Compilations of Assignment EE330-ACDC

0R. A.
9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004
NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

NOHS (1907) I NOTS (1927) I EVSAT (1956) I CVPC (1983)
Kagawasan Ave., Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines 6200
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City 6200
ll
A Compilation of Assignments presented to
Engr. Gil Tuban
In Fulfillment to the subject

EE 330 – AC/DC Machineries
Submitted By:
Decipolo, Kenneth John E.
December 2022
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Assignment no.1 3-24
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Assignment no.1
1. What is an Electrical Generator?
Electric generators, also known as dynamos is an electric machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The electric generator’s mechanical energy is usually provided by steam turbines, gas
turbines, and wind turbines. Electrical generators provide nearly all the power that is required for
electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is done by an electric motor. Both
motors and generators have many similarities. But in this, the article let us focus mainly on electric
generators and how they convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
If you are interested to read more about the electric motor, click on the link provided below:
 Electric Motor
History of Electric Generators

Electrostatic generators were used before the relationship between electricity and magnetism was
discovered. These generators operated on electrostatic principles. Electrostatic generators were never
used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power due to the following
reasons:
 Due to the difficulty in insulating machines that produced high voltages

 Due to the low power rating
Due to this inefficiency of electrostatic generators, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk,
was invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.
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How do Generators create Electricity?
Generators do not create electricity instead it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force the
movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric circuit. This
flow of electrons constitutes the output electric current supplied by the generator.
The modern-day generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael
Faraday. He realized that the above flow of current can be created by moving an electrical conductor in
a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference between the two ends of the conductor
which causes the electric charges to flow, hence generating electric current.
Components of an Electric Generator

The main components of an electric generator are given below
 The Frame – the structure

 An Engine – the source of mechanical energy
 The Alternator – produces an electrical output from the mechanical input
 A Fuel System – to keep the generator operational
 A Voltage Regulator – to regulate the voltage output
 A Cooling System – to regulate heat levels that build up in the system
 A Lubrication System – for durable and smooth operations over a span
 An Exhaust System – to dispose of the waste exhaust gases produced in the process
 A Charger – to keep the battery of the generator charged
 Main Control – the control panel controlling generator interface
Types of Electric Generators

The classification of electric generators depends on the type of electrical energy that is produced, which
is either direct current or alternating current.
 AC generators: AC generators are known as single-phase generators and are limited to 25 kW.
 DC generators: These generators are divided into three categories, and they are shunt, series,
and compound-wound. Shunt generators are used in battery chargers. Series generators are
used in street lights. While most of the DC generators are compound-wound.
If you wish to read more about AC Generators and DC Generators, click on the link below:
 AC Generators
 DC Generators
Uses of an Electric Generator
 They provide the power for most power networks across cities
 Small scale generators provide a good backup for household power needs or small businesses
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 At construction sites, before the power is set up, they extensively make use of electric
generators
 Energy-efficient as fuel consumption is reduced drastically
 Since they give a range of voltage output, they are used in labs
 They are used to drive motors
 They are used in transportation
2. Types of Direct Current Generators.
DC generators are categorized into three main types based on the methods of field excitation:
Permanent Magnet, Separately Excited, and Self-Excited DC generators. The first type excites the field
coils by using Permanent magnets, while the separately excited one includes an external force for
excitation. A self-excited DC generator includes another generator itself and field coils excited by it. The
diagram for DC generators’ types is as below, and the permanent magnet field is not included because
of not being widely used in the industry.
figure1. Types of DC generators (reference: electricalacademia.com)
Permanent Magnet DC Generators
This kind of generator utilizing permanent magnets for creating the flux in the magnetic circuit is known
as the Permanent magnet DC generators and is the most basic type of generator. There are an armature
and one or many permanent magnets placed around the armature. This type cannot supply much power
due to the design of the generator and does not employ in industry application. Permanent magnet DC
generators usually are used in small applications, the same as dynamos in motorcycles.
Figure 2 illustrates the basic form of the permanent magnet DC generators, and as we know,
voltage is created when the wire cuts the field and the amount of it is dependent on the wire loops
and the rate of rotation in the field. Also, the amount of the voltage is the function of the angle
between the magnetic flux and the moving surface. As each loop rotates, the voltage varies from 0
to the maximum amount of itself as the function of the angle and makes an absolute amount of
sinusoidal voltage. Increasing the number of the loops at different angles makes the voltage to be
constant at its maximum value.
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Figure2. Permanent magnetic DC generators (reference: electricalacademia.com)
the induced voltage is calculated as:
Figure2. Permanent magnetic DC generators (reference: electricalacademia.com)
the induced voltage is calculated as:
Vind=Blv
where:
Vind = induced voltage, in V
B = flux density that is perpendicular to the motion, in Wb/m2
l = length of the conductor, in m
v = velocity of the conductor, in m/s
Separately Excited DC Generators
External DC source (e.g., battery) is used in this system for energizing field magnets. As the rotation
speed increases, it can provide a higher EMF and voltage in the output. The circuit diagram for the
separately excited DC generators is illustrated in figure 3, and the symbols are as below:
 IL = Load current
 Ia = Armature current
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 Eg = Generated EMF (Electromagnetic Force)
 V = Terminal voltage
Figure3. Circuit diagram of the separately excited DC generators

(reference: electrical4u.com)
The generated power and the delivered power to the external force can be calculated as:
Self-Excited DC Generators
Self-excited DC generators have field magnets that are energized by their own supplied current, and
the field coils are connected to the armature internally. There is always some flux in the poles
because of the residual magnetism. As the armature rotates, some current is produced, and this
small current flows through the field coils with the load and strengthening the pole flux. By
increasing the pole flux, the EMF and the current increase, and the accumulative process is
continuing until the excitation is necessary. Self-excited DC generators are classified based on the
field coils and their position as follows:
1. Shunt Wound Generators

2. Compound Wound Generators
3. Series Wound Generators
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3. Principles of Operation of DC Generators.
A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts mechanical power into
DC electrical power through the process of electromagnetic induction.
A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the magnetic flux linking
a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC generator has a field winding and an
armature winding.
The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is converted into direct
voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator. The armature winding of DC
Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field winding is placed on the stator.
Construction of a DC Generator
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator
A DC generator consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke
The outer frame of a DC generator is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is known as
yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes
 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
Magnetic Field System
The magnetic field system of a DC generator is the stationary part of the machine. It produces the main
magnetic flux in the generator. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the yoke and field
winding wound around the pole core. The field system of DC generator has salient poles i.e. the poles
project inwards and each pole core has a pole shoe having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two
purposes
 It provides support to the field coils.

 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.
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The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each other to reduce
the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another such that when the current
flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles are produced in the direction of rotation.
Armature Core
The armature core of DC generator is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles. It has
slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The armature core is a made
up of soft iron laminations which are insulated from each other and tightly clamped together. In small
machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted
on a spider. The laminated armature core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.
Armature Winding
The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are suitably
connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature winding. There are two
types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap winding.
Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in the armature
winding into the direct voltage across the load terminals. The commutator is made of wedge-shaped
copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica sheets. Each segment of
commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
Brushes
The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from the armature
winding. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called brush holder. The
pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and maintained at constant value by
means of springs. The current flows from the armature winding to the external circuit through the
commutator and carbon brushes.
Working of a DC Generator
Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop ‘ABCD’ is rotating
clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When the loop rotates, the magnetic flux
linking the coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ changes continuously. This change in flux linkage induces an EMF in
coil sides and the induced EMF in one coil side adds the induced EMF in the other.
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The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows
 When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of coil
sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux
and hence, a small EMF is generated.
 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic
flux, therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle,
thus a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving parallel
to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.
 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the
polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction
at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.
It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side (say AB) has
EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the
influence of S-pole. Hence, when a load is connected across the terminals of the generator, an alternating
current will flow through it. Now, by using a commutator, this alternating emf generated in the loop can
be converted into direct voltage. We then have a DC generator.
4. Illustration, Construction and the main parts and each function of a practical DC
Generator.
A DC generator is often used as a DC generator motor without altering its construction. So, a dc
generator motor may usually be called a DC machine. The key parts of DC generators are yoke, poles,
pole shoes, armature core, armature winding, commutator, brushes, magnetic field system,
commutator, end housings, bearings, and Shafts.
These are the parts of DC generators and will be discussed below in more detail.
12 Parts of DC Generators are:
 Stator
 Rotor or Armature Core
 End Housings
 Bearings
 Yoke
 Poles
 Pole Shoe
 Commutator
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 Brushes
 Shaft
 Magnetic Field
 Armature Windings
Stator
A direct-current (DC) generator consists of two main parts, a rotating section and a fixed one. Stator is
the stationary part of this system that includes a core, stator winding, and the outer frame and houses
the rotor (the rotating part) in its core.
Among parts of dc generators, the stator is a key component and its main function is to supply magnetic
fields around which the coils spin. This contains stable magnets with opposite poles facing two of them.
These magnets are mounted in the rotor field.
Rotor or Armature Core
The second important component of a DC generator is the rotor or armature core that is consisted of a
fan, armature, commutator, and a shaft. Unlike the stator, this part is moveable and rotates in the
magnetic field created by the stator. In a DC generator, the armature’s rotation is the process that
generates a voltage in the rotor coils. The armature core includes iron slot laminations with slots that
have been stacked to form a cylindrical armature core. Generally, the losses are decreased due to the
eddy current in these laminations.
During the whole process, the fan is responsible to supply the needed air for the armature core or rotor
as it spins.
End Housings
End housings are the components attached to the ending parts of the mainframe with a function to
protect the bearings. The bearings are the essential parts of the system that lessen the friction between
the moving and the fixed parts of the generator that can gradually deteriorate them over time.
While the front housings protect the bearing plus the brush collection, the end housings’ function is
limited to support the bearings only.
Bearings
Bearings are used in a system to achieve a smooth movement between the different components. The
main function of bearings is to minimize the friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the
machine. Thanks to these parts, there is no need for the continual lubrication of the system components
and they would also last longer due to the reduction in friction.
Bearings are mainly made from high carbon steel as it is a very hard material and are designed in a way
to be constantly greased and protected from the dust intrusion. Bearings come in two common forms:
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roller bearings and ball bearings. Ball bearings include spherical balls that transfer the load from the
inside to the outside and creates motion in circles. Ball bearings can be easily found in the items around
the house; they are more common because they are simple.
Roller bearings, unlike ball bearings, are consisted of different forms of cylinders. While ball bearings’
contact area with the load is limited to a point, in roller bearings this contact is extended to a line so
they can be used to handle heavy loads and, thus, are mainly used in industrial equipment.
Yoke
If we divide the DC generator parts in two, Yoke is the outer cover that not only provides mechanical
protection to the whole inner assembly and fixes them to the foundation of the machine, but also
creates a path for the magnetic flow that the field winding produces.
Based on the size of the machines, yokes are of two kinds and materials; in large apparatuses, yokes are
made up of cast or rolled steel while in smaller ones they are composed of cast iron.
Poles
Poles are used primarily to keep windings in the sector. Such windings are usually wound on the poles
and are otherwise connected to the armature windings in order. Therefore, by using the screws, the
poles join the welding technique to the yoke.
The pole core is mainly made of a number of thin annealed steel or wrought iron joined together by the
use of hydraulic pressure. To reduce the Eddy Current loss, the poles of a DC machine are laminated.
These poles are one of the parts of the DC machine whose job is to support the field coils, and ensure a
more integrated magnetic flow over the armature.
Pole Shoe
The pole shoe is an iron or steel plate that used primarily to disperse the magnetic flow and avoid the
spinning field coil from falling.
Commutator
The operation of the commutator is like a rectifier to convert AC voltage to DC voltage in the
reinforcement of the armature winding. This conductive metal ring has a copper segment and each
copper segment with the aid of mica sheets is shielded from each other.
This cylindrical electrical switch sits on the machine’s shaft and contributes in connecting the conductors
of the rotating armchair to the external circuit that is fixed. In the process, the original induced current is
converted to a unidirectional one in the output terminals.
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Brushes
Brushes are one of the essential parts of the DM generator. With the aid of these carbon blocks, the
electrical connection between the commutator and the external load circuit can be assured.
Due to the arc discharge and the ongoing contact with the commutator, however, these components
deteriorate over time. But the good news is they can always be replaced with new brushes. All you need
to do is check them from time to time and make sure they are in a good condition and change them if
needed.
Shaft
The shaft is a mechanical piece in a DC machine that produces the rotational of a force known as torque
and brings about rotation. It is made from mild steel and has a maximum breaking strength. Of parts of
DC generator, the shaft helps the generator to transfer mechanical energy through the shaft. The
spinning parts are keyed into the shaft like the armature center, a commutator, a cooling fan, etc.
Magnetic Field
This is a permanent magnet that generates a magnetic field that is used to rotate the coil.
Armature Windings
For holding the armature windings, the armature core slots are primarily used. They are connected in a
closed-circuit winding form in series to increase the amount of produced current; and they are parallel.
This special arrangement of conductors is called the armature winding that is known to be the heart of a
DC generator. Depending on the kind of connections, armature windings are either lap winding or wave
winding.
All the armature windings, whether lap or wave, are the centers of power conversion inside the
machine. In the case of armature windings of a DC generator, this energy conversion occurs from
mechanical power to electrical power.
E.M.F Equation of DC generator
After explaining the parts of DC generator, it’s time to learn about EMF equation. So, what is it? the EMF
equation of DC generator is according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, that is Eg=
PØZN/60 A
In DC generator formula:
 Z means the total number of armature conductor

 P means the number of poles in a generator
 A means the number of parallel lanes within the armature
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 N means the rotation of armature in rpm
 E means the induced emf in any parallel lane within the armature
 Eg means the generated emf in any one of the parallel lane
 N/60 means the number of turns per second
 Plus, time for one turn is dt=60/N sec
But, wait! It was not just parts of DC generator and its equation. You can find more information about
DC generators! DC generators in fact, are used almost everywhere. They are used in factories that
manufacture aluminum, chlorine, and related raw materials in a large quantity of current. Dc generators
are also used in diesel-electric-engine locomotives and vehicles. They can be found in remote control
autos, electric car windows, and TVs with flat screen.
What is the Working principle of DC generator? How Does it Work?
The working principle of DC generators is based on Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. Within
the parts of dc generator, when a conductor is in a dynamic magnetic field, an electromotive force is
generated within the conductor. The magnitude caused by EMF can be measured using the
electromotive power equation of a generator.
When the conductor has a closed path, the induced current flows in the path. The field coils produce an
electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are converted to the field in the generator.
Therefore, inside the armature conductors, an electromagnetically induced electromotive force (EMF) is
produced. Fleming’s right-hand rule specifies the direction of induced current.
What are the Types of DC generator?
DC generators can be classified into two main categories (separately excited and self-excited). There is
also a third type of DC generators which is called, “Permanent-magnet DC generator”. Each type has its
unique features, frameworks, and advantages.
The function of parts of DC generators in separately-excited type is in a way that field coils are driven
from an independent external DC source in a separately excited form generator. On the other hand, in
self-excited DC generators, the field coils are energized from the produced current in the generator in a
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self- excited form. Such generators can also be identified as the series wound, shunt-wound, and
compound wound.
DC generator has advantages
In many fields, we need a DC generator especially for the following reasons:
 It’s built and designed plainly.

