow in and out of the lungs. The brain acts as a respiratory control centre to
coordinate breathing movements and regulate the breathing rate, as well as monitoring the
volume of air in the lungs and gas levels in the blood.
The Mechanics of Breathing

 In air-breathing vertebrates, the respiratory system is a specialized system that provides a

passageway for air to move from outside the body to inside the body, where gas exchange
occurs.
 The brain acts as a respiratory control center to co-ordinate breathing movements and regulate
the breathing rate. It also monitors the volume of air in the lungs and the gas levels in the blood.
 Two sets of structures-the muscular diaphragm and the rib muscles control the air pressure
inside the lungs.
 Changes in air pressure cause air to move into and out of the lungs.
 The diaphragm is a dome-shaped layer of muscle that separates the region of the lungs (the
thoracic cavity) from the region of the stomach and liver (the abdominal cavity).
 The rib muscles, or intercostal muscles, are found between the ribs and along the inside surface
of the rib cage.

Air Pressure in the Lungs

With regular signals from the brain, the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles work together at the
same time to move air into and out of the lungs. The air pressure within the lungs is under the control of
these two structures.

Inhalation: air moves from the atmosphere into the body.

 It begins when the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contract, and the diaphragm
moves down. This expands the rib cage upward and outward, and the floor of the chest cavity
moves downward.
 Since the chest cavity is airtight, its volume increases. The increase in volume means that the
same amount of air is contained in a larger space.
 When the molecules of a gas are farther apart, as they are when the volume of the chest cavity
increases, the gas molecules exert less outward pressure.
 As a result, the air pressure in the thoracic cavity decreases. The lungs are suspended in the
chest cavity and are sensitive to changes in the air pressure of the cavity. As the air pressure in
the cavity decreases, the walls of the lungs are drawn outward into the chest cavity and the
lungs expand, which causes the pressure in the lungs to be lower than the air pressure outside
the body.
 Since air moves from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, air rushes into the
lungs from the external environment. The opposite muscle movements expel air from the lungs.

Exhalation: air leaves the lungs and is pushed out into the atmosphere.

 It begins when the diaphragm and the rib muscles relax, thus reducing the volume of the chest
cavity.
 As a result, the volume of the lungs decreases, the air pressure inside the lungs increases, and
air moves from the lungs to the lower-pressure environment outside the body.
  In other words, a change in air pressure causes air to move from an area of high pressure (the
lungs) to an area of lower pressure (outside the body).

Respiratory Volume

 Under normal circumstances, your regular breathing does not use the full capacity of your lungs.
When your body needs more oxygen, however, the volume of air that is drawn into your lungs
can increase.
 Normal breathing moves about 500 l of air with each breath (tidal volume (TV)).
 Many factors that affect respiratory capacity: size, sex, age, physical condition.
 Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer.
 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Spirograph: a graph representing the volume and speed of air that is inhaled and exhaled as measured
by a spirometer. These are terms that are used to describe the features of a spirograpgh.

 Tidal Volume - amount of air that inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement when
the body is at rest.
o (Adults approx. 500 mL)
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) - the amount of air that can be taken in forcibly, beyond a
regular inhalation, (tidal) volume.
o (Usually between 2100 and 3000 mL)
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) - Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal
exhalation.
o Approximately 1200 m
 Residual volume (RV)- the amount of gas that remains in the lungs and the passageways of the
respiratory system even after a full exhalation. This gas NEVER leaves the respiratory system; if it
did, the lungs and passageways would collapse.
o Approximately 1200 mL
o After exhalation, about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
 Vital capacity - The total amount of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs.
o It can be calculated as tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve
volume.
o Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV approx. 3400-4600 mL)
 Total lung capacity- approx. 5,800 mL in males and 4, 300 mL in females
 11.2 The Human Respiratory System: A Closer Look

In humans, the lungs are the main organs of respiration. Because the lungs are located deep within the
body, a suitable passageway is necessary for air to move from outside the body to the respiratory
surface inside the body. This passageway is called the respiratory tract. The respiratory tract consists of
several structures and extends from the nose to the lungs.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: Air enters the respiratory system through the nostrils. Air can also enter
through the mouth, especially if breathing is rapid, as it is during strenuous exercise.

 Inside the nasal passages at the back of the nose, air is warmed, moistened, and cleansed of
dust and other small particles.
 Very thin bones, called turbinate bones, project into the nasal passages and increase the surface
area of these chambers.
 A thin membrane covering the turbinate bones secretes mucus, which moistens the air and
traps particles of dust, bacteria, and other foreign matter.
 These cells have waving, hair-like projections that move the trapped particles into the nose or
throat where they can be expelled by sneezing or coughing.

