Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jwpe

Simultaneous removal of antibiotics and inactivation of antibiotic-resistant

bacteria by photocatalysis: A review
Oussama Baaloudj a, Imen Assadi b, Noureddine Nasrallah a, Atef El Jery c, d, *, Lotfi Khezami e, f,
Aymen Amin Assadi g, *
a
Laboratory of Reaction Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Process Engineering USTHB, BP 32, Algiers, Algeria
b
Laboratoire Energie, Eau, Environnement et Procèdes, (LEEEP) LR18ES35, ENIG, Université de Gabès, 6072, Gabès, Tunisia
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, 61411, Saudi Arabia
d
Higher Institute of Applied Biology, Gabes University, Medenine, 4119, Tunisia
e
Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, P.O. Box 5701, Riyadh, 11432, Saudi Arabia
f
LaNSER, Research and Technology Centre of Energy (CRTEn), BorjCedriaTechnopark, BP.95, Hammam-Lif, 2050, Tunisia
g
Univ Rennes - ENSCR / UMR CNRS 6226, 11 Allée de Beaulieu, 35700, Rennes, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To deal with the contamination of the water environment, which represents an arena for microorganisms and
Photocatalysis antibiotics, a photocatalytic process has been proposed due to its high efficiency and non-toxicity. This review
Disinfection discusses and investigates antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) removal and inactivation with their
Antibiotics
associated genes through photocatalysis technique as an efficient and ecofriendly advanced oxidation process
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
Wastewater
(AOP) photocatalysis. The paper summarizes recent studies that dealt with both pollutants and their process
parameters, optimal operating conditions, used semiconductor photocatalysts and their corresponding removal
efficiency. Thus, it suggests that photocatalysis can offer impressive treatment efficiencies for both organic and
microbial pollutants simultaneously. The review also states that both antibiotics and bacteria have a destroying
effect against each other, where antibiotics have antimicrobial activity and bacteria have microbial degradation.
This phenomenon creates a hybrid system for each pollutant (photocatalysis-bacteria, photocatalysis-antibiotic,
bacteria-antibiotic), which accelerates the purification and disinfection of the polluted water caused by patho­
gens and hazardous pollutants using green and safe technology. Moreover, the reaction mechanism was detailed
in order to define the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Likewise, photocatalysis coupling with other AOP
techniques in this context was discussed to achieve more promising results. The main contribution of this review
is to explain the relationship between antibiotics, microbial contaminants and photocatalysis. It also introduces a
new area of study and concludes with an outlook on future research topics, such as viral disinfection.

1. Context of water pollution
Water is our planet’s most crucial natural resource [1]. It is essential
for all organisms in our lives. It covers about 71 % of the earth’s surface,
where 2.5 % are classified as freshwater [2], including a rare amount of
0.002 % considered as humanly accessible [3]. The rarity of this
resource is further intensified with the increasing demand related to the
natural changes endured by the globe or the consumptions linked to
human needs/activities [1,4–11].
Among the highest water-consuming sectors, industries have grown
and developed within much of the world, and the emerging chemical
industry has synthesized a multitude of previously unknown chemical
products [12]. Within this rapid development in science and technology,
and with the new industrial processes and synthetic products continu­
ously being developed [13], more and more contaminants are being
produced and discharged into the environment [1]. The number of these
contaminants and their concentrations in the water are growing
continuously [14]. Earth’s freshwater is continually polluted with
different chemicals, such as pharmaceutical compounds [15]. Adding
water to a mixture of drug trace amounts is potentially a crucial
emerging problem and is engineered to exhibit potent physiological
activity [4]. Many pharmaceuticals are not substantially absorbed into
the subsoil due to their polar structure. Then contaminants may be
transferred from the contaminated watercourses into groundwater