 It is suitable for operating large motors and large electrical devices that require direct
control.
 It reduces the fluctuations described by smoothing the output voltage through a regular
arrangement of coils around the armature for some stable state applications.
DC generator can generate some disadvantages as well
Like other machines, DC generators have some disadvantages, such as:
 DC generators can’t be applied to a transformer.

 DC generators have low efficiency because there are copper losses, eddy current losses,
hysteresis losses, and mechanical losses.
 A voltage drop over long distances would occur.
5. DC Generator Classifications .
Each DC machine can act as a generator or a motor. Hence, this classification is valid for both: DC
generators and DC motors. DC machines are usually classified on the basis of their field excitation
method. This makes two broad categories of dc machines; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.
 Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is

supplied from a separate power source. That means the field winding is electrically
separated from the armature circuit. Separately excited DC generators are not commonly
used because they are relatively expensive due to the requirement of an additional power
source or circuitry. They are used in laboratories for research work, for accurate speed
control of DC motors with Ward-Leonard system and in few other applications where self-
excited DC generators are unsatisfactory. In this type, the stator field flux may also be
provided with the help of permanent magnets (such as in permanent magnet DC motors).
PMDC (permanant magnet DC) motors are popularly used in small toys, e.g. a toy car.
 Self-excited DC machines: In this type, field winding and armature winding are
interconnected in various ways to achieve a wide range of performance characteristics (for
example, field winding in series or parallel with the armature winding).
In a self-excited type of DC generator, the field winding is energized by the current
produced by themselves. A small amount of flux is always present in the poles due to the
residual magnetism. So, initially, current induces in the armature conductors of a dc
generator only due to the residual magnetism. The field flux gradually increases as the
induced current starts flowing through the field winding.
Self-excited machines can be further classified as –
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 Series wound dc machines – In this type, field winding is connected in series
with the armature winding. Therefore, the field winding carries whole of the
load current (armature current). That is why series winding is designed with
few turns of thick wire and the resistance is kept very low (about 0.5 Ohm).
 Shunt wound dc machines – Here, field winding is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. Hence, the full voltage is applied across the field
winding. Shunt winding is made with a large number of turns and the
resistance is kept very high (about 100 Ohm). It takes only small current which
is less than 5% of the rated armature current.
 Compound wound dc machines – In this type, there are two sets of field
winding. One is connected in series and the other is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. Compound wound machines are further divided as -
 Short shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with only
the armature winding
 Long shunt – field winding is connected in parallel with the
combination of series field winding and armature winding
6. Types of Armatures and Armature Windings.
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In DC machines, the drum type armature windings are used. In the case of drum type winding, the
armature conductors (in the form of coils) are placed in the slots around the surface of cylindrical or drum
shaped armature core. The coils are connected in series through the commutator segments such that
their EMFs are added to each other.
In DC machines, two types of armature windings are used −
 Wave Winding
 Lap Winding
Wave Winding
In the case of wave winding, the armature coils are connected in series through the commutator
segments in such a way that the armature winding is divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the
number of poles of the machine, i.e.,
NumberofParallelPaths,A=2
Explanation
If Z being the total number of armature conductors, then each parallel path has Z/2 armature conductors
in series. Each parallel path carry a current of I a/2, where Ia is the total armature current. In the case of
wave winding, the generated emf is equal to the EMF across each parallel path.
Applications of Wave Winding

The wave windings are used in small machines, since in the case of small machines the current carrying
capacity of armature conductors is not critical.
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Lap Winding
In lap winding, the armature coils are connected in series through the commutator segments in such a
way that the armature winding is divided into as many parallel paths as the number of poles of the
machine, i.e.,
NumberofParallelPaths,A=NumberofPoles,P
Explanation
If Z is the total number armature conductors and P is the number of poles in the machine, then there will
be P parallel paths in the winding and the number of conductors in each parallel path will be,
NumberofConductors/ParallelPath=Z/P
If Ia being the total armature current, then

Current/Parallelpath=Ia/P
The EMF generated in the lap winding is equal to the EMF in each parallel path.
Applications of Lap Windings
The lap windings are used in large machines, because in the large machines current carrying capacity is
more critical.
7. Compensating Windings and Interpoles.
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In DC compound machine setup by armature current opposes magnetic field flux, this is known as
armature reaction. The armature reaction has two effects (i) Demagnetizing effect and (ii) Cross
magnetizing effect. Demagnetizing effect weakens the main field flux which in turn decreases the
induced e.m.f (as E 𝖺 Ø)). To overcome this effect a few extra turns/poles are added in series to main
field winding. This creates a series field which serves two purposes,
(i) It helps to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
(ii) If wound for cumulative compounded machine the electrical performance will be improved.
Compensating Winding
All armature conductors placed under the main poles region produces e.m.f which is at right angle (90°)
to the main field e.m.f. This e.m.f causes distortion in main field flux. This is known as cross magnetizing
effect. To minimize the cross magnetizing effect compensating winding is used. This compensating
winding produces an m.m.f which opposes the m.m.f produced by armature conductors.
This objective. is achieved by connecting compensating winding in series with armature winding. In
absence of compensating winding, cross magnetizing effect causes sparking at the commutators and
short-circuiting the whole armature winding.
Let, Zc = Number of compensating conductors/pole
Za = Number of active armature conductors/pole
Ia = Armature current.
ZcIa= Za (Ia/A)
Where,
Ia/A=Armature current/conductor
Zc= Za/A
Compensating Winding Disadvantages
This winding neutralizes the cross magnetizing effect due to armature conductors only but not due to
interpolar region. This winding is used in large machine in which load is fluctuating.
Interpoles
Cross magnetizing effect in interpolar region is by interpoles (also known as compoles (or) commutating
poles). These interpoles are small in size and placed in between the main poles of yoke. Like
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compensating winding, interpoles are also connected in series with armature winding such that the
m.m.f produced by them opposes the m.m.f produced by armature conductor in interpolar region. In
generators, the interpole polarity is same as that of main pole ahead such that they induce an e.m.f
which is known as commutating or reversing e.m.f. This commutating e.m.f minimizes the reactance
e.m.f and hence sparks or arcs are eliminated.
Compensating winding and interpoles are used for same purpose but the difference between them is,
interpoles produce e.m.f for neutralizing reactance e.m.f whereas compensating winding produces an
m.m.f which opposes the m.m.f produced by conductors.
8. Proper Commutation and Armature Reaction in DC Generators.
In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field flux'. The
effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.
MNA And GNA

EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field lines. There is an axis (or,
you may say, a plane) along which armature conductors move parallel to the flux lines and, hence, they
do not cut the flux lines while on that plane. MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis
along which no emf is generated in the armature conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines.
Brushes are always placed along the MNA because reversal of current in the armature conductors takes
place along this axis.
GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the stator field axis.
Armature Reaction
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below.
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Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is energized (as
shown in the first figure of the above image). In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field poles are uniform
and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric
Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).
The second figure in the above image shows armature flux lines due to the armature current. Field poles
are de-energised.
Now, when a DC machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to the armature conductors and flux due to
the field winding) will be present at a time. The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux and,
hence, disturbs the main field flux (as shown in third figure the of above image). This effect is called
as armature reaction in DC machines.
The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:
21
1. Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening of the main
flux reduces the generated voltage.
2. Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A.
is perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A.,
otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it
is hard to determine the exact position of the MNA
For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other hand, for a
loaded dc motor, MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the rotation.
How To Reduce Armature Reaction?

Usually, no special efforts are taken for small machines (up to few kilowatts) to reduce the armature
reaction. But for large DC machines, compensating winding and interpoles are used to get rid of the ill
effects of armature reaction.
Compensating winding: Now we know that the armature reaction is due to the presence of armature
flux. Armature flux is produced due to the current flowing in armature conductors. Now, if we place
another winding in close proximity of the armature winding and if it carries the same current but in the
opposite direction as that of the armature current, then this will nullify the armature field. Such an
additional winding is called as compensating winding and it is placed on the pole faces. Compensating
winding is connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that it carries the current in
opposite direction.
Interpoles:Interpoles are the small auxiliary poles placed between the main field poles. Winding on the
interpoles is connected in series with the armature. Each interpole is wound in such a way that its
magnetic polarity is same as that of the main pole ahead of it. Interpoles nullify the quadrature axis
armature flux.
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature. The commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation in DC
22
generator is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature winding of a dc machine
is converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the stationary brushes.
Again in DC Motor, the input DC is to be converted in alternating form in armature and that is also done
through commutation.
This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC machine to the stationary brushes
needs to maintain continuously moving contact between the commutator segments and the brushes.
When the armature starts to rotate, then the coils situated under one pole (let it be N pole) rotates
between a positive brush and its consecutive negative brush and the current flows through this coil is in
a direction inward to the commutator segments.
Then the coil is short circuited with the help of a brush for a very short fraction of time (1⁄500 sec). It is
called commutation period. After this short-circuit time the armature coils rotates under S pole and
rotates between a negative brush and its succeeding positive brush. Then the direction is reversed
which is in the away from the commutator segments. This phenomena of the reversal of current is
termed as commutation process. We get direct current from the brush terminal.
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is completed by
the end of the short circuit time or the commutation period.
If the reversal of current is completed during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at the
brush contacts and the commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the machine is called
poorly commutated.
For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a DC machine having an armature wound
with ring winding. Let us also consider that the width of the commutator bar is equal to the width of the
brush and current flowing through the conductor is IC.
Let the commutator is moving from left to right. Then the brush will move from right to left.
23
At the first position, the brush is connected the commutator bar b (as shown in fig 1). Then the total
current conducted by the commutator bar b into the brush is 2IC.
When the armature starts to move right, then the brush comes to contact of bar a. Then the armature
current flows through two paths and through the bars a and b (as shown in fig 2). The total current (2I C)
collected by the brush remain same.
As the contact area of the bar a with the brush increases and the contact area of the bar b decreases,
the current flow through the bars increases and decreases simultaneously. When the contact area
become same for both the commutator bar then same current flows through both the bars (as shown in
fig 3).
When the brush contact area with the bar b decreases further, then the current flowing through the coil
B changes its direction and starts to flow counter-clockwise (as shown in fig 4).
When the brush totally comes under the bar a (as shown in fig 5) and disconnected with the bar b then
current IC flows through the coil B in the counter-clockwise direction and the short circuit is removed.
In this process the reversal of current or the process of commutation is done.
There are three methods of sparkles commutation:
1. Resistance Commutation
2. Voltage Commutation
3. Compensating Windings
24
Assignment no.2
Operating Principles of DC Generators
As mentioned before, there are two types of generators based on the output: AC and DC generators.
Direct current generators’ main function is to change mechanical energy into electricity. There are a lot
of sources that provide mechanical energy for DC generators such as engines with internal combustion,
water, gas, and steam turbines, and even hand cranks. There is a reverse function defined for DC
generators: this reverse job can be accomplished by the use of an electrical motor.
DC motor changes the electrical power into mechanical energy. DC generators produce electrical power
based on the principle of faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Based on this law, when a
conductor moves in a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are cut. This leads to an
electromagnetic force induction in the conductor.
To have a clearer answer to the question “what is the working principle of DC generator?”, let’s have a
brief elaboration on its parts and components as well. In the following section, we will tell you very
briefly about the main parts of a DC generator and how they work. keep reading.
1. Major components of DC Generator

A. Armature Reaction
B. Brush Polarity
C. Field Supply
25
A DC Generator is an electrical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It mainly
consists of three main parts, i.e. magnetic field system, armature and commutator and brush gear. The
other parts of a DC Generator are magnetic frame and yoke, pole core and pole shoes, field or exciting
coils, armature core and windings, brushes, end housings, bearings and shafts.
The diagram of the main parts of a 4 pole DC Generator or DC Machine is shown below:
Contents:
 Magnetic Field System of DC Generator

 Magnetic Frame and Yoke
 Pole Core and Pole Shoes
 Field or Exciting Coils
 Armature of DC Generator
 Armature Core
 Armature Windings
 Commutator in DC Generator
 Brushes
 End Housings
 Bearings
 Shaft
Magnetic Field System of DC Generator
26
The Magnetic Field System is the stationary or fixed part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic
flux. The magnetic field system consists of Mainframe or Yoke, Pole core and Pole shoes and Field or
Exciting coils. These various parts of DC Generator are described below in detail.
Magnetic Frame and Yoke
The outer hollow cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter-poles are fixed and by means of which
the machine is fixed to the foundation is known as Yoke. It is made of cast steel or rolled steel for the
large machines and for the smaller size machine the yoke is generally made of cast iron.
The two main purposes of the yoke are as follows:-
 It supports the pole cores and provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the
machines.
 It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
Pole Core and Pole Shoes
The Pole Core and Pole Shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. Since the poles, project
inwards they are called salient poles. Each pole core has a curved surface. Usually, the pole core and
shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations which are riveted together under
hydraulic pressure. The poles are laminated to reduce the Eddy Current loss.
The figure showing the pole core and pole shoe is represented below:
The poles core serves the following purposes given below:
 It supports the field or exciting coils.
27
 They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
 It increases the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, as a result, the reluctance of
the magnetic path is reduced.
Field or Exciting Coils
Each pole core has one or more field coils (windings) placed over it to produce a magnetic field. The
enamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are wound on the
former and then placed around the pole core.
When direct current passes through the field winding, it magnetizes the poles, which in turns produces
the flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when current flows
through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity.
Armature of DC Generator
The rotating part of the DC machine or a DC Generator is called the Armature. The armature consists of
a shaft upon which a laminated cylinder, called Amature Core is placed.
Armature Core
The armature core of DC Generator is cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer
periphery of the armature has grooves or slots which accommodate the armature winding as shown in
the figure below:
28
The armature core of a DC generator or machine serves the following purposes.
 It houses the conductors in the slots.