*A dense network of capillaries in the lining of the turbinate supplies warm blood to the nasal passages.
This heats the air in the nasal passages to body temperature and protects delicate structures in the
lower respiratory tract from damage by cold air.

Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (windpipe) and the esophagus (Food pipe). There is
also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis that stops food from entering the trachea.

Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps protect the
trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis.

 Between the glottis and the trachea, air passes through the larynx, or voice box. This structure is
made of cartilage, which is a tough, firm connective tissue.
 The larynx is used for sound production in mammals. The vocal cords consist of two folds of
membrane stretched across the larynx.
 During normal breathing, muscular tissue holds the vocal cords apart, allowing air to pass freely
through the larynx.
 To make sounds, the vocal cords are moved closer together so that pressure from air expelled
from the lungs causes the cords to vibrate. The pitch of the sound varies with the length of the
vocal cords. A long cord produces a low sound, and a shorter cord produces a higher sound.

*At puberty, the vocal cords of males grow quickly, which often causes a "breaking" quality in the voice.
The breaking sound disappears once the vocal cords have finished growing. From the larynx, incoming
air moves down the trachea. This flexible tube is strengthened and held open by semicircular loops of
cartilage. The trachea is about 10 to 12 em in length and runs from the throat to about the middle of the
chest. There, it splits into two branches, as you can see in Figure 1 1.6.
The Lower Respiratory Tract

Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube, which carries air from the throat into the lungs. It
area ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner membrane of the trachea is
covered in of tiny hairs called cilia, which catch particles of dust, which we can then remove through
coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side, which
help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are not complete circles due to the position of the
esophagus immediately behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow
the expansion of the esophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.

Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the
right lung. The left bronchi are narrower, longer and more horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of
cartilage surround the bronchi, whose walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the
bronchi split several.

Bronchioles: As the bronchi split, they continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow tubes,
less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the bronchioles, and they lead to alveolar
sacs.

Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls
which permit the exchange of gases oxygen and carbon dioxide. They are surrounded by a network of
capillaries, into which the inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an
average adult lung.

Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle, which sits underneath the lungs, attaching to the
lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the base of the thoracic cavity.

A Detailed Look at Gas Exchange in Humans

 During external respiration, the thin walls of the alveoli and the capillaries allow gases to diffuse
through their cell membranes easily.
 The air that enters the alveoli after inhalation has a higher concentration of oxygen than the
blood in the capillaries next to the lungs (oxygen in the blood in the capillaries has diffused out
into the tissue cells).
 As a result, oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the blood in the capillaries. The blood in the
capillaries has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than the air in the alveoli because the
blood that diffuses into the capillaries is returning from the body tissue cells.
 Thus, the carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveoli from the capillaries. The carbon dioxide is then
exhaled into the air.
 Once oxygen and carbon dioxide have been exchanged between the capillaries and the alveoli,
the blood in the capillaries begins its journey back to the heart and then on to the tissue cells.
There, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells and is exchanged for carbon dioxide
once again.
How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases

 During respiration, both oxygen (02) and carbon dioxide (C02) are transported via the
bloodstream. About 99 percent of 02 that reaches cells is carried by hemoglobin, which is a
protein in red blood cells (see Figure 1 1.10). The remaining 1 percent of 02 is dissolved in the
watery blood plasma.
 11.3 Respiratory System Disorders

Like the digestive system, the respiratory system directly links the internal environment of the body with
the environment outside the body. The quality of both environments plays a key role in the health of the
respiratory system. Changes in the environment outside the body, as well as personal lifestyle choices,
can have a significant effect on how well the respiratory system functions and, by extension, on how
well the whole body functions.

Disorders of the Upper Respiratory Tract

The most common throat illnesses are caused by viruses and bacteria carried in the air.

Tonsillitis: is a bacterial or viral infection of the tonsils, which are two oval-shaped organs located in the
pharynx at the back of the throat.

 The function of the tonsils is to help prevent bacteria and other harmful substances from
entering the respiratory system.
 Symptoms of tonsillitis include red and swollen tonsils, a sore throat, fever, and swollen glands
in the neck.
 Tonsils tend to be naturally large in children, but they shrink with age. Severe tonsillitis may be
treated by surgically removing all or part of the tonsils. However, removing tonsils can increase
the risk of throat infections later in life.