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: ajery@kku.edu.sa (A. El Jery), aymen.assadi@ensc-rennes.fr (A.A. Assadi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102089
Received 24 January 2021; Received in revised form 10 April 2021; Accepted 12 April 2021
Available online 31 May 2021
2214-7144/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O. Baaloudj et al.
aquifers [4,16]. Urban wastewater is also considered a substantial cause
of water pollution [16]. It is vulnerable to contamination due to its
too-high pollution levels and relatively low self-purification capacity
[17]. As a result, water pollution in urban rivers in many countries is
becoming a major environmental issue.
The contamination of the water presents potential risks to both
human health and the environment; it has direct and indirect damage to
the health of all organisms [18,19]. Polluted water is the primary cause
of infectious diseases (e.g., Malaria and Cholera, Amoebiasis, Para­
typhoid Fever, Dysentery) [3]. Epidemics from contagious agents in
potable water have already developed in most countries. Waterborne
pathogens are now well handled using disinfectant agents. Regrettably,
the control of occurrence in the wastewater of the potentially hazardous
chemicals constitutes a very challenging job from the applied perspec­
tive. The regulation of water pollution and the improvement of sus­
tainable water purification technologies are therefore necessary
solutions. The adoption of safe technological processes and the water
reuse for various industrial activities are core issues for our society
intending to maintain water supplies [1,5,21]. This problem has
received much attention in recent years and initiated many research
efforts, political and legal activities [20], and that attention appears to
be increasing. Environmentalists worldwide have named the pharma­
ceuticals “emerging contaminants” (ECs) of the environment [21].
Moreover, antibiotics are a significant concern for researchers world­
wide compared to other drug compounds groups as they are toxic and
non-biodegradable [22].
2. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are either natural or human-made substances that can
destroy or prevent bacteria from developing [23]. They are widely used
for the sake of the rescue of many lives. to avoid and cure infectious
diseases and pathogens. They have substantial physical and chemical
properties which make it hard to remove the aquatic environment as
their existence may increase aquatic toxicity [24,25]. They are the pri­
mary concern and hazards in pharmaceutical products because they are
extensively applied and have negative impacts on useful and nontarget
microbiota of the biological system [26,27]. Their association with
growing and rapidly growing antibiotic resistance make them one of the
three most important threats to the World Health Organization (WHO)
[28–30]. Furthermore, antibiotics can cause many genetic effects in
humans, for example, allergic reactions [31]. An analytical study of
observational data evaluating the antibiotics’ use over the 15 years in 76
countries showed a 65 % rise between 2010 and 2015 [32]. It can also
Fig. 1. Human and veterinary environmental sources and transportation of antibiotics by Christine Klein [53].
2
Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089
increase globally and nearly double in South Africa, Russia, China,
Brazil, and India between 2010 and 2030 [33]. Annual use of about 100,
000–200,000 tons of antibiotics worldwide has been recorded [34].
Hospitals are known as primary antibiotic distribution sources in
municipal urban treatment units of wastewater [30]. Data from the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found that 55.7 % of
patients received antibiotics [34]. At the same time, they stay in hos­
pitals from 325 hospitals in 2010, and 37.2 % of those antibiotic pre­
scriptions were unnecessary or could be changed, which is consistent
with previous literature research on the use of antibiotics in acute care
hospitals. For that, the CDC has initiated many health promotion pro­
grams to target antibiotic resistance [35]. Antibiotics are commonly
used in the treatment of bacterial infections in both humans and ani­
mals. These are used in livestock processing, fish farming additives, and
poultry industries as growth promoters [36]. They are also used to
improve the quality of feed [37]. Because of their chemical composition,
the commonly used antibiotics can be categorized into six kinds: β-lac­
tams, quinolones, tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, macrolides, and sul­
fates [38–41]. Most of these substances are poorly absorbed. Mainly,
80–90% of the antibiotic is excreted into the water by wastewater
effluent [41]. As shown in Fig. 1, the extensive utilization of medical and
veterinary antibiotics has resulted in the widespread occurrence of
traces of these highly stable compounds in natural aquatic habitats all
over the world, including rivers [42–44], lakes [40,43,44], groundwater
[45,46–49], seawater [40,41], and drinking water [30,47]. These traces
have been proved difficult to be removed by conventional drainage
systems [50]. Due to the continuous discharge of wastewater, antibiotics
usually occur in the surface water as mixtures at various concentrations
from a few ng/L to a high μg/L [51,52].
3. Photocatalytic removal of antibiotics
Since the late 20th century, studies have been published on sources,
incidents, fate, and dangers of antibiotics in aquatic environments.
These papers typically gave a regional viewpoint, summed up world­
wide studies’ data, and exposed the lack of knowledge regarding anti­
biotics’ toxicological effects in ecosystems example [30,47,52–62].
However, some studies introduced a critical review on removing anti­
biotics from polluted waters through various treatment methods
[63–73]. The conventional approaches can not remove antibiotic resi­
dues in polluted waters effectively [74–76]. On the other hand,
advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have shown promising results and
proved a suitable solution for quick deterioration of recalcitrant and
non-biodegradable substances in water, such as antibiotics. The
O. Baaloudj et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