 It provides an easy path for the magnetic flux.
As the armature is a rotating part of the DC Generator or machine, the reversal of flux takes place in the
core, hence hysteresis losses are produced. The silicon steel material is used for the construction of the
core to reduce the hysteresis losses.
The rotating armature cuts the magnetic field, due to which an emf is induced in it. This emf circulates
the eddy current which results in Eddy Current loss. Thus to reduce the loss the armature core is
laminated with a stamping of about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thickness. Each lamination is insulated from the other
by a coating of varnish.
Armature Winding
The insulated conductors are placed in the slots of the armature core. The conductors are wedged, and
bands of steel wire wound around the core and are suitably connected. This arrangement of conductors
is called Armature Winding. The armature winding is the heart of the DC Machine.
Armature winding is a place where the conversion of power takes place. In the case of a DC Generator
here, mechanical power is converted into electrical power. On the basis of connections, the windings are
classified into two types named as Lap Winding and Wave Winding.
 Lap Winding
In lap winding, the conductors are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths is equal to
the number of poles. Thus, if a machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P
parallel paths, each path will have Z/P conductors connected in series.
In lap winding, the number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths. Out of which half the
brushes are positive and the remaining half are negative.
29
 Wave Winding
In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they are divided into two parallel paths
irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. Thus, if the machine has Z armature conductors,
there will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case number of brushes
is equal to two, i.e. number of parallel paths.
Commutator in DC Generator
The commutator, which rotates with the armature, is cylindrical in shape and is made from a number of
wedge-shaped hard drawn copper bars or segments insulated from each other and from the shaft. The
segments form a ring around the shaft of the armature. Each commutator segment is connected to the
ends of the armature coils.
It is the most important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes.
 It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through
brushes.
 It converts the induced alternating current in the armature conductor into the
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in DC Generator action, whereas it
converts the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the
armature in motor action.
30
Brushes
Carbon brushes are placed or mounted on the commutator and with the help of two or more carbon
brushes current is collected from the armature winding. Each brush is supported in a metal box called
a brush box or brush holder. The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting
link between the armature winding and the external circuit.
The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator can be adjusted and is maintained at a
constant value by means of springs. With the help of the brushes, the current which is produced on the
windings is passed on to the commutator and then to the external circuit.
They are usually made of high-grade carbon because carbon is conducting material and at the same time
in powdered form provides a lubricating effect on the commutator surface.
End Housings
End housings are attached to the ends of the Mainframe and provide support to the bearings. The front
housings support the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housings usually support the
bearings only.
Bearings
The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function of the bearings is to reduce
friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for
the construction of bearings as it is a very hard material.
31
Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to transfer
mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling
fans, etc. are keyed to the shaft.
Armature reaction is the effect on the main field flux of that flux set up by the currents in the armature
winding. The effect is the same for both lap- and wave-wound machines. In a machine called the
amplidyne, the armature reaction is utilised but in the d.c. generator (and the d.c. motor), armature
reaction produces effects which are undesirable.
For simplicity, a two-pole machine will be considered but the effects described are repeated for each
pair of poles. Armature reaction effects are the same for all modes of operation of d.c. motors and
generators.
Fig. 3.7 shows the two main poles of a d.c. generator and the distribution of the magnetic flux which
crosses the airgap and enters the armature. This is the flux distribution existing when the generator is on
no load and it is seen to be symmetrically distributed with respect to the poles. The poles carry
concentrated coils and the rectangular m.m.f. distribution set up when these coils carry current produce
a rectangular flux distribution because the m.m.f. is acting on a uniform airgap and so the flux is
proportional to the m.m.f. at any point.
FIG. 3.7. No-load flux distribution in a d.c. machine.
The convention that has been used when drawing the diagram is that when the direction of the flux
from the poles is downward, the waveform is drawn below the reference OX and when the flux is in an
upwards direction, the waveform of flux distribution is drawn above this line. The vertical chain line
drawn between the poles represents the geometrical neutral plane (G.N.P.) and under no load
conditions, the magnetic neutral plane (M.N.P.) coincides with the G.N.P.
This flux distribution can be shown on an oscilloscope if a search coil connected to a C.R.O. is made to
rotate in the magnetic field.
So far, the flux distribution due to the main poles only has been considered. The flux distribution that
would exist if only the armature windings carried current will now be discussed.
It is assumed in the diagram, Fig. 3.8, that the conductors are moving from right to left and hence by
Fleming's right-hand rule, the direction of the e.m.f. induced in the conductors is as shown. If it is also
assumed that the brushes are so placed on the commutator that they are always connected to coils lying
in the middle of the interpolar gap, that is, to coils lying in the G.N.P., the ⊕ and ⊙ also represent the
32
direction of the current in the armature conductors. Note that all the conductors lying between adjacent
G.N.P.s carry current in the same direction.
FIG. 3.8. Flux produced by armature current in a d.c. machine.
The effective m.m.f. of any winding is the resultant of the m.m.f. set up by each coil carrying a current. A
single armature coil may be represented as shown in Fig. 3.9(a), the coil sides being numbered in this
case by 1, 1′. Progressing round the armature from coil side 1, we come to coil side 1′ and then back to
coil side 1 again. This coil is represented in a different way in Fig. 3.9(b). From 1 to 1′ below the coil, Fig.
3.9(a), the flux enters the rotor from the stator and from 1′ to 1 above the coil, the flux leaves the rotor
and enters the stator.
33
FIG. 3.9. M.M.F. diagrams for an armature winding.
The m.m.f. setting up this flux is represented by the rectangular waveform shown in Fig. 3.9(b) and the
convention used in this book is that if the flux due to the currents is acting downwards, the rectangular
m.m.f. waveform is also drawn in that direction and vice versa. This is an alternative method of stating
the convention given in the previous section.
If two coils are carrying equal currents as shown in Fig. 3.9(c), the resultant m.m.f. is found by adding
the separate m.m.f.s. An easy way of finding the resultant m.m.f. is to draw a line vertically downwards
by a distance representing the current each time a conductor marked ⊕ is reached and vertically
upwards by the same amount every time a conductor marked ⊙ is reached. This has been done, in Fig.
3.9(d) for the conductor arrangement shown in Fig. 3.8. As the windings and currents are symmetrical,
the centre axis, shown by a chain line in Fig. 3.9(d), is inserted by inspection so that the waveform is
symmetrical about this axis.
The armature m.m.f. waveform found by this method in Fig. 3.9(d) approximates to the triangular wave
form shown. It will be seen that the maximum value of the armature m.m.f. is acting along the G.N.P.
34
when the brushes are connected to coils lying in this plane. This m.m.f. sets up a magnetic flux and the
effect of this flux on that set up by the main poles is called armature reaction.
The armature m.m.f. is acting on a relatively small airgap under the main poles and on a long air path of
high reluctance between the poles. Under the poles, the flux set up by the armature m.m.f. will be
proportional to the m.m.f. but between the poles, the flux set up will be quite small even though the
m.m.f. is greatest in this region. Neglecting magnetic saturation, the resultant flux distribution is found
by adding the two separate fluxes. The resultant is also shown in Fig. 3.10 and it will be seen that the
position of the M.N.P., that is, where the resultant flux curve crosses the axis, has moved for the
generator in the direction of rotation of the conductors. This means that the brushes are no longer
connected to coils in which no e.m.f. is being generated and consequently, as the brushes are shorting a
coil in which a current is flowing because of this e.m.f., sparking may result at the brushes.
FIG. 3.10. Resultant flux in the air gap of a d.c. machine.
If the armature currents were greater because of increased load, the armature m.m.f. and the flux
would also be greater and the effect would be that the M.N.P. would move still further in the direction
of the armature rotation and so increase the likelihood of sparking occurring at the brushes.
Fig. 3.10 also shows that an effect of armature reaction is to strengthen the flux under one of the pole
tips and to weaken it under the other. Magnetic saturation under the leading pole tip is likely to occur
and this means that the resultant magnetic flux will not be able to reach the value shown by the solid
line but only reach that shown by removal of the shaded area. The total flux per pole is reduced due to
the effect of armature reaction to a value less than existed when the machine was on no load and this
reduction of flux becomes greater as the load on the generator increases. Thus one effect of armature
reaction is that the generated e.m.f. falls slightly as the generator is loaded.
2. Output Voltage Control
There are mainly two techniques or methods to control the output voltage of a chopper: Time Ratio
Control Method and Current Limit Control. The output voltage of chopper depends on the duty cycle. By
changing the duty cycle, the output voltage can be varied. Both the methods, employ some technique to
vary the duty cycle. In this article, we will focus on Time Ratio Control method for voltage control of
chopper and discuss Pulse Width Modulation and Frequency Modulation schemes.
35
Time Ratio Control Method:
Time Ratio Control is the method of controlling the output voltage of chopper by changing the ON (T ON)
period of chopper while keeping the chopping frequency constant or keeping the TON or TOFF constant
and varying the chopping frequency. Change in chopping frequency essentially means that the total time
period T is changed. In this way, the duty cycle (α) is varied to get the controlled output voltage.
As we know that, the output voltage of chopper is given as
Vo = αVs .............. (1)
Therefore, changing α while keeping T constant will result in change in Vo.
Time Ratio Control is realized in two different strategies called the Constant Frequency
System and Variable Frequency System.
Constant Frequency System or Pulse Width Modulation Technique:

In this technique, the time period of chopper is maintained constant and change in duty cycle is
achieved by changing TON period. Since, time period is constant, chopping frequency will be constant,
hence this scheme is called constant frequency system.
It should be noted that, by changing the ON, the width of output voltage pulse is adjusted to have the
desired output voltage. This is the reason; this method of voltage control of chopper is also known as
Pulse Width Modulation Scheme.
Figure below illustrate the principle of Pulse Width Modulation Scheme / Constant Frequency System.
It may be seen from the above figure that, the ON period is around (1/4)th times the total time period.
Hence, the duty cycle α = (TON / T) = (1/4). Therefore, the output voltage is given from (1) as shown
below.
Vo = (Vs/4)
= 25% of Vs
Thus, output voltage is 25% of input DC voltage. Let us now increase the TON time such that it is 75% of
the total time period T. This is shown below.
36
In the above figure, TON = (3T/4). Duty cycle from this waveform is, therefore, (3/4). This simply means
that, the output voltage Vo will be 75% of the input source voltage Vs.
Thus, we have seen that, changing TON leads to change in duty cycle “α” and hence output voltage Vo.
Ideally α can be varied from ZERO to UNITY. Therefore, output voltage Vo can be controlled from ZERO
to source voltage Vs.
Variable Frequency System or Frequency Modulation Scheme:
In this scheme, the chopping frequency is varied (hence, chopping time period T) either by maintaining
ON time TON or OFF time TOFF. Therefore, the duty cycle of chopper is varied. This method of controlling
duty cycle α is also called Frequency Modulation Scheme.
Figure below illustrate the principle of frequency modulation. In this figure, TON is kept constant but T is
varied.
In the first figure, TON = T/4 so that duty cycle α = 0.25. Therefore, the output voltage Vo will become
0.25Vs from (1). In the lower diagram, TON = 3T/4 so that duty cycle α = 0.75. Therefore, the output
voltage will become 0.75Vs from (1).
37
In the same way, the TOFF period may be varied to get controlled duty cycle α and hence controlled
output voltage. Frequency modulation scheme has some disadvantage as compared to pulse width
modulation scheme of voltage control of chopper. It is described below.
Disadvantage of Frequency Modulation Scheme:
Following are the disadvantage of frequency modulation scheme:
 The chopping frequency has to be varied over a wide range for control of output voltage
in frequency modulation. Filter design for such wide frequency variation is quite
difficult.
 A wide frequency variation is required for control of chopper duty cycle. Therefore,
there is always a chance of interference with signaling and telephone lines in frequency
modulation scheme.
 The large off time in this scheme may make the load current discontinuous which is
undesirable.
Whether Pulse Width Modulation or Frequency Modulation scheme is better?
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) scheme is better than variable frequency scheme. However, PWM
technique has a limitation. In PWM, ON period can not be reduced near to zero. Therefore, low range of
duty cycle is not achievable in this technique. However, this can be achieved by increasing the chopping
period or decreasing the chopping frequency of chopper.
3. Generator Ratings
Definitions
Term Definition
Intermittent The highest output obtainable at SAE standard ambient conditions. These levels may be only maintai
Power for operating periods of short duration
Standby The electrical output of a generator set used for emergency or backup power, for use when normal
Power powerline utilities fail. Usually runs less than 60 hours per year.
Continuous The output which can be obtained at SAE standard ambient conditions, operating in a continuous dut
Power mode. The electrical load on the generator set will usually be steady.
The electrical output of a generator set used as the primary source of power, often running 24 hours
Prime Power The electrical load usually varies.
 Three phase circuits will usually assume a “power factor” (p.f.) of 0.8 lagging.
 The concept of power factor can get a bit confusing but basically it refers to the out-of-phase
relationship between the voltage and the current in an electrical system.
 If actual data are not available, a p.f. of 0.8 is assumed and the power is shown in kiloVolt/Am
(kVA).
 There is a direct relationship between the voltage (V), the current (A), and the power in kW o
kVA.
 The assumption of a 0.8 lagging power factor for three phase circuits is not necessarily a safe
pf – Power assumption. This may be “typical”, if typical exists, of inductive reactance loads such as moto
Factor However, many three phase circuits now incorporate non-linear loads such as variable freque
38
drives that require special attention to correctly size the generator to the load characteristics
Similarly, assuming a 1.0 (unity) power factor for single phase circuits may not always be corr
kW, kilowatts, or sometimes kWm, kilowatts mechanical, refers to the power output from an engine
driving a generator set or, in other words, the mechanical power driving the generator.
To avoid confusion, the electrical output from the generator is often referred to as kWe (or ekW) whi
the actual generator output after efficiency losses within the generator. Electrical power is usually
measured in Watts (W) or thousands of Watts (kilowatts, kWe). kWe is sometimes referred to as “rea
power” while kVA (kilovolt-amperes) is apparent power.
For single phase circuits the relationship is: Amperes x Volts ÷ 1,000 = kW.
kW – For three phase circuits: Volts x 1.73 x Amperes ÷ 1,000 = kVA