Laryngitis: is an inflammation of the larynx caused by an infection or allergy, or by overstraining the

voice, such as by prolonged yelling.

 Recall that the larynx contains the vocal cords. When the larynx is inflamed, the vocal cords
cannot vibrate as they usually do. People with laryngitis may "lose" their voice or speak in a
hoarse whisper. This condition is usually not serious and clears up on its own after a few days.

Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract

Several serious lower respiratory disorders can damage the bronchi and lungs.

There are several main causes of respiratory disorders. Some are caused by exposure to infectious
pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi. The other main cause is exposure to air pollutants that
block parts of the respiratory tract, obstructing the airflow or impeding the exchange of gases.

The four of the most common disorders of the lower respiratory tract: pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma,
and emphysema.

Pneumonia: when the alveoli in the lungs become inflamed and fill with fluids, this is known as
pneumonia. Pneumonia interferes with gas exchange, and the body becomes starved for oxygen.

There are two main types of pneumonia: lobular pneumonia and bronchial pneumonia. Lobular
pneumonia affects a lobe of the lung, and bronchial pneumonia affects patches throughout both lungs
  The main causes are bacterial infection and viral infection.
 Lobular pneumonia is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. This bacterial
infection can spread out of the lungs, by way of the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
 There is a preventative vaccine, called the pneumococcal vaccine, which provides long-term
protection from the bacterium.
 Viral pneumonias are usually less severe than bacterial pneumonias, and they can be treated
with anti-viral medications. Viral pneumonias may be followed, however, by a secondary
bacterial infection.
 This secondary infection must be treated separately with antibiotics or with preparations that
have antibiotic properties. People who have AIDS (whose immune systems cannot respond
strongly) often experience a rare type of pneumonia that is hardly ever seen in people with
strong immune systems.

Bronchitis: when the bronchi become red, inflamed, and filled with mucus, which the person expels by
coughing, this is known as bronchitis.

 A short-term form of bronchitis, called acute bronchitis, is usually caused by a bacterial infection
and can be treated with antibiotics.
 Chronic bronchitis is a long-term disorder caused by regular exposure to concentrations of dust
or chemical compounds (often in the workplace), or cigarette smoke. Because the exposure
takes place over a long period of time, the cilia lining the bronchi are gradually destroyed.
 Without the cleansing action of the cilia, the bronchi grow increasingly inflamed and vulnerable
to infection. Mucus accumulates in the bronchi, causing the person to develop a persistent
cough in an attempt to clear it.
 Chronic bronchitis is referred to as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and is one of
a few lung diseases that is usually caused by smoking.
 COPD cannot be cured, but it can be treated by quitting smoking, taking medications, and
participating in specialized exercise programs.

Asthma: inhaled irritants such as pollen, dust, and smoke can often trigger an inflammation of the
bronchi and bronchioles, known as asthma.

 The inflammation narrows the air passages of the bronchi and bronchioles, thus reducing
airflow. People with asthma experience wheezing, coughing, tightness in the chest, and
shortness of breath.
 During an asthma attack, muscles around the airways contract and cells in the airways may
increase mucus production, which further blocks airflow.
 Asthma often starts in childhood. Although it cannot be cured, it can be managed. Many people
who have asthma use a hand-held inhaler, a device that delivers medication deep into the lungs.
There are two common types of inhalers.
 A metered dose inhaler is a pressurized canister fitted to a mouthpiece. The person fits on the
mouthpiece, triggers the release, and inhales a measured amount of liquid medication in a fine
mist to relieve symptoms.
  A dry powder inhaler does not use a propellant to push the medication out of the container.
Instead, the person obtains a fine, powdered dose of medication using a deep, slow, inhalation.
 Asthma medications act by relaxing the bronchiole muscles and reducing inflammation, thus
opening the airways. People with asthma can monitor their lung capacity to give advance
warning of reduced airflow. Lung capacity can be measured by exhaling into a peak flow meter.

Emphysema: a respiratory disorder in which the walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity is known as
emphysema.

 This loss of elasticity reduces the respiratory surface for gas exchange and causes an oxygen
shortage in the tissues.
 Exhaling becomes difficult because the small airways collapse during exhalation, trapping air in
the lungs and blocking the airflow. The most common cause of this condition is smoking.
 Like chronic bronchitis, emphysema is classified as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease). Emphysema is incurable, although the symptoms can be relieved by using an inhaler to
open the bronchioles and a low-flow oxygen tank to boost the supply of oxygen to the body.
 The best way to slow the progression of emphysema and improve the person's quality of life is
for them to stop smoking and avoid airborne irritants, such as dust and second-hand smoke.