photocatalytic reduction is one of the best approaches; it is now widely Table 1

considered a viable alternative for traditional chemical reduction [77, Catalysts used for antibiotics removal.
78]. It can efficiently mineralize a significant number of pollutants to Target pollutants Catalyst Operating conditions Degradation Ref
comparatively non-toxic final products such as water (H2O) and carbon efficiency
dioxide (CO2) [79]. Based on our previous studies [51,52,80], photo­ Catalyst dosage:
catalysis has been used to remove various types of drugs and exactly 0.5 g/L
antibiotics in polluted water. Table 1 summarizes a list of bibliograph­ pH: 6 reaction time:
ical references on photocatalytic processes studies for the removal of Tetracycline TiO2 120 min 50 % [22]
initial Tetracycline
antibiotics from water. concentration:
We note from this table that there is a difference between each 40 mg/L
catalyst in its photocatalytic performance, due to the photocatalytic Catalyst dosage:
experiment condition first, and secondly and the most significantly, the 0.1 g/L
pH: 5, reaction time:
bandgap that plays a significant role in the photocatalytic activity. The
Penicillin ZnO 180 min 74.65 % [81]
bandgap changes from one catalyst to another because it is related to the initial Penicillin
color of the catalyst and also to the elements that make it up. This dif­ concentration:
ference can be explained through the mechanism, where the semi­ 10 mg/L
conductor can be quickly excited by light illumination which absorbs Catalyst dosage: 1 g/
L
photons with energy greater than or equal to its bandgap energy and Amoxicillin,
pH: 5, reaction time:
then be excited to produce electron-hole pairs (e− and h+ ) [22]. After Ampicillin and TiO2 100 % [82]
30 min
Cloxacillin
that, the e− on the conduction band CB will react with O2 on the initial concentration:
semiconductor’s surface to produce O2 − ∗ radicals by a reduction pro­ 105 mg/L
Catalyst dosage:
cess. After that, by protonation, it yields hydroperoxyl radical H2 O∗
2.3 g/L
[15]. These radicals then merge with the trapped electrons and produce pH: 6, reaction time:
hydrogen peroxide H2 O2 and hydroxide radicals OH∗ . The OH∗ radicals Sulfamethoxazole Mn-WO3 60 min 100 % [83]
are strong oxidants and the principals’ active species oxygen (ROS) in initial SMX
the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants, which could be concentration:
3.25 mg/L
generated from both the reaction of the photo-generated valence band
Catalyst dosage: 1 g/
holes with either water H2 O or hydroxyl ions OH adsorbed on the L
Cefaclor,
catalyst surface [90]. Under this condition, It is possible that h+ con­ pH: 6, reaction time: 66.9 %, 55.2
Cefuroxime and ZnCr2O4 [80]
stitutes a percentage of OH∗ radicals, so h+ is an assistant in organic 180 min % and 80.1 %
Cefixime
initial concentration:
pollutants’ degradation [86]. The following relations can describe the
5 mg/L
process that leads to the generation of electron-hole pairs and active Catalyst dosage: 2 g/
radicle species with the degradation of organic pollutants: L
pH: 6,4, reaction
Catalyst + hυ → Catalyst∗ + e− + h+ (1) N-doped
Cefazolin time: 60 min 53 % [84]
TiO2
initial Cefazolin
H2 O + h+ → OH∗ + H+ (2) concentration:
1.0 × 10 − 2 mol/L
Catalyst dosage: 1 g/
O2 + e− → O2 − ∗
(3)
L,
pH: 6, reaction time:
e− + 2H+ + H2 O∗ →H2 O2 (4) Cefixime CoBi2O4 6h 80 % [52]
initial Cefixime
H2 O2 + e− →OH(e− ) + OH∗ (5) concentration:
10 mg/L
Catalyst dosage:
Organic pollutants + O2 − ∗ + OH∗ →CO2 + H2 O + other small products (6)
3.75 g/L,
Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram for the proposed mechanism of pH: 4.5, reaction
Cefixime BiFeO3 time: 32 min 91.8 % [85]
antibiotics as organic pollutants. It illustrates a possible reaction with
initial Cefixime
ROS on a photocatalytic surface with pollutants absorbed. concentration:
4.5 mg/L
4. Bacteria and superbugs Catalyst dosage: 1 g/
L,
pH: 6, reaction time:
There is a direct correlation between an antibiotic distribution and Cefaclor CuCr2O4 4h 60 % [51]
resistance development. The ubiquitous spread of antibiotics makes initial Cefixime
resistance a survival condition for bacteria, making resistant bacteria concentration:
selected for growth and propagation [91]. Even at low concentrations, 10 mg/L
Catalyst dosage:
their presence can improve the resistance to bacteria [32], giving place
0.5 g/L
to antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) [92]. These microorganisms pH: 6,4, reaction
became more known as ‘Multi Drug-Resistant’ (MDR) or more Ciprofloxacin ZnSnO3 time: 100 min 83 % [15]
commonly ‘Superbugs’ [93]. ARB can be produced using cell expression initial Ciprofloxacin
of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), synthesizing the corresponding concentration:
10 mg/L
antibiotic-resistant protein [94]. An example of superbugs, the Salmo­ Catalyst dosage:
nella strain, which infects roughly 21.6 million people worldwide [95]. BN/ 0.33 g/L
Cefoxitin 100 % [86]
It can survive to a large variety of antibiotics including ampicillin, and CdAl2O4 pH: 7, reaction time:
aztreonam, cefoxitin, ceftriaxone, cephalothin, chloramphenicol, 240 min
gentamicin, kanamycin, sulfamethoxazole, streptomycin, tetracycline, (continued on next page)
and tobramycin [91,92]. Bacteria mutate more than the production of