kilowatts
If you know the electrical load in Amps and you know the system voltage, you can find the required
kilowatts or kVA from the chart. Similarly, the system’s current can easily be found if you know the kWe
and voltage.
Sizing a Generator Set

Before attempting to size a generator set, gather as much detail about the actual operating conditions
and loads as possible. Sometimes a custom-built generator set—sized for the specific requirements—
can easily pay for its cost in fuel savings, especially where motor starting is a primary consideration.
The following charts are handy guides to find the current (amperes) or kilowatts in an electrical system.
Generator Ratings in Amperes for 3 Phase Outputs at 0.8 Power Factor

KVA KWe 208V 220V 240V 380V 416V 440V 480V 600V
6.3 5 17.5 16.5 15.2 9.6 8.6 8.3 7.6 6.1
9.4 7.5 26.1 24.7 22.6 14.3 13 12.3 11.3 9.1
12.5 10 34.7 33 30.1 19.2 17.3 16.6 15.1 12
18.7 15 52 49.5 45 28.8 26 24.9 22.5 18
25 20 69.5 66 60.2 38.4 43.7 33.2 30.1 24.1
31.3 25 87 82.5 75.5 48 52 41.5 37.8 30.2
37.5 30 104 99 90.3 57.6 62.5 49.8 45.2 36.1
39
43.8 35 125 118 108 68 70 59 54 42.2
50 40 139 131 120 76 78 66 60 48
56.3 45 156 147 135 86 86 74 68 54
62.5 50 173 165 152 96 104 83 76 60
75 60 208 198 181 115 130 99.6 91 72
93.8 75 261 247 226 143 139 123 113 90
100 80 278 264 240 154 173 133 120 96
125 100 347 330 301 192 217 166 150 120
156 125 433 413 375 240 260 208 188 150
187 150 520 495 450 288 304 249 225 180
219 175 608 577 527 335 347 289 264 211
250 200 694 660 601 384 434 332 301 241
312 250 866 825 751 480 521 415 376 301
375 300 1040 990 903 576 607 498 451 361
438 350 1220 1155 1053 672 694 581 527 422
500 400 1390 1320 1203 770 868 665 602 482
625 500 1735 1650 1504 960 868 830 752 602
1) Formula used is A = (KVA x 1000) / (1.73 x Volts)

2) Current ratings are “linear”. For example, a 750 KVa (600 kWe at 0.8 Power Factor) at 480V produces
902 amps, or double the what is shown in the table for 375 kVa
*NEMA Starting Codes for Three Phase Motors KVA / HP Required for Locked Rotor Starting
Code Starting KVA /HP § Typical Motor Size
A 0 – 3.15 (Special)
B 3.15 – 3.55 (Special)
C 3.55 – 4.0 (Special)
D 4.0 – 4.5 (Special)
E 4.5 – 5.0 (Special)
F 5.0 – 5.6 15 H.P. +
40
G 5.6 – 6.3 10 H.P.
H 6.3 – 7.1 5 & 7.5 H.P.
J 7.1 – 8.0 3 H.P.
K 8.0 – 9.0 1.5 & 2 H.P.
L 9.0 – 10.0 1 H.P.
M 10.0 – 11.2 < 1 H.P.
* Starting code letter can be found on Motor Name Plate Data. DO NOT confuse “design code” with
“starting code”.
§ For generator sizing use the higher inrush value. Consult the generator set manufacturer for voltage
dip information and for generator current output capability.
4. Rotation
The term ‘DC motor’ is used to refer to any rotary electrical machine that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. DC motors can vary in size and power from small motors in
toys and appliances to large mechanisms that power vehicles, pull elevators and hoists, and drive steel
rolling mills. But how do DC motors work?
DC motors include two key components: a stator and an armature. The stator is the stationary part of a
motor, while the armature rotates. In a DC motor, the stator provides a rotating magnetic field that
drives the armature to rotate.
A simple DC motor uses a stationary set of magnets in the stator, and a coil of wire with a current
running through it to generate an electromagnetic field aligned with the centre of the coil. One or more
windings of insulated wire are wrapped around the core of the motor to concentrate the magnetic field.
The windings of insulated wire are connected to a commutator (a rotary electrical switch), that applies
an electrical current to the windings. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energised in turn,
creating a steady rotating force (known as torque).
When the coils are turned on and off in sequence, a rotating magnetic field is created that interacts with
the differing fields of the stationary magnets in the stator to create torque, which causes it to rotate.
These key operating principles of DC motors allow them to convert the electrical energy from direct
current into mechanical energy through the rotating movement, which can then be used for the
propulsion of objects.
5. Regulation
The voltage regulation of an alternator or synchronous generator is defined as the rise in the terminal
voltage when the load is decreased from full-load rated value to zero. The speed and field current of the
alternator remain constant.
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In other words, the voltage regulation of the alternator can be defined as the change in terminal voltage
from no-load to full load rated value divided by the full-load rated voltage, i.e.,
Perunitvoltageregulation=|Ea|−|V||V|Perunitvoltageregulation=|𝐸𝑎|−|𝑉||𝑉|
Also, the percentage voltage regulation of the alternator is given by,
Percentagevoltageregulation=|Ea|−|V||V|×100%Percentagevoltageregulation=|𝐸𝑎|−|𝑉||𝑉|×100%
Where,
 |𝐸𝑎| is the magnitude of generated voltage (or no-load voltage) perphase
 |𝑉| is the magnitude of full-load rated terminal voltage per phase
The voltage regulation is like the figure-of-merit of an alternator. The smaller the value of the voltage
regulation of a synchronous generator or alternator, the better is the performance of the alternator. For
an ideal alternator, the value of the voltage regulation is zero.
The voltage regulation of an alternator depends upon the power factor of the load, i.e.,
 An alternator operating at a unity power factor has a small positive voltage regulation.
 An alternator operating at a lagging power factor has a large positive voltage regulation.
 An alternator operating at lower leading power factors, the voltage rises with increase of
the load and hence, the voltage regulation is negative.
 For a certain leading power factor, the full-load voltage regulation is zero. In this case,
both the full-load and no-load terminal voltages are the same.
Voltage Regulation of Alternator using Direct Loading Method
In the direct load test, the alternator is run at synchronous speed and its terminal voltage is adjusted to
its rated value (V). Now, the load is varied until the ammeter and wattmeter connected in the test circuit
indicate the rated values at the given power factor. Then, the load is removed and the speed and the field
excitation of the alternator are kept constant and the no-load voltage (Ea) of the alternator is recorded.
The voltage regulation of the alternator can be determined using these values as follows −
Percentagevoltageregulation=|Ea|−|V||V|×100%Percentagevoltageregulation=|𝐸𝑎|−|𝑉||𝑉|×100%
The direct load test of alternator for determining the voltage regulation is suitable only for small
alternators of power rating less than 5 kVA.
For large alternators, the following three indirect methods are used to determine the voltage regulation
of the alternator, which are given as follows −
 Synchronous impedance method or EMF method.
 Ampere-turn method or MMF method.
 Zero power factor method or Potier triangle method.
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Assignment no.3
I The Separately-Excited DC Generator
OBJECTIVES
• explain the relationship of field current, field flux, and output voltage for a separately-excited
dc generator.
• describe the effects on the brush polarity of reversing the armature rotation and the field
current.
• define residual flux and residual voltage.
• draw and explain the basic circuit.
• connect the generator.
The separately-excited dc generator has few commercial applications, but a knowledge of its
operations is an excellent background for understanding other types of generators.
Ill. 1 Separately-excited dc generator connections: field rheostat; rotating armature; field