Cystic Fibrosis: the mutation of a single gene causes a multi-system disease known as cystic fibrosis.

 This genetic condition causes cells lining the airways to release thick, sticky mucus that clogs the
lungs, leading to difficulty in breathing.
 The mucus traps disease-causing agents, making it difficult to clear bacteria that cause lung
infections. (The mucus also blocks the ducts of the pancreas, preventing digestive enzymes from
reaching the intestines to digest food.)
 There is no cure for cystic fibrosis, but symptoms can be relieved by medicines that thin the
mucus and antibiotics that reduce bacterial infections.
 The normal version of the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis causes cells to produce a protein
that helps govern the cell's balance of salt and water. The mutated version of this gene causes
the production of a slightly different protein, which does not function in the same way.
Therefore, the lack of the normal protein causes cells to secrete the extra thick, sticky mucus.
 Gene therapy is being explored as a potential life-saving treatment for people with cystic
fibrosis. One form of gene therapy that has been explored is to treat patients with copies of the
normal gene.
 This was first done in 1993, using a modified virus to carry the gene into the patient's cells.
 Newer methods of gene therapy are being tested, using capsules, sprays, and nose drops to
deliver the unmutated gene to cells lining the airways to the lung.
 Tiny bubbles, called liposomes, in the sprays and drops contain DNA without the cystic fibrosis
mutation. The bubbles fuse with the outer surfaces of cells that line the airways, and the DNA
passes through the membranes into the cells. The added DNA instructs the cells to make the
essential protein lacking in people who have cystic fibrosis.

Lung Cancer: is a disease in which uncontrolled cell growth and division occurs in the lungs. As the lung
cells continue to grow and divide in an uncontrolled way, they can create a rapidly growing mass of cells
that form a tumor, or carcinoma.
Carcinomas can grow as large as 8 um, significantly reducing the respiratory surface of the lungs.
Cancerous cells can also break away from a tumor and travel, thus spreading cancer to other parts of the
lungs and to other organs and tissues. The spread of cancer from its original site is called metastasis. The
cancerous cells that spread are called metastatic cells.

Bronchoscopy: technology for viewing, diagnosing, and treating the tissues and organs of the
respiratory system

Two-photon microscopy: technique that uses photons to form images of living tissue up to a depth of 1
mm

Textbook Questions: p.464 #2, 4, 6, 9, 14, 15

2. The groups of the population who should pay attention to this forecast are people who have
respiratory problems. It is important for them to take precautions because the toxic gas can
enter their body through their respiratory system and further weaken their tissues.
4. Emphysema is a respiratory disorder in which the walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity. It is known
as emphysema. Emphysema is incurable, although the symptoms can be relieved by using an inhaler to
open the bronchioles and a low-flow oxygen tank to boost the supply of oxygen to the body.

6. This technique provides images of parts of the body that cannot be seen on a standard chest X ray. It
allows physicians to make an earlier and more accurate diagnosis of lung cancer and to plan treatment.
From a CT image, a physician can confirm the presence of a tumour and measure its size, its precise
location, and its relationship to the surrounding tissue.

Spiral CT scanning produces clear, detailed views of blood vessels and internal tissues, such as those
within the chest cavity. This enables a doctor to detect lung cancers earlier, while they are at a more
curable stage. Spiral CT scanning is also particularly helpful in the case of severe chest injuries, such as
those resulting from car accidents. This technique provides images of a spiral sequence of cross sections
through the body that can be reconstructed using computer software into three-dimensional images of
organs and tissues. The additional information increases the chance that even carcinomas as small as 2
to 3 mm across will be detected.

9. The individual may experience a shortness of breath, because this disease scars lung tissue
which does not allow the lungs to expand and contract normally, and therefore cannot undergo
gas exchange. They may have chest pain, due to their lungs tissue being scarred and having
shortness of breath, as well as being extremely tired due to lack of oxygen.
14. Chemotherapy damages the genes inside the nucleus of cells. Some drugs damage cells at
the point of splitting. Some damage the cells while they're making copies of all their genes
before they split.

15. Radiation therapy after having a tumour removed will lower the risk of the cancer coming back, or
recurring, after surgery.