3
O. Baaloudj et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

Table 1 (continued ) • Bacteria of streptococcal disease cause many different body in­
Target pollutants Catalyst Operating conditions Degradation Ref fections, including meningitis, ear infections, pneumonia, and strep
efficiency throat [93].
initial concentration:
15 mg/L MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a gram-positive
Catalyst dosage: bacteria of the family Firmicutes [108]. It is the most well-known of
1.0 g/L the Superbugs, which caused 72 444 invasive infections in the United
pH: 5, reaction time:
States and 9194 deaths in 2014 [107]. Superbugs’ resistance to drugs
Ciprofloxacin TiO2 30 min 100 % [87]
initial Ciprofloxacin may also be based on mutation or the development of resistance genes
concentration: from other bacteria [93]. Since antibiotics are widely used, our bodies
105 mg/L no longer rely on our immune systems any longer, making us unable to
Catalyst dosage: deal with new bacteria.
1.5 g/L
pH: 10, reaction time:
Metronidazole ZnO 180 min 96.55 % [88] 5. Photocatalysis inactivation of bacteria in water
initial Metronidazole
concentration: Despite attempts to develop new antibiotics, antibacterial resistance
80 mg/L
is still growing too rapidly to keep up with drug development. However,
pH: 11, reaction time:
180 min Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) have provided an acceptable rate
NF-TiO2 of bacterial inactivation. AOPs are safer and natural technology for
Oxytetracycline initial SMX 92 % [89]
film
concentration: 5 mg/ water disinfection, unlike conventional water disinfection methods like
L chlorination, ozonation, and ultraviolet irradiation [109]. They have
many disadvantages as they present high investments, maintenance
costs, large consumption of chemical reagents and environmental
problems created by disposal of the waste effluent after treatment.
Indeed, the chlorination process leads to the development of carcino­
genic by-products such as trihalomethanes (THM) [110]; for ultraviolet
irradiation, many microorganisms can resist it. For ozonation, the cost
and security concerns restrict its use in practice [109]. Using these
methods can also lead to developing very undesirable and toxic disin­
fection by-products [111].
Among the different AOPs, Photocatalysis has become a safe and
successful green photochemical mechanism [112]. It has long been used
to combat pathogenic bacteria [113]. Several papers verified that the
bacterial envelope is the primary target of the photocatalysis process,
leading to membrane permeability modifications and cell death
[114–116]. The photocatalytic process can also use for the inactivation
of viruses [111,112]. Semiconductors like TiO2 are known to generate
Fig. 2. A schematic diagram for the proposed mechanism of organic pollut­ microbicidal, reactive oxygen species in the presence of light [117]. In
ants [15]. 1985 [118], identified the first microbicidal activity study on TiO2
photocatalysis. Over the last two decades, there have been many
appealing photocatalytic applications for drinking water disinfection
new antibiotics [98]. This phenomenon caused a drastic environmental
[119]. In which process lead to the antibiotic-resistant bacteria inacti­
change, a toxic shock to the bacterial world [92]. In the case of disease,
vation. Table 2 summarizes a list of bibliographical references on pho­
combining antibiotics is used for controlling ABR, which is the most
tocatalytic studies for the Inactivation of ARB in water.
significant danger that threatens modern medicine [99]. Both bacteria
We can conclude from the results of the table that the catalysts have a
and viruses are responsible for some of the deadliest diseases in history
great ability to inactivate bacteria of all kinds in the water. This makes
[100]. Bacteria that are antibiotic-resistant with their genes represent
them a suitable solution to get rid of those harmful organisms. This
one of the most severe and intense challenges of the twenty-first century
mechanism can be explained in Fig. 3 which illustrated a proposed
[101]. They are well-known “easy-to-get, hard-to-lose” pollutants [102].
disinfection mechanism of the photocatalyst. As already discussed in the
They can easily be transmitted to humans and animals through the
photodegradation part that when the light of suitable wavelength is
horizontal transmission of genes in a water environment that poses a
irradiated on the catalyst, the conduction band (Cb) and valence band
significant risk [103]. Actually, a conservative estimate by the CDC in­
(VB) of this photocatalyst tend to bend, and a depletion layer is formed
dicates that antibiotic resistance more than two million people in the US
around the interface. Making e− in the VB excited to move to CB
get sick from antimicrobial-resistant causes 700,000 deaths globally
simultaneously produced the same amount of h+ in the VB. The electron-
each year [104]. A study [105] suggests that the world’s foremost cause
of death will be antibiotic-resistant infections in 2050. The most com­ hole pairs (e− and h+ ) can interact with HO2 and OH(e− ) to create OH∗ ,
mon disease caused by ABR are: while O2 generate O2 − ∗ by electron-accepting with O2 H∗ to form H2 O2
and OH∗ . ROS (OH∗ , O2 H∗ , H2 O2 , and O2 − ∗ ) can produce high oxidative
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections, approximately two billion stress and interact strongly with bacterial cells and kill them by
people are infected with the bacterium that causes this disease [97]. degrading the cell wall and several types of bacterial cell contents like
• Strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae were recently resistant to third- protein, lipids, carbohydrate, DNA and amino acids [129]. Moreover,
generation carbapenems. They lead to several untreatable gonor­ photocatalyst molecules can interact with bacterial cells by depositing
rhoea infections in the UK [106]. them on the surface through the mechanism of cellular proliferation and
• Staphylococcus aureus causes a range of body infections, including endocytosis, resulting in the destruction of membrane proteins or cell
boils, injury infections, toxic shock syndrome, cellulite, abscesses, membranes through the phenomenon of organ permeability. Both
pneumonia, and food poisoning [107]. semiconductor particles and ROS can disturb the transport of electrons