winding
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Ill. 2 Factors affecting brush polarity: (A) Reversing Armature Rotation Reverses Brush
Polarity; (B) Reversing Field Current Reverses Brush Polarity
Using a separate source of dc power, S1 is closed as in figure 1, as dc current flows through the
coil of wire wound around the iron core, a magnetic field is produced. The amount of field
current is controlled by the resistance of the field winding and the variable resistor, known as the
field rheostat. By adjusting the field current, the strength of-the magnetic field is controlled. The
field flux or magnetic strength of the magnetic poles is increased as the field current is increased
until magnetic saturation occurs. Saturation of the magnetic field means that no more magnetic
flux can be produced even with an increase in field current. The magnetic polarity of the field
poles is controlled by the direction of the dc field current.
The output voltage of the generator is developed as an induced voltage in the armature
conductors. This induced voltage appears at the brushes and the generator output terminals
designated as A1 and A2 in ill.
The output voltage is directly proportional to the speed of the rotation and the strength of the
magnetic field. As the speed of the rotor is increased, the output voltage will also increase. There
is, however, a limit to the safe operating speed of the rotor before physical damage occurs.
Likewise, the output voltage can be controlled up to a point by adjusting the field current.
BRUSH POLARITY
When the armature is driven in either direction, an electrical polarity is established at the
generator output terminals and at the brushes. If the machine is stopped and then driven in the
opposite direction, the field flux is cut in the opposite direction and the brush polarity changes, as
in figure 2A.
If the direction of rotation isn't changed and the field current is reversed, the same effect is
obtained; that's , if the armature conductors maintain a rotation in one direction and field flux is
established in the opposite direction, then the brush polarity also changes, as in figure 2B.
As a result, the brush polarity in a separately-excited generator can be changed by reversing the
rotation of the armature or the direction of the field current. However, if both the armature
direction and field current change, the brush polarity would remain the same (unchanged).
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
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The magnitude of the voltage depends on the rate at which the flux is cut. In a separately-excited
generator, an output voltage increase is proportional to an increase in the armature speed. The
upper limit of the voltage is determined by the permissible speed and the insulation qualities of
the armature and the commutator.
The output voltage of a separately-excited generator can be varied by adjusting the speed of the
armature rotation or the field current. A change in speed always results in a corresponding
change in output voltage. An increase in field current increases the output voltage only if the
field poles are not saturated. Field control of the output voltage is accomplished by varying the
total resistance of the field circuit with a field rheostat, as illustrated in 1.
RESIDUAL VOLTAGE
If the field circuit's opened at S1 ( 1 ) the field current becomes zero. A small amount of
magnetic flux called residual flux remains, which is caused by residual magnetism. The small
voltage generated when the armature cuts this flux is called residual voltage. Brush polarity
remains the same when the field current is zero because the residual flux has the same direction
as the main flux. If the armature is rotated in the opposite direction, the same residual voltage is
obtained at the same speed but the brush polarity reverses. If the field circuit's closed
momentarily and the battery connections are reversed, the residual flux reverses and the brush
polarity reverses.
SUMMARY
Generation of dc voltage depends on three factors: a magnetic field, motion, and conductors.
Separately-excited generators use a separate dc voltage to control the source of field excitation.
By increasing the field current, field flux can be increased. By control ling the direction of field
current through the coils, the magnetic polarity is established.
Output voltage level is controlled by the speed of the rotating armature and strength of the
magnetic field. The polarity of the output voltage is controlled by the direction of rotation of the
armature and the direction the magnetic fiel
II The Self-Excited Shunt Generator
OBJECTIVES:
• identify a self-excited shunt generator from a circuit diagram.
• describe the way in which the voltage buildup occurs for this type of generator.
• list the causes for a failure of the voltage to build up.
• describe three methods which can be used to renew residual magnetism:
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• define voltage control and voltage regulation.
• draw the basic circuit.
Most dc generators of the shunt type are self excited. A generator is called a shunt generator
when its field circuit's connected in parallel with the armature and load. In the field circuit, itself,
a four-pole winding may be connected in series, parallel, or series-parallel. The circuit
arrangement of the field windings does not affect the classification of the generator because the
field windings, as a group, are connected in parallel with the armature and load.
Ill. 1 Self-excited shunt generator
VOLTAGE BUILDUP
ill 1 shows the schematic diagram of a self-excited shunt generator. Voltage control is obtained
with a field rheostat. Unlike the separately excited generator, there is no current in the field
circuit when the armature is motionless. Since a small amount of residual magnetism is present
in the field poles, a weak residual voltage is induced in the armature as soon as the armature is
rotated. This residual voltage produces a weak current in the field circuit. If this current is in the
proper direction, an increase in magnetic strength occurs with a corresponding increase in
voltage output. The increased voltage output, in turn, increases the field current and the field flux
which, again, increase the voltage output. As a result of this action, the output voltage builds up
until the increasing field current saturates the field poles. Once the poles are saturated, the
voltage remains at a constant level, unless the speed of the armature rotation is changed.
If the direction of armature rotation is reversed, the brush polarity also is reversed. The residual
voltage now produces a field current which weakens the residual magnetism and the generator
voltage fails to build up. Therefore, a self-excited machine develops its operating voltage for one
direction of armature rotation only. The generator load switch may be closed when the desired
voltage is reached.
LOSS AND RENEWAL OF RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
A shunt generator may not develop its rated operating voltage due to a loss of residual
magnetism. The residual flux may be renewed by momentarily connecting a low-volt age dc
source across the field circuit. Several methods can be used to renew the residual magnetism.
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Method 1
a. Disconnect the field circuit leads from the brushes.
b. Momentarily connect a storage battery or low-voltage dc source to the field circuit leads. To
maintain the desired brush polarity, connect the positive terminal of the battery to the field lead
normally attached to the positive generator brush.
Method 2
a. If it's inconvenient to detach the field leads and the brush assembly can be reached, lift either
the positive or the negative brush and insert a piece of heavy, dry paper between the brush and
the commutator segments.
b. Momentarily connect a battery to the output leads. With the brush lifted, current passes
through the field circuit only. (To maintain the original brush polarity, connect the positive
terminal of the battery to the positive generator output terminal.)
c. Remove the paper under the brush before restarting the generator.
Method 3
a. If it can be done readily, disconnect the generator from its prime mover.
b. Then, restore the residual field by momentarily connecting a battery to the generator output
leads. Since the field circuit's connected across the output leads, the current renews the magnetic
field.
Caution: If the armature isn't free to rotate, damage to the armature assembly may occur. When
the battery voltage is high enough in Method 3, the generator armature rotates as a motor. The
rotation produced does not contribute to restoring the residual flux. How ever, this effect, called
motorizing, is useful because it's a rough check of the overall generator operation. That is, the
armature should rotate freely if the voltage applied is a sizable fraction of the rated output
voltage, with the direction of armature rotation opposite to the proper direction of rotation for a
generator. Use a reduced voltage for large motors.
Brush Polarity
To maintain the original brush polarity when renewing the residual magnetism, the electrical
polarities of the output leads and the exciting battery must be matched. In other words, the
positive terminal of the battery must be connected to the positive output terminal of the generator
and the negative battery terminal must be connected to the negative generator terminal.
The motorizing test should never be used for restoring residual flux if the generator armature is
mechanically engaged to the prime mover and cannot rotate freely. A strong current through the
motionless armature sets up a powerful magnetic field on the armature core. This magnetic field
47
may overpower and reverse the main field flux, causing a reversal of the brush polarity when the
generator is restarted. If there is any doubt as to whether or not the armature can be disconnected
completely from the prime mover, it's preferable to isolate and energize the field circuit only,
either by lifting the brushes or disconnecting the field leads.
CRITICAL FIELD RESISTANCE
A shunt generator may fail to reach its operating voltage even though its residual magnetic field
is satisfactory. This failure may be due to excessive resistance in the field circuit. Any generator
has critical field resistance. The presence of resistance in the field circuit in excess of this critical
value causes the generator to fail to build up to its rated operating voltage.
Since field rheostats are used to control the voltage output at rated speed, it's important to reduce
the resistance of the field rheostats to a minimum value before investigating other possible faults
in the event of failure to develop rated voltage.
BRUSH CONTACT RESISTANCE
Contact resistance at the brushes is another reason for the failure of the generator to develop its
operating voltage. Since the field circuit's completed through the armature, any resistance
introduced at this point is effectively in the field circuit. Additional pres sure applied to the
brushes may indicate trouble from this source.
Improper connection of the field circuit leads at the brushes is also a cause of failure to build up
rated voltage. An improper connection can be discovered by reversing these leads.
ROTATION
When a dc shunt generator is used in special applications, it may be necessary for the armature to
rotate in a direction opposite to that specified by the manufacturer. To develop voltage buildup in
these instances, the field circuit leads at the brushes must be reversed.
RATINGS
Shunt generators are rated for speed, voltage, and current. Generators used in aircraft and
automobiles operate through a wide range of speeds, but must maintain a constant load voltage.
Voltage regulators which automatically change field resistance are used.
Generators designed for operation at a constant rated speed must not be operated above this
value, unless the field circuit's protected from the effects of excessive current by current-limiting
devices.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE CONTROL
Field rheostats are used to control the voltage output of shunt generators. At a given speed, the
rheostat can be used only to bring the output voltage to values below the rated voltage obtainable
48
without a field control. Values above the normal rated voltage can be obtained only by operating
the generator above normal speed.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
The terms voltage regulation and voltage control are often confused. Voltage control refers to
intentional changes in the terminal voltage made by manual or automatic regulating equipment,
such as a field rheostat.
Voltage regulation refers to automatic changes in the terminal voltage due to reactions within the
generator as the load current changes.
Voltage regulation is defined as the percent difference between the voltage output when there
is no electrical load (EnL) and the terminal voltage at full rated current capacity (EfL) . The
formula used to determine the percent of voltage regulation as follows:
[(EnL-EfL) / EfL] x 100 = % regulation
E.g., it's inherent in the design of a shunt generator for the output voltage to fall off as the load
increases. If the drop is severe, the generator is said to have poor voltage regulation.
SUMMARY
A self-excited shunt generator has the field coils and the field rheostat shunted across the
armature connections. If there is residual magnetism left in the field iron, then spinning the
armature will produce residual voltage. This residual voltage is normally enough to begin the
generation process. If there isn't enough residual voltage, then the residual magnetism must be
re-established. Self-excited generators must have the field polarity correctly established and the
armature spinning in the proper direction to develop output voltage. The output voltage can be
controlled by adding or removing resistance to the shunt field circuit.
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Assignment no.4
SELF-EXCITED COMPOUND-WOUND DC GENERATOR
1. The Series Generator

n these types of generators the field windings, armature windings and external load circuit all are
connected in series as shown in figure below.
Therefore, the same current flows through armature winding, field winding and the load.
Let, I = Ia = Isc = IL
Here, Ia = armature current
Isc = series field current
IL = load current
There are generally three most important characteristics of series wound DC generator which
show the relation between various quantities such as series field current or excitation current,
generated voltage, terminal voltage and load current.
Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The curve which shows the relation between no load voltage and the field excitation current is
called magnetic or open circuit characteristic curve. As during no load, the load terminals are
open circuited, there will be no field current in the field since, the armature, field and load are
series connected and these three make a closed loop of circuit. So, this curve can be obtained
practically be separating the field winding and exciting the DC generator by an external source.
Here in the diagram below AB curve is showing the magnetic characteristic of series wound DC
generator. The linearity of the curve will continue till the saturation of the poles. After that there
will be no further significant change of terminal voltage of DC generator for increasing field
current. Due to residual magnetism there will be a small initial voltage across the armature that is
why the curve started from a point A which is a little way up to the origin O.
Internal Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The internal characteristic curve gives the relation between voltage generated in the armature
and the load current. This curve is obtained by subtracting the drop due to the demagnetizing
50
effect of armature reaction from the no load voltage. So, the actual generated voltage (Eg) will be
less than the no load voltage (E 0 ). That is why the curve is slightly dropping from the open
circuit characteristic curve. Here in the diagram below OC curve is showing the internal
characteristic or total characteristic of the series wound DC generator.
External Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The external characteristic curve shows the variation of terminal voltage (V) with the load
current (IL). Terminal voltage of this type of generator is obtained by subtracting the ohomic
drop due to armature resistance (Ra) and series field resistance (Rsc) from the actually generated
voltage (Eg).
Terminal voltage V = Eg – I(Ra + R sc)
The external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve because the value of
terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage. Here in the figure OD curve is showing the
external characteristic of the series wound DC generator.
It can be observed from the characteristics of series wound DC generator, that with the
increase in load (load is increased when load current increases) the terminal voltage of the
machine increases. But after reaching its maximum value it starts to decrease due to excessive
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. This phenomenon is shown in the figure by the dotted
line. Dotted portion of the characteristic gives approximately constant current irrespective of the
external load resistance. This is because if load is increased, the field current is increased as field
is series connected with load. Similarly if load is increased, armature current is increased as the
armature is also series connected with load. But due to saturation, there will be no further
significance raise of magnetic field strength hence any further increase in induced voltage. But
due to increased armature current, the affect of armature reaction increases significantly which
causes significant fall in load voltage. If load voltage falls, the load current is also decreased
proportionally since current is proportional to voltage as per Ohm’s law. So, increasing load,
tends to increase the load current, but decreasing load voltage, tends to decrease load current.
Due these two simultaneous effects, there will be no significant change in load current in dotted
portion of external characteristics of series wound DC generator. That is why series DC
generator is called constant current DC generator.
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2. The Shunt Generator
The DC shunt generator working principle is similar to a normal generator like
electromagnetic induction. In this generator, the connection of field winding can be shunt toward
the armature. Once input is provided through the prime mover, then the conductor can be turned
within the permanent magnetic field. Because of this reason, the flow of current will be induced
within the conductors which are arranged under the magnetic field influence.
Based on the electromagnetic Faraday’s law, an electromagnetic force will be induced within the
conductors once a conductor is turned within the magnetic field. So this induced emf can be
utilized for generating energy and this energy can be used through other mechanical devices.
The flow of current-induced throughout the armature winding is irregular. So the armature
winding output is irregular frequently. Here AC is changed into the DC due to the commutator.
In this way, a DC output can be attained within a DC shunt generator.
DC Shunt Generator Diagram
The DC shunt generator working diagram is given below.
DC Shunt Generator Diagram

The field windings within a DC shunt generator are connected in parallel through the armature
conductors. Here, the field winding includes a number of windings along with a thin wire
including high resistance.
The connection of load can be done beyond the armature that is shown in the following diagram.
A small current will supply throughout the field winding & a huge current supply will be there
throughout the armature winding.
In the above generator diagram,
The shunt field current is ‘Ish’
Armature current is ‘Ia’
The load current is ‘IL’

‘Ra’ Resistance of armature winding
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‘V’ is a terminal voltage
‘Vbr’ is a contact drop of brush
Armature current can be provided through Ia = IL + Ish

Ish (Shunt field current) = V/Rsh, wherever Rsh is shunt field resistance
The equation for terminal voltage can be provided through V = Eg – Ia Ra – Vbr
Developed power within the DC generator is Eg Ia
Power transmitted toward the load = V*IL
Armature Current Ia = Ish + IL

Shunt Field Current Ish = V/Rsh
Terminal Voltage V = Eg -IaRa
Power Generated = Pg = Eg x Ia
Power transmitted to the load PL = V x IL
emf equation of dc shunt generator Eg = (PɸZN/60A) Volts
Features
The features of dc generator include the following.

 These are capable of generating a huge range of constant o/p.
 These generators include a huge terminal load.
 These are simple to design & construct.
 These are used to give changeable output power.
 DC generators are extremely consistent including 85-95%. of efficiency.
 They are solid & less weight.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
The characteristics of DC shunt generator mainly include open circuit characteristics, internal
characteristics & load or external characteristics which are discussed below.
Open Circuit Characteristics
The Open circuit characteristic of a shunt generator is shown below that is similar to a series
generator.
The OA line signifies the resistance of the shunt field circuit. Once this dc generator runs at the
usual speed, then it will build up an OM voltage.
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Open Circuit Characteristics
At no-load conditions, the generator’s terminal voltage will be stable which is signified through
the MC horizontal dotted line.
Internal Characteristics
Once the dc shunt generator is loaded, then flux for each pole can be decreased because of the
armature reaction. Thus, e.m.f. can be produced on load is low as compared to the e.m.f.
produced at no load. Consequently, the internal characteristics like E/Ia will fall down a little.
Internal Characteristics
Load Characteristics
In the above characteristics diagram, the second curve shows the load characteristics of the dc
shunt generator. It provides the main relationships among the terminal voltage like V & loads
current like IL.
V = E – IaRa = > E – (IL + Ish)*Ra
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Thus, exterior characteristics will recline under the curve of internal characteristic through the
sum equivalent to fall in the armature circuit-like (IL + Ish)Ra
It may be observed from the exterior characteristic curve that the change within terminal voltage
from no-load to full load is minute. The voltage at the terminal can be maintained constant by
always regulating the R (field rheostat) routinely.
Magnetization Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
For a DC shunt generator action, the magnetic field is required that is provided through
permanent magnets, electromagnets which gets exciting current through an exterior source &
excited electromagnets from the obtained current of the DC generator itself.
The main purpose of permanent magnets is limited to extremely small generators. In a compound
generator, the fields like series & shunt may be linked so as to assist each other. When the total
flux generates then it produces a high emf, so this connection is called cumulative.
However, the series & shunt windings are connected then the flux arrangement through one
resists the other, after that the induced emf will be lesser. So this kind of connection can be
called the differential.
The normal magnetization characteristic curve for a DC shunt generator is shown below. The
produced voltage like ‘Ea’ is linked toward the field winding current. This generator generates a
voltage Ea even in the absence of a current ‘If’.
The tiny voltage on zero excitation is mainly because of the residual magnetism within the
material pole.
The magnetization curve increases suddenly whereas the magnetic circuit is unsaturated. When
the magnetic circuit saturates then the curve flattens out.
There is an Rc (critical field resistance) that lets a generator be self-exciting. In the generator, the
voltage can be increased, once the whole resistance within the field should be low as compared
to the critical resistance or Rc.
For the rated machine speed, the critical resistance can be verified from the curve of
magnetization. To achieve this, a tangent line can be drawn toward the magnetization curve
beginning from the source. The tangent slope line mainly signifies the Rc or critical field
resistance.
Load Test on DC Shunt Generator
Aim: To perform a load test on a DC shunt generator, here is the experiment. So that we can
illustrate its internal & external load characteristics. The required components of this experiment
includes M.C type Ammeter (0 to 20mA & 0 to 2mA, M.C type Voltmeter (0 – 300 Volts), Wire
Wound Rheostats Wire (0 to 370 ohms/1.7 A) & Digital tachometer (0 to 3000 rpm).
55
Name-plate details for motor and generator includes voltage, speed, current & o/p
Working Procedure
As per the circuit diagram above shown, give the connections and maintain the motor field
rheostat within the least position & the generator field rheostat in the highest position at the
beginning.
Begin the MG set & get it to the generator’s rated speed by adjusting the motor field rheostat.
Maintain the speed stable at this rate during the DC load test because the generated emf mainly
depends on motor speed.
Change the voltage of the terminal to the rated value through the generator field rheostat.
Maintain the rheostat within this location throughout the test because s its difference changes the
circuit field resistance & thus the generated emf.
Apply the electric load to note the load current (IL) values; terminal voltage (V) & field current.
If at dissimilar values of the electric load until complete load current is attained. Analyze the
armature current within every case like Ia = IL + If
Give the measurement connections for the armature resistance. Make a note of the voltage fall
like Va beyond the armature for various current values flowing through it. In every case,
armature resistance can be measured
Ra = Va /I, Ra (Hot) = 1.25 Ra. Note down the values which are close together like the armature
resistance ‘Ra’
Measure the produced e.m.f. at every load current value E = V + IaRa
Illustrate external characteristics versus V & IL and also internal characteristics like E versus IL
Characteristics
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Applications
The applications of DC shunt generators include the following.