4
O. Baaloudj et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Catalysts used for bacterias’ inactivation. Target pollutants Catalyst Operating conditions Inactivation Ref
Target pollutants Catalyst Operating conditions Inactivation Ref rate
rate
Catalyst: 0.04 % Mn/
Catalyst dosage: 1.5 g/ Co: TiO2
L dosage: 250 mg/l
Klebsiella
pH: 10, reaction time: TiO2 reaction time: 100 min 99.9 % [129]
pneumoniae
TiO2 60 min 100 % [110] initial bacterial
initial bacterial cells: cells:107 CFU/mL
108 CFU/mL the temperature: 37 ◦ C
Escherichia coli
the temperature: 32 ◦ C
Catalyst dosage: 1.5 g/
L in the cell, loss of protein motive force, depletion of intracellular ATP
ZnO pH: 5, reaction time: 94 % [120] production with DNA replication disintegration, and intracellular
180 min
outflow resulting in cell death [124]. The following relations can
Optical density: 1
Catalyst Dose: 0.5 g/L describe this process:
reaction time: 60 min
using AgT for UV
Catalyst + hυ → Catalyst∗ + e− + h+ (7)
Shigella species
Doped photocatalysis, 99.9998–100
and Vibrio [121]
TiO2 180 min using solar % H2 O + h+ → OH∗ + H+ (8)
cholera
photocatalysis
initial bacterial cells: O2 + e− → O2 − ∗
(9)
106 CFU/mL
Fixed TiO2 reaction
time: 10 min
e− + 2H+ + H2 O∗ →H2 O2 (10)
TiO2 Initial bacterial 98.0 % [122]
cells:107 CFU/mL H2 O2 + e− →OH(e− ) + OH∗ (11)
the temperature:37 ◦ C
Methicillin- PH 6.9 reaction time: Cell membrane + O2 − ∗ + OH∗ + H2 O2 + O2 H∗ →Membrane disruption
Ni-
resistant 360 min initial cell
doped 100 % [123] (12)
Staphylococcus concentration of → Exposed cellular components→Bacterial inactivation
TiO2
aureus 2.7 × 104CFU/mL
Catalyst dosage: 5 mg/ 6. Photocatalysis for simultaneous removals of antibiotics and
mL
NiMoO4 reaction time: 360 min 100 % [124]
inactivation of antimicrobial resistance
initial bacterial
cells:107 CFU/mL Based on the above results and the observations which showed that
Catalyst photocatalysis could make different antibiotics oxidized and different
dosage:100 mg/l
bacteria and micro organisms inactive. In which the procedure elimi­
reaction time: 45 min
TiO2
Initial bacterial
100 % [125] nates both biohazard and chemical contaminants simultaneously from
cells:109 CFU/mL wastewater systems. This procedure accomplishes two goals through a
Salmonella
the temperature: 30 ◦ C single green and safe method that uses solar energy and does not contain
TiO2/3SnO2/0.5Fe3+ harmful by-products to the environment. Hence, it makes photocatalysis
typhimurium
Catalyst dosage:
Fe3+
250 mg/l reaction
an effective and assertive approach to treating water from the two most
Doped toxic types of toxic pollutants: antibiotics and microbial biological
time:60 min 100 % [96]
TiO2/
Initial bacterial hazards. For that, photocatalysis fulfills future desires for water purifi­
3SnO2
cells:106 CFU/mL cation with less cost and more minor damage to the environment, one of
the temperature: 37 ◦ C
the world’s challenges. Table 3 summarizes a list of bibliographical
ZnO film 12.2 mJ/cm2
reaction time: 35 min references on photocatalytic processes for degradation of the antibiotic
Initial bacterial cells: and inactivating ARB simultaneously in water.
Coliforms ZnO 100 % [126]
107 CFU/mL Photocatalysis is based on the irradiation of semiconductor particles
the temperature: 82 ◦ C by photons of energy ‘hν’ equals or exceeds the semiconductor bandgap,
Turbidity 100 NTU
Catalyst dosage:
promoting an electron transition from the filled valence band (VB) of the
500 mg/l reaction photocatalyst to the empty conducting band (CB). The effect is that a
Ag/
time: 210 min positive hole is left behind in the valence and a negative electron in the
Bacillus species SnO2/ 100 % [127]
ZnO
initial bacterial cells: conduction line, thus forming electron-hole pairs (e− and h+) [136,137].
107 CFU/mL
The photo-generated holes and electrons trapped on the semiconductor
the temperature: 37 ◦ C
Catalyst: TiO2-Ag surface oxidize the OH or water to initiate highly reactive oxygen species
(ROS) (the superoxide radical anion O2, hydroperoxide radical HO2, and
• •
nanotube electrode
Mycobacterium
(5 cm x 5 cm) hydroxyl radical OH ). They are the primary oxidizing agents that act as
•

kansasii and
TiO2-Ag reaction time: 240 min 99.9 % [128] extremely powerful (potent) oxidants of organic pollutants because they
Mycobacterium
initial bacterial cells:
avium
5 × 108 CFU/mL
can destroy the bonds of stable and unreactive organic molecules to form
the temperature: 35 ◦ C organic intermediates that can be further degraded into CO2 and H2O
Catalyst: 2 wt % Pd/ [132]. On the other hand, they can damage microorganisms without
BiFeO3 further adding chemical oxidants by attacking and breaking the cell wall
Pd- Dose: 1 g/L
Enterococcus making microorganisms become inactive or dead and denature proteins,
loaded reaction time: 240 min 98%-100 % [79]
faecalis
BiFeO3 initial bacterial cells: finally resulting in various end-products [119]. Both mechanism pho­
107 CFU/mL todegradation of organic pollutants and bacterial inactivation is illus­
the temperature: 37 ◦ C trated in Fig. 4. Furthermore, Eqs. 13 to 17 suggest the basic process of
photocatalytic degradation and water pollutants’ disinfection.