 This motor is used for electroplating
 These motors are used for battery charging
 Used in stable voltage applications
 They provide lighting & excitation to alternators.
 These are used to offer field excitation current within DC locomotives for regenerative
braking.
 These are used where speed control is required like in DC motors.
 These are used as portable generators wherever less power supply is necessary
 DC generators are used as dynamos within motorcycles, in toys & in appliances like
electric shavers.
 These DC generators are used within arc welding where high voltage drop & stable
current are necessary.
Thus, this is all about an overview of the DC shunt generator. A DC shunt generator is one kind
of electric generator where both the windings like field & armature are allied within parallel. So
the armature provides both the field & load currents. A DC generator without a permanent
magnet needs a DC field for excitation. Here the field is excited separately through a DC source
like a battery so that the DC shunt generator offers the required energy for the field current. Here
is a question for you, what are the different types of DC motor available?
A. Short Shunt
B. Long Shunt
In a Compound Wound Generator, there are two sets of the field winding on each pole. One of
them is connected in series having few turns of thick wire, and the other is connected in parallel
having many turns of fine wire with the armature windings.
In other words, the generator which has both shunt and series fields is called the
compound wound generators.
If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt
winding, then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes
the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the differentially compounded.
It is connected in two ways. One is a long shunt compound generator, and another is a short
shunt compound generator.
If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the machine is called the
short compound generator. In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field is connected in
series with the armature. The two types of generators are discussed below in details.
Contents:
 Long Shunt Compound Generator
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 Short Shunt Compound Generator
Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a long shunt-wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel with both armature and
series field winding. The connection diagram of the long shunt-wound generator is shown below:
Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
The shunt field current is given as:
Series field current is given as:
Terminal voltage is given as:
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If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:
Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel
with the armature winding only. The connection diagram of a short shunt-wound generator is
shown below.
Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator
Series field current is given as:
The shunt field current is given as:
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Terminal voltage is given as:
If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:
In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding. The
shunt field is stronger than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding
assists the flux produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively
Compound Wound generator.
If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be Differentially
Compounded.
3. Compound Generator
OBJECTIVES
• state the differences between a shunt generator and a compound-wound generator.
• define what is meant by a cumulative compound-wound generator and a differential compound-

wound generator.
• describe how the voltage regulation of a generator is improved by compound windings.
• list changes in output voltage at full load due to the effects of over-compounding, flat
compounding, under-compounding, and differential compounding.
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• draw the basic generator circuit.
The voltage regulation of a generator is an important factor in deciding the type of load to which
the generator should be connected. For lighting loads, a constant terminal voltage should be
maintained when the load current increases. A simple shunt generator can only do this if
expensive regulating equipment is also used.
Generators designed to maintain a constant voltage within reasonable load limits may have a
double winding in the field circuit. The second winding is wound on top of, or adjacent to, the
main winding. This second winding is called the series winding to distinguish it from the main
shunt winding. The series winding has fewer turns than the shunt winding. Since the series
winding is connected in series with the armature and load, it carries the full-load current, and is
heavier gauge wire than the shunt field. A generator with such a double-field winding is called a
compound-wound generator.
ill 4 shows the basic circuits of two ways to connect a compound-wound generator: the long
shunt and the short shunt. In the short shunt circuit (A), the main shunt field is connected directly
across the brushes; in the long shunt circuit (B), the shunt field is connected across the
combination of the armature and the series field. The operating characteristics of these circuits
are quite similar, but the short shunt is preferred because the shunt field remains more constant
and isn't affected by changes caused by the series field.
Ill. 1A Short shunt compound generator connection. A. SHORT SHUNT CONNECTION;
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SHUNT FIELD; SERIES FIELD; FIELD RHEOSTAT. Ill. 1B Long shunt compound generator
connection: B. LONG SHUNT CONNECTION
COMPOUND FIELD WINDINGS
Two important details of the compound-wound generator must be considered: (1) the relative
direction of the currents through both windings of a particular field pole, and (2) the magnetic
effects which these currents can produce.
The series and shunt windings of a single pole of a compound-wound generator are shown in,
figure 2. Winding (A) is the series winding through which the load current passes; winding (B) is
the normal shunt winding. If the load current is in the direction illustrated in 2, the magnetizing
force of the series winding (A) will aid the shunt winding (B) and increase the strength of the
magnetic field. The current in the shunt winding isn't normally strong enough to saturate the
core. If the load current through the series winding is in the direction opposite to that illustrated
in 2, its effect will be to weaken the magnetic field.
Ill. 2 Compound field windings: GENERATOR FIELD POLE.
When the series winding is connected to aid the shunt winding, the generator is called a
cumulative compound-wound generator; if the series winding is connected to oppose the
magnetic field, it's called a differential compound-wound generator.
The action of two fields in changing the flux density can be used to improve the volt age
regulation of a normal shunt generator. As you recall, as a load is applied in the shunt generator,
the output voltage falls because of internal resistance, armature reaction, and the reduction of
voltage applied to the field circuit. If the field strength can be automatically increased in
proportion to load current as it increases, the output voltage can be maintained at a constant
level, increased, or decreased. This is the objective in adding the series winding to the compound
generator. As the load current increases in a cumulative-compound connected generator, it passes
through the series winding and increases the flux. The additional voltage induced by cutting this
flux compensates for the voltage loss due to armature resistance, armature reaction, and lower
shunt field voltage.
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The number of turns in the series field helps determine the degree of compounding which is
achieved. A large number of turns in the series winding produces over-compounding (a voltage
increase at full load as compared to the output voltage at no load). A small number of series turns
produces a reduced voltage at full load. This effect is called under-compounding.
Flat compound generators have the same voltage output at no load and full load. In industry, this
type of generator is used where the distance between the generator and the load is short and line
resistance is minimal. Over-compounding generators are used when the transmission distance is
long, as in traction service, and the voltage at the end of the line must remain fairly constant.
A comparison of the voltage regulation of a shunt generator and a compound generator for both
cumulative and differential connections is illustrated in 3.
Ill. 3 Compound generator load characteristics.
OUTPUT VOLTAGE CONTROL
The rated voltage of a compound generator operating at rated speed is set by adjusting the field
rheostat. Since the compounding effect of the series field changes with speed, it's important to
operate a compound generator at its rated speed.
Variation of Compounding
In general, compound-wound generators are designed by the manufacturer to have an over-

compounding effect. The amount of compounding can be changed to any desired value by using
a diverter rheostat across the series field. In fgr4, a diverter rheostat (R) is connected in shunt
(parallel) with the series winding. If the resistance of the diverter is set at a high value, the load
current passes through the series winding to produce a maximum compounding effect. If the
diverter is set at its minimum value, no load current passes through the series winding and the
generator acts like a normal shunt generator. By adjusting the rheostat to intermediate values,
any degree of compounding within these limits can be obtained. Flat compounding results when
“no load” voltage is equal to “full load” voltage.
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Ill. 4 Diverter circuit: diverter rheostat, shunt field rheostat
SUMMARY
Compound-wound generators use a series field, connected in series with the load, to react to
current load changes. It is connected to aid the shunt field or to oppose the shunt field. In most dc
generators the series field will be connected so that the magnetic field produced, aids the shunt
field flux. This connection is called a cumulative connection. The degree of compounding can be
controlled by a diverter rheostat. If the series field is connected so that the resultant flux opposes
the shunt field flux, then the output voltage drops with an increase in current-draw and the
generator is differentially connected.
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Assignment No.5
DC MOTOR
I Characteristics of DC Motor
DC motors are the most common type of motor for low voltage and/or high starting torque
applications, most often seen in the automotive and agricultural industries.
DC Motor Construction and Operation
A DC motor is comprised of a wound armature, commutator, brushes and magnets—all within a

totally-enclosed housing.
Rotation occurs when the magnetic field of the motor—created by the permanent magnets in the
housing—interacts with the commutator through graphite or carbon brushes.
DC Motor Characteristics
 Runs on DC power or AC line voltage with a rectifier

 Operating speeds of 1,000 to 5,000 rpm
 60-75% efficiency rate
 High starting torque
 Low no-load speeds
DC Motor Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
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High maintenance due to low brush life (2,000
Operates on DC power supply without a control
hrs max in continuous duty applications)
Inexpensive controls for speed regulation Cogging at speeds of less than 300 rpm
Significant power loss on full wave rectified

Generally a low-cost motor option
voltage
Easily pairs with gear reducers High starting torque can damage reducers
DC Motor Performance Curves
Here we have the typical speed-torque curve of the DC motor.
Looking closely, we can see an interesting phenomenon with the hot motor curve. As the motor
temperature rises, the no-load speed also increases. This is due to the effect heat has on the
magnets. As the motor cools down, the speed will return to normal. The same concept applies to
the other end of the curve where stall torque is reduced for a “hot” motor. Notice the efficiency
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curve and how under ideal circumstances the motor’s peak efficiency will occur near the motor’s
operating torque.
AC, Brushless DC, and DC Motors can be used with a control to adjust motor speed. Generally,
fractional horsepower DC motors don’t need to rely on controls for optimal performance, unlike
AC and BLDC motors. DC controls operate by varying the voltage sent to the motor.
DC Motor Wrap Up
To pull everything together, DC motors are great when needing a fairly inexpensive motor
option with high starting torque capabilities. Their versatility with power supply gives them the
ability to run in portable or remote locations.
II Principles of DC Motor Operation
A DC motor is a type of electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
They take electrical power through direct current and convert this energy into mechanical
rotation. Today, DC motors have become an integral part of the industrial sector and are used for
various applications, such as electric vehicle propulsion, elevators, cranes, and steel rolling mill
drives. In this article, we will discuss the working principle of DC motor. Follow this new blog
in Linquip to find out more.
DC Motor Components
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To understand the working principle of DC motor, let’s first look at the components used in its
construction. A DC motor usually looks like a cylindrical device with a shaft extending out of it
that rotates on applying DC. This action is carried out by arranging the following components in
a particular manner.
Stator
A stator, or a steel yoke, is a cylindrical metal casing inside which all the other elements of a DC
motor are placed. One face of the stator contains a vertical shaft coming out of it, while the other
face has the two terminals to which the DC power supply is connected.
Magnets
There are two stationary permanent magnets installed inside the stator of a DC motor. They act
as the north and south poles of a magnet by setting up a horizontal magnetic field across them.
Armature
In electrical engineering, the term armature refers to a structure of rotating coils under the
influence of electromagnetic force. In a DC motor, an armature is composed of a rotor placed
between the two magnets. A rotor is a structure of laminated discs wrapped around by a
conducting field coil. The shaft pointing out of the motor passes along the axis of the armature
and rotates along with it.
Field Coil
The field coil or field winding in a DC motor is a coil of copper wires that replaces the
permanent magnets attached to the inside walls of the stator. When DC from a battery is passed
through this coil, it forms an electromagnet whose polarity can be controlled, setting up a desired
magnetic field.
Commutator
A commutator is a hollow cylindrical piece segmented at many spots to reverse the polarity of
the electromagnetic armature coil inside the DC motor. It is a critical part of a motor to work on
a DC power supply. It sits at the end of the armature around the shaft. The ends of the armature
coil are connected to the commutator, while all other parts, except brushes, are electrically
isolated from it.
Brushes
The brushes in a DC motor are the components that connect the static terminals to the rotating
parts of the motor. They are usually made of carbon graphite since it is a great conductor of
electricity and have excellent lubricant properties. The commutator is positioned between the
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two brushes, which are further connected to the motor’s terminals, completing the circuit with
the DC power source.
Construction of DC Motor
Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their construction.
There are two main parts of the DC motor.
 Armature
 Stator
The rotating part is the armature and the Stator is their stationary part. The armature coil is
connected to the DC supply.
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The armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The commutator converts the AC induces
in the armature into DC and brushes transfer the current from rotating part of the motor to the
stationary external load. The armature places between the north and south pole of the permanent or
electromagnet.
Working Principle of DC Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The
basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying conductor places in
the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. A DC motor works on the principle that
whenever a current-carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, it experiences a
magnetic force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule. In other words, the DC
motor spins due to the interaction of the permanent magnet’s magnetic field with the magnetic
field of the current-carrying electromagnet.
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Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude decide the direction of this force
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
Fleming’s Left-hand rule is a mnemonic tool to understand the mutually perpendicular

relationship between the current, an applied magnetic field, and induced force in an electric
motor. If we extend the index finger, middle finger, and the thumb of the left hand in mutually
perpendicular directions, aligning the middle finger with the conventional direction of current
inside the current and the index finger with the applied magnetic field, then the thumb gives the
direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
F = BIL Newtons
Where,
B = magnetic flux density,
I = current and
L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the

winding. Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provide the magnetic field. In
this case, current-carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.
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To understand how this acts inside a DC motor, let’s discuss the working of a DC motor in more
detail.
The working principle of DC motor requires magnetic flux and a current-carrying conductor.
Consider a coil carrying DC current through commutator and brushes. These commutator
segments rotate freely around their axis. The commutator segment which comes in contact with
the left brush gets positive polarity while the right one gets negative polarity. This leads to the
flow of current in the coil.
By applying Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule, the conductor on the left side always experiences a force
in an upward direction while the conductor on the right side experiences a downward force.
Hence, a unidirectional torque is achieved in DC motors.
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Back EMF
The interaction of the current-carrying conductor with the changing magnetic field produced by
the field winding induces an EMF in the conductor. This EMF acts in the opposite direction to
the applied voltage. This induced EMF in the motor is known as Back EMF.
The magnitude of back EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the motor. Consider the load
on a DC motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, the required torque will be small as compared to
the current torque. The speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence,
being proportional to the speed, the magnitude of the back EMF will also increase. With
increasing back EMF armature current will start decreasing. With the torque being proportional
to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient for the load. Thus, the
speed of the motor will regulate.
On the other hand, if a DC motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause a decrease in the speed.
Due to a decrease in speed, the back EMF will also decreases which allows more armature
current. Due to an increase in armature current, the torque will increase to fulfill the load
requirement.
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Magnitude of Torque
The torque of DC motor
The torque produced by DC motor depends on the angle between the plane of the armature turn
and plane of reference. When armature is at rest position, it produce maximum torque and the
torque reduces with increase of angle.
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Assignment no.6
TYPES OF DC MOTORS
I Shunt DC Motor, Series DC Motor and Compound DC Motor
A. Schematic Diagrams
B. Construction Features
C. Operating Characteristics
D. Applications
A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot of applications in today’s field of engineering and
technology. From electric shavers to automobiles – DC motors are everywhere. To cater to this
wide range of applications – different types of DC motors are used depending on the
applicaition.
The types of DC motor include:
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
 Separately Excited DC Motor
 Self Excited DC Motor
 Shunt Wound DC Motor
 Series Wound DC Motor
 Compound Wound DC Motor
 Short shunt DC Motor
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 Long shunt DC Motor
 Differential Compound DC Motor
We will now discuss in detail the various different types of DC Motors. If you want to further
your study of DC motors, check out our list of basic electrical questions.
Separately Excited DC Motor
As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.
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From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be
varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC motor) consists of an armature
winding as in case of an usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The
construction of these types of DC motor are such that, radially magnetized permanent magnets
are mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce the field flux.
The rotor on the other hand has a conventional DC armature with commutator segments and
brushes. The diagrammatic representation of a permanent magnet DC motor is given below.
Self Excited DC Motor
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In case of self excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self excited DC Motors
can be classified as:
1. Shunt wound DC motor

2. Series wound DC motor
3. Compound wound DC motor
Let’s now go into the details of these types of self excited DC motor.
Shunt Wound DC Motor
In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self excited DC motor,
the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected in parallel to
the armature winding as shown in the figure below.
To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets consider the basic voltage
equation given by,
[Where, E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply voltage, back emf, armature current and armature resistance
respectively]
[since back emf increases with flux φ and angular speed ωω]
Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,
The torque equation of a DC motor resembles,
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This is similar to the equation of a straight line, and we can graphically representing the torque
speed characteristic of a shunt wound self excited DC motor as
The shunt wound DC motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here with the
variation of mechanical load on the output.
Series Wound DC Motor

In case of a series wound self excited DC motor or simply series wound DC motor, the entire
armature current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the armature
winding. The series wound self excited DC motor is diagrammatically represented below for
clear understanding.
Now to determine the torque speed characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets get to the
torque speed equation.
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From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets modified to
Where as back emf remains Eb = kaφω

Neglecting saturation we get,
[since field current = armature current]
From equation (5) and (6)
From this equation we obtain the torque speed characteristic as
In a series wound DC motor, the speed varies with load. And operation wise this Compound
Wound DC Motor
The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the
operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound
self excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure
below:
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The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding.
Cumulative Compound DC Motor
When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field connected in
series to the armature winding then its called cumulative compound DC motor.
Differential Compound DC Motor
In case of a differentially compounded self excited DC motor i.e. differential compound DC

motor, the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the
shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.
The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence does not find much of
a practical application.
The compounding characteristic of the self excited DC motor is shown in the figure below.
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Both the cumulative compound and differential compound DC motor can either be of short shunt
or long shunt type depending on the nature of arrangement.
Short Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field
winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound
wound DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a short shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.
Long Shunt DC Motor
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If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding
then it’s known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC
motor.
The circuit diagram of a long shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.
What is a DC Motor?
It’s interesting to know that DC motors are everywhere. Unlike its bizarre name, direct
connection motors are everywhere around us, and they’re making our lives much more
comfortable. In a nutshell, any device that uses electricity to provide various motions is doing it
using DC motor types.
Now that you know what a direct connection motor is let’s dive deeper into the concept and
discuss the types of direct connection motors and their application in the industrial field.
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How Many Types of DC Motor Are There?
There are four main types of direct connection motors:
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor

 Series DC Motors
 Shunt DC Motors
 Compound DC Motors
If you want to understand how direct connection motors work and what utilizations they have,
you need to get familiar with their different types.
1. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
The permanent magnet motors work by a permanent magnet to make a field flux. A PM direct
connection motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame. Instead, it uses permanent
magnets to provide a magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque.
This type of direct connection motor makes excellent starting torque, and it has good speed
regulation.
2. Series DC Motors
In the series DC motors or series wound DC motors, the entire armature current flows through
the field winding. Usually, this DC motor type creates a large amount of starting torque, but it
can’t regulate speed, and even running with no load can damage it. Therefore, these limitations
make series DC motors, not a good option for variable speed drive applications.
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Electric circuit of a series wound DC motor
3. Shunt DC Motors
Shunt DC motors are a type of direct connection motors in which the shunt field winding is only
parallel to the armature winding and not the series field winding. Shunt DC motors are also
known as compound wound DC motors. Shunt DC motors provide excellent speed regulation, as
the shunt field can be excited separately from the armature windings. This feature of shunt direct
connection motors provides simplified reversing controls.
DC shunt motor
4. Compound DC Motors
Compound DC motors or compound wound motors have both series and shunt field windings.
These types of motors offer good starting torque, but they may have control problems in variable
speed drive applications. These motors can be connected to two arrangements: cumulatively and
differentially. The cumulative type connects the series field to aid the shunt field, providing
higher starting torque but less speed regulation. The differential type has good speed regulation
and usually operates at a constant speed.
Various DC Motor Applications
In general, DC motors are used as variable speed drives and for the applications in which sever,
torque variations occur. Now that you’re familiar with different DC motor types let’s get through
their usages and applications.
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Series DC motors are generally used where high starting torque is required, and speed variations
are possible. These types of direct connection motors are, for instance, used in the traction
system, cranes, air compressors, vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, etc.
Shunt DC motors are used for applications where you need constant speed, and the starting
conditions are not severe. The shunt direct connection motors applications are in lathe machines,
centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, conveyors, lifts, waving machines, spinning machines, etc.
Compound wound motors are usually used where you need higher starting torque and relatively
constant speed. The compound DC motors applications are in presses, shears, conveyors,
elevators, rolling mills, heavy planners, etc.
What Are the Main Parts of a DC Motor?
DC motors are composed of the following components: a stator, a rotor, a yoke, poles, armature
windings, field windings, commutator, and brushes. Many of its parts are similar to those in AC
motors, but there are a few differences.
What are the Advantages of DC Motors?
Comparing with the AC motors that converts alternating current into mechanical power, DC
motors have some advantages you might want to consider.
Generally, direct connection motors have higher starting torque than alternating current ones.
This feature makes it easier to get things moving. The only problem of this feature is that you
can’t start them unless they are under a load. If a DC motor doesn’t have a load to start, it can
burn out fast.
The other advantage of various DC motor types is that they generate a speed-torque curve that’s
more linear than the AC motors. This feature is actually due to the curve plotted between the
torque and the motor’s speed, which explains the relationship between how fast the motor spins
and how much torque it can generate.
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The ability to control the speed is the other upper hand of direct connection motors. If you’re
working with heavy load systems, the ability to control the speed becomes very crucial, and it
determines whether you’ll end up with a successful job or a burned out motor. Therefore, DC
motors are ideal for any job needing constant low-speed torque or variable torque.
Another important point to consider is that DC motors are easier to install compared to the AC
motors. They also need less maintenance and are easier to repair. If your industrial types of
equipment are set up to use DC motors, replacing a broken one with a DC motor is quick and
easy. While replacing it with an AC motor will force you to redesign the whole motor circuit.
II Comparison of DC Motor Characteristics
Comparison of DC Motors
The torque vs armature current and Speed vs armature current characteristic is shown in the
figure below.
Characteristic of DC Motor
According to applications and performance characteristics, users choose which motor is suitable.
The below table shows a summary comparison of DC motors.
Type of DC Motor Characteristic Applications
Centrifugal Pumps
Speed slightly changes as the load varies Blowers

DC Shunt Motor from no-load to full load.
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Approximately constant flux and speed. Fans
Torque is directly proportional to the Lathe machines

armature current.
Drills
This motor has medium starting torque (up
to 1.5 times of full-load torque). Spinning machines
They were used in the applications where Most suitable for belt-driven application
medium starting torque is required.

Reciprocating pumps
Electric Traction
Cranes
Speed is inversely proportional to the
torque. Hoists
Very high starting torque (square
proportional to the armature current) (T 𝖺 Trolley cars
Ia2).
Speed of DC series motor is variable. Conveyors
Adjustable, varying speed Elevators

DC Series Motor
The differential compound motor is rarel

The characteristics of DC compound motor used. In most applications, a cumulative
lie between DC series and shunt motors. compound motor is used.
The Shunt field provides constant speed, Elevators
and the series field provides high starting
DC Compound torque. Shearing machine

Motor
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It is widely used in high torque Air compressor
applications.
Reciprocating machine
This motor is further classified into two
types; Differential compound and Rolling machines
Cumulative compound.
Printing press
Adjustable, varying speed

Ice machines
Heavy planners
III Speed Regulation and Speed Control of DC Motor
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IV Reversing the Direction of DC Motor Rotation
So, you’ve purchased a DC motor, taken the time to install it, and upon startup, you noticed the
output shaft is spinning in the wrong direction for your application. Did you install it wrong? Can
you reverse the direction of your new motor, or will you have to replace it yet again?
Are DC Motors Reversible?
Are DC motors reversible? Yes! DC motors are capable of running in both clockwise and
counterclockwise directions. This reversal of directions can be easily controlled by simply inverting
the polarity of the applied voltage. We’ll discuss that further later on.
Why Change the Direction of a DC Motor?
Reversing the polarity of your DC motor’s magnetic field can be used to slow down, stop, or change
the direction of the motor’s spinning force. But why would someone want to do that?
Your garage door motor produces force in one direction to open the door and then has to reverse the
direction to close the door again. A hoist needs to move both up and down. Your dishwasher pumps
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water into the basin and then out again at the end of the cycle. Some ventilation fans move in both
directions to either push air into a building or out of the building.
There may even be situations where you wish to stop your DC motor quickly, but you don’t have an
electric or mechanical brake installed. Reversing the polarity of the supply voltage will produce a
force in the opposite direction, helping the motor to stop quickly.
You can see that there are many practical situations for reversing the direction of a typical DC
motor. But how do these applications make it seem so simple?
How to Reverse Your DC Motor
Your DC motor can be configured to turn in either direction by simply inverting the polarity of the
applied voltage. The change in the flow of current switches the direction of the spinning force,
causing the motor’s shaft to begin turning in the opposite direction.
You can reverse the direction of your DC motor in two ways. You can change the polarity of the
circuit at supply or in the field windings. Or you can change the polarity in the armature winding.
A quick cautionary note: Your motor is likely equipped with carbon brushes with beveled edges.
This beveled edge helps the brush to drag over the commutator easily.
Reversing the direction of your motor will cause the carbon brushes to be pushed over the
commutator, facing more friction than the other direction. This can cause the carbon brushes to wear
faster and, if not maintained properly, could cause damage to the critical commutator segments,
which are not interchangeable. Your motor’s datasheet will give you specifications on running your
motor in nominal and unique circumstances.
Controlling Your DC Motor
You can control your DC motor in three ways:
Manual Control
Manually reversing the armature leads will reverse the polarity of your motor’s circuit. The motor’s
datasheet will tell you the direction of the motor from the factory, and it will supply you with the
circuit drawings that will show you which terminals are which (positive “+” or negative “-“).
Using a Switch
Installing a toggle or slider switch into the circuit allows the user to control the polarity of the
motor. The flip of a switch will change the direction of the motor’s output shaft.
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Using an H-Bridge Circuit
Installing a DPDT switch. A DPDT (double pole, double throw) switch is four switches in one that
create an H-bridge circuit. It allows you to control your motor in different ways depending on which
switches are open or closed at any given moment. Therefore, they can also be used for speed control
and not just starting and stopping.
You will want to allow the motor to slow down and stop before switching directions, as quick
changes in polarity at high speeds can cause damage to the motor’s circuit, especially if done
regularly.
Summary
Can you reverse the direction of a DC motor? Yes, quite simply actually. A reversal of the circuit’s
polarity will change the direction of the motor’s force. You’ll find this technique applied in a few
different ways across many applications, many of which you’ll find at your own home and even in
your kitchen.
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Assignment no.7
ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS
AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC
Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and
combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of alternating voltage
and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states
that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that
cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a
static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary conductor. The
preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw induced
alternating current from a stationary armature coil than from a rotating coil.
The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field strength,
and the speed of the rotating field.
AC Generator Parts and Function
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The various parts of an AC generator are:
 Field
 Armature
 Prime Mover
 Rotor
 Stator
 Slip Rings
The following are the functions of each of these components of an AC generator.
Field
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and produce
magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage. This voltage
is the output voltage of the AC generator.
Armature
The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an armature. This
component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load current
of the generator.
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Prime Mover
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime mover
could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
Rotor
The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The generator’s prime mover drive
the rotor.
Stator
The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises a lamination of
steel alloys or magnetic iron to minimise the eddy current losses.
Read More: Eddy Current
Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro from the rotor of an AC
generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a stationary device to
a rotating one.
Working of an AC Generator
When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. As a result, an electric
current flows through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes. The galvanometer swings
between positive and negative values. This indicates that there is an alternating current flowing
through the galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s
Right-Hand Rule.
Salient Pole Type