5
O. Baaloudj et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

Fig. 3. A schematic diagram for the proposed disinfection mechanism [124].

Table 3
Catalysts for bacteria inactivation as well as antibiotics degradation.
Target bacteria Target pollutants Catalyst Photodegradation Photocatalytic disinfection Ref

Catalyst dosage: 1.00 g/L Catalyst dosage:1.00 g/L

reaction time: reaction time:
30 min 40 min
Escherichia coli Tetracycline g-C3N4 With 4 LEDs [130]
the concentration of each antibiotic Initial load of E. coli 3.0 × 107 CFU/mL
20 mg/L
degradation rate: 82.67 % 99.99 % destruction
Catalyst dosage: 0.5 g/l reaction
Catalyst dosage: 0.5 g/l reaction time:
time:
320 min 180 min
Escherichia coli And pH: 6.22 initial bacterial cells:
Trimethoprim and
Pseudomonas Ce-ZnO concentration of each antibiotic [131]
Sulfamethoxazole
aeruginosa (SMX = 6.332 μg/l and 105 CFU/mL
TMP = 7.258 μg/L)
degradation rate:
inactivation of E. coli 99 % (0.5 CFU/mL)
100 % for SMX,84 % for TMP
Catalyst dosage: 30 μg/mL Catalyst dosage: 25 μg/mL
reaction time: reaction time:
120 min 24h
Staphylococcus aureus rGO/CdS
Tetracycline and Paracetamol the concentration of antibiotics: [132]
and Escherichia coli QD initial bacterial cells: 106 CFU/mL
25 mg/L
degradation rate: the temperature: 37 ◦C
84 % TC and 90 % PC
Catalyst dosage: 100 mg/l reaction
Catalyst dosage: 100 mg/l reaction time:
time:
60 min 120 min
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Sulfamethoxazole, Erythromycin the concentration of each antibiotic
TiO2-rGO initial bacterial cells: [133]
and Escherichia coli and Clarithromycin 100 μg/L
degradation rate: 106 CFU/mL
ERY (84 ± 2%) and CLA (86 ± 5%),
Complete bacterial inactivation
SMX (87 ± 4%)
Catalyst dosage: 200 mg/l reaction
Catalyst dosage: 100 mg/l reaction time:
time:
300 min 120 min
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Acetamiprid, Imazalil and TiO2/ concentration of each antibiotic
initial bacterial cells: [134]
and Bacillus species Bisphenol H2O2 1 mg/L
degradation rate: 104-106 CFU/mL
85 % for BPA, 20 % for IMZ and >
Complete bacterial inactivation
5% for ACP
Catalyst dosage: 1.00 g/l reaction
Catalyst dosage: 1.00 g/l reaction time:
time:
30 min 60 min
Heterotrophs Escherichia Azithromycin, Trimethoprim, With 4 LEDs The initial load of total heterotrophs, E. coli and
TiO2 [135]
coli and enterococci Ofloxacin and Sulfamethoxazole the concentration of each antibiotic enterococci were 7.7 ± 0.2, 5.9 ± 0.4 and
100 μg/L 5.7 ± 0.3 log (CFU / 100 mL)
degradation rate for each antibiotic: Bacterial inactivation reached values of about 2
100 % log-units

6
O. Baaloudj et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 42 (2021) 102089

Fig. 4. Mechanisms of the organic and microbial pollution photocatalytic removals [114].

Catalyst + hυ → Catalyst∗ + e− + h+ (13)

H2 O + h+ → OH∗ + H+ (14)

O2 + e− → O2 − ∗
(15)

Organic pollutants + O2 − ∗ + OH∗ →CO2 + H2 O

+ other small degradation products (16)

Cell membrane + O2 − ∗ + OH∗ + water →Membrane disruption

→ Exposed cellular components→Bacterial inactivation (17)
Photocatalysis activity has indeed been demonstrated by previous
research as an acceptable degradation and disinfestation process at the
same time to eliminate both antibiotics and bacteria (ARG) [34].
However, the result was insufficient to show the extent of benefiting and
explaining this process’s advantage. The reason is due to the following Fig. 5. Summary of mechanisms on the photocatalytic removals of antibiotics
notes. Firstly, there are not enough studies in this regard; just a few and microbial pollution.
research papers are taking this subject. However, most studies consider
Escherichia coli to be a model of bacteria, leaving the effect of other
that it has auspicious results in removing contaminants of emerging
bacteria unknown. Secondly, most researches deal with antibiotics and
concern and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Same for other POA processes.
microbial contaminants separately to simplify the analytic methods.
Unfortunately, few researchers have tried to combine those processes in
Nevertheless, the most critical part of the study is neglected, which is the
this field. So, this opened up a new subject for researchers to improve
interaction between antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This
photocatalytic performance.
interaction can cause significant variation in the efficiency of removing
On the other hand, this method can be applied to virus disinfection as
hazardous substances because it creates a hybrid system with the pho­
well, where the photocatalytic process showed high results with them
tocatalytic process and improves its activity.
[142–149]. A very well-known example is azithromycin with the new
Generally, it is well known that antibiotic is used as a weapon to treat
SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), as their presence with each other affects them
bacterial infections because they have antimicrobial activity. They
[150]. So, with the photocatalyst as the third part can improve their
either stop bacteria from reproducing or destroy them (disinfection)
removal. This fact introduces a new area of future research topics and
[138]. Conversely, Bacteria that become resistant to different antibiotics
studies such as viral disinfection.
play a significant role in the microbial degradation of those antibiotics
[139]. Through developing their mechanism of action, they can produce
7. Conclusion and outlook
corresponding degradation enzymes, which degrades by modification or
hydrolysis of the molecular structure of antibiotics [140]. That makes
The purpose of this review was to view photocatalysis as a sound
the environment an arena for both antibiotics and bacteria to act against
degradation and disinfection process at the same time to eliminate both
each other. By entering an assistant to solve the problem, which is the
antibiotics and bacteria (ARG) with their associated genes. Wastewater
photocatalyst or the semiconductor, this war can disappear by
can be processed using the photocatalytic technique and also enter a
destroying both parts. As already demonstrated in the previous sections,
biological wastewater processing facility without the possibility of
the photocatalysis process using semiconductors such as TiO2 can cause
increasing resistance to antibiotics. Additionally, antibiotics and bacte­
the degradation of antibiotics and disinfect bacteria simultaneously.
ria have a destroying effect against each other, which creates a hybrid
This effect creates a new mechanism that looks like a hybrid system for
system for each pollutant in the presence of a semiconductor (photo­
each pollutant (photocatalysis-bacteria, photocatalysis-antibiotic, bac­
catalysis-bacteria, photocatalysis-antibiotic, bacteria-antibiotic). The
teria-antibiotic), as illustrated in Fig. 5.
photocatalytic process is one of the best approaches to reducing organic
Further, for more efficient treatment of bacteria and antibiotics,
compounds and microorganisms in water and removing biohazard and
photocatalysis can be combined with other POA methods, such as
contamination from wastewater systems which achieve two objectives
chlorination [141], persulfate, ozonation and plasma. For example,
with one strategy. Unfortunately, the result was insufficient to explain
UVA/TiO2/H2O2 photocatalysis demonstrated in an investigation [134]
this method’s advantage because most of the research studied the

7
O. Baaloudj et al.
antibiotics and the microbial contaminants separately.
Similarly, most of the research works selected Escherichia coli as a
bacteria example. We conclude with an outlook on future research. More
research and testing are required to elucidate and better understand the
relationship between antibiotics, microbial contaminants, and photo­
catalysis. It is also essential to carry out more studies on more antibiotic-
resistant bacteria types and viruses as it is showed good results previ­
ously. Moreover, the synthesis of photocatalysts that have a narrow
band gap and efficient activity under visible light needs to be further
developed for more industrial application under solar light. Finally,
studies in real and natural contaminated water are required for the
actual application of this process.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi
Arabia (by grant R.G.P. 1/257/42). We express our gratitude to the
Deanship of Scientific Research, King Khalid University, for its support
of this study.
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