The term salient means protruding or projecting. The salient pole type of rotor is generally used
for slow speed machines having large diameters and relatively small axial lengths. The poles, in
this case, are made of thick laminated steel sections riveted together and attached to a rotor with
the help of joint.
An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for generation of very high electrical
power. To enable that, the mechanical input given to the machine in terms of rotating torque
must also be very high. This high torque value results in oscillation or hunting effect of the
alternator or synchronous generator. To prevent these oscillations from going beyond bounds the
damper winding is provided in the pole faces as shown in the figure.
The damper windings are basically copper bars short-circuited at both ends are placed in the
holes made in the pole axis. When the alternator is driven at a steady speed, the relative velocity
of the damping winding with respect to the main field will be zero. But as soon as it departs from
the synchronous speed there will be relative motion between the damper winding and the main
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field which is always rotating at synchronous speed. This relative difference will induce the
current in them which will exert a torque on the field poles in such a way as to bring the
alternator back to synchronous speed operation.
The salient feature of pole field structure has the following special feature-
1. They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial length.

2. The pole shoes covers only about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
3. Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
4. The salient pole type motor is generally used for low-speed operations of around
100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in power stations with hydraulic turbines or
diesel engines.
Salient pole alternators driven by water turbines are called hydro-alternators or hydro generators.
Cylindrical Rotor Type

The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very high speed operation and employed in steam
turbine driven alternators like turbogenerators. The machines are built in a number of ratings
from 10 MVA to over 1500 MVA. The cylindrical rotor type machine has a uniform length in all
directions, giving a cylindrical shape to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting in all
directions. The rotor, in this case, consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of
slots along its outer periphery for hosting the field coils.
FREQUENCY
The output frequency of alternator voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor and
the number of poles. The faster the speed, the higher the frequency. The lower the speed, the
lower the frequency. The more poles there are on the rotor, the higher the frequency is for a
given speed.
When a rotor has rotated through an angle such that two adjacent rotor poles
(a north and a south pole) have passed one winding, the voltage induced in that winding will
have varied through one complete cycle. For a given frequency, the more pairs of poles there are,
the lower the speed of rotation. This principle is illustrated in figure 3-12; a two-pole generator
must rotate at four times the speed of an eight-pole generator to produce the same frequency of
generated voltage. The frequency of any ac generator in hertz (Hz), which is the number of
cycles per second, is related to the number of poles and the speed of rotation.
AC GENERATORS
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states
that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that
cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a
static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary conductor. The
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preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw induced
alternating current from a stationary armature coil than from a rotating coil.
The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field strength, and
the speed of the rotating field.
SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATORS
A generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage is known as a SINGLE-

PHASE alternator. All of the alternators that have been discussed so far fit this definition. The
stator (armature) windings are connected in series. The individual voltages, therefore, add to
produce a single-phase ac voltage. Figure 3-5 shows a basic alternator with its single-phase
output voltage.
Figure 3-5. - Single-phase alternator.
The definition of phase as you learned it in studying ac circuits may not help too much right
here. Remember, "out of phase" meant "out of time." Now, it may be easier to think of the word
phase as meaning voltage as in single voltage. The need for a modified definition of phase in this
usage will be easier to see as we go along.
Single-phase alternators are found in many applications. They are most often used when the
loads being driven are relatively light. The reason for this will be more apparent as we get into
multiphase alternators (also called polyphase).
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Power that is used in homes, shops, and ships to operate portable tools and small appliances is
single-phase power. Single-phase power alternators always generate single-phase power.
However, all single-phase power does not come from single-phase alternators.
TWO-PHASE ALTERNATORS
Two phase implies two voltages if we apply our new definition of phase. And, it's that simple. A
two-phase alternator is designed to produce two completely separate voltages. Each voltage, by
itself, may be considered as a single-phase voltage. Each is generated completely independent of
the other. Certain advantages are gained. These and the mechanics of generation will be covered
in the following paragraphs.
Generation of Two-Phase Power Figure 3-6 shows a simplified two-pole, two-phase alternator.
Note that the windings of the two phases are physically at right angles (90) to each other. You
would expect the outputs of each phase to be 90 apart, which they are. The graph shows the two
phases to be 90 apart, with A leading B. Note that by using our original definition of phase (from
previous modules), we could say that A and B are 90 out of phase. There will always be 90
between the phases of a two-phase alternator. This is by design.
Figure 3-6. - Two-phase alternator.
Three phase Alternator
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A three-phase alternator consists of three coil windings, contrary to a single-phase alternator,
which has one winding. An alternator aims to produce AC (alternating current) stator output with
two basic winding designs: delta wound and wye style.
Application of the Three-Phase Alternator

The three-phase alternator proves its usefulness majorly in data centers and telecommunication
sectors. That is because alternators can generate AC power with better dynamic performance,
higher efficiency, lower temperature rise, and improved quality standards. Besides that, it is also
used for power generation, railway industry, mining industry, military, breeding industry,
shipbuilding industry, and other industrial applications, to name a few. The high efficiency of the
three-phase alternator makes it ideal for all these industries and many more.
The Working Principle of the Three-Phase Alternator

After knowing the types and applications of the three-phase alternator, it is wise for you to
understand its working principle. Thus, let's introduce the structure of the three-phase generator
first and then introduce how it operates from simple to profound.
What is Delta Connection?

A delta connection is a three-wire circuit used in a three-phase electrical system in which three
elements resemble a triangular arrangement of electrical three-phase windings. The delta
connection, also known as Mesh connection, is so named because of its resemblance with the
Greek symbol “Δ” and it is formed by connecting one end of winding to starting end of other and
connection are continued to form a closed loop.
The supply terminal is taken out from the three junction points. In short, all the three coils are
connected in series to form a closed circuit or mesh, which resembles a triangle. They don’t have
a neutral cable.
What is Wye Connection?

Wye (Y) connection, also known as “Y” connection, is a three-phase circuit in which all the
three loads are connected at a single neutral point. Unlike delta connection, wye-connected
systems carry a fourth neutral conductor, often grounded but sometimes left floating
(ungrounded wye system).
In wye configuration, the loads are unbalanced in a Y configuration and a neutral cable is
connected where the three phases meet at the center. This central point forms the electrical
neutral point which is represented by “N” and may be grounded. Unlike delta connection, it’s a
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three-phase four-wire system (3-Phase, 4-Wires) meaning it can be either a three-wire circuit or a
four-wire circuit.
3- phase power
As its name implies, 3-phase power systems provide three separate currents, each separated by
one-third of the time it takes to complete a full cycle. But, as opposed to single-phase, where the
two hot legs are always 180 degrees apart, with 3-phase, the currents are separated by 120
degrees.
In Figure 2 below, you’ll see that when any one line is at its peak current, the other two are not.
For example, when phase 1 is at its positive peak, phases 2 and 3 are both at -0.5. This means,
unlike single-phase current, there’s no point at which no power is being delivered to the load. In
fact, at six different positions in each phase, one of the lines is at peak positive or negative
position.
For practical purposes, this means the collective amount of power supplied by all three currents
remains constant; you don’t have cyclical peaks and valleys as with single-phase.
Computers and many motors used in heavy machinery are designed with this in mind. They can
draw a steady stream of constant power, rather than having to account for the variation inherent
in single-phase AC power. As a result, they use less energy.
As an analogy, think of a single-cylinder versus a three-cylinder engine. Both operate on a four-
stroke model (intake, compression, power, exhaust). With a single-cylinder engine, you get only
one “power” cycle for every four strokes of the cylinder, which provides for rather uneven power
delivery. A three-stroke engine, by contrast, will provide power in three alternating phases (again
separated by 120 degrees), for smoother, more constant and efficient power.
Figure 2
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Benefits of 3-phase power
Among the benefits that 3-phase power brings is the ability to deliver nearly twice the power of
single-phase systems without requiring twice the number of wires. It’s not three times as much
power, as one might expect, because in practice, you typically take one hot line and connect it to
another hot line.
To understand how 3-phase delivers more power, one must do the math. The formula for single-
phase power is Power = Voltage (V) x Current (I) x Power Factor (PF). If we assume the load on
the circuit is resistive only, power factor is unity (or one) which reduces the formula to P = V x I.
If we consider a 120-volt circuit supporting 20 amps, the power is equal to 2,400 watts.
The formula for power of a 3-phase circuit is Power = Voltage (V) x Current (I) x Power Factor
(PF) x square root of three. If we assume the load on the circuit is resistive only, power factor is
unity (or one) which reduces the formula to P = V x I x square root of three. If we consider a
120-volt, 3-phase circuit and each phase supports 20 amps, the formula works out to 120 Volts x
20 Amps x 1.732 = 4,157 watts. This is how 3-phase can deliver nearly twice the power of
single-phase systems. This is a simplified example, but it can be used to investigate the
additional power available from circuits supporting higher voltages (e.g. 208 or 480 volts) or
currents (e.g. 30 amps or greater).
This kind of capacity comes in handy when it comes to powering racks of IT gear. Whereas once
it was the norm to use single-phase power to a rack, as densities in IT racks increase, it becomes
less feasible and practical. All the cabling, conductors, and sockets become larger, more
expensive, and increasingly difficult to work with.
Delivering 3-phase power directly to the server rack enables you to use less expensive cabling
and other components, all while delivering more power. It does, however, require paying
attention to the load on each circuit, to ensure they’re balanced and do not exceed circuit
capacity.
Synchronization of Generators
The process of matching parameters such as voltage, frequency, phase angle, phase sequence and
waveform of alternator (generator) or other source with a healthy or running power system is
called Synchronization of Generators.
A Generator cannot deliver power to electric power system unless its voltage, frequency and
other parameters are exactly matched with the network. Synchronization is accomplished by
controlling the exciter current and the engine speed of the generator.
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The need for synchronization arrives, particularly when two or more alternators are working
together to supply the power to the load. This is because electrical loads are not constant and
they vary with time (depending on the load) and hence it is necessary to interconnect two or
more alternators operating in parallel to supply larger loads.
Synchronization matches various parameters of one alternator (or generator) to another alternator
or to the bus bar. The process of synchronization is also called as Paralleling of Alternators or
Generators.
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Assignment no.8
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) MOTORS
What is an AC Motor?
An AC motor or alternating current motor is an electric motor that consists of a stator with a coil
that is supplied with alternating current to convert electric current into mechanical power. The
stator is the stationary part of the motor while the rotor is the rotating part. AC motors can be
single or three phase with three phase motors mainly used for bulk power conversion. Single
phase AC motors are used for small power conversions.
There are two types of AC motors, which are synchronous and induction. In a synchronous
motor, the rotation of the shaft is at the same pace as the frequency of the applied current with
multiphase AC electromagnets on the stator that produce a rotating magnetic field. An induction
motor, or asynchronous motor, is a single excited motor where current is applied to one part of
the motor, the stator. Flux from the stator cuts the short circuited coil in the rotor, which feels
torque that makes the rotor rotate.
AC motors are a power source for a wide variety of applications due to their flexibility,
efficiency, and noiseless operation. They are used on pumps, water heaters, garden equipment,
ovens, off road equipment and are commonly found in many appliances, equipment, and tools.
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They are an intriguing and interesting device since they can fit easily into a wide range of
applications.
The design of AC motors is rather straightforward with their magnetically driven copper wound
stator that has a rotating magnetic field created over it. AC induction motors meet IE3 and IE4
requirements, the international standards for motor efficiency.
How AC Motors Work

The main components of an AC motor are the stator, stationary outer drum, and the rotor, the
rotating inner portion attached to the motor shaft. The stator and the rotor produce rotating
magnetic fields. The winding of the stator that creates the rotating field is created by alternating
current.
In an AC motor the winding serves as the armature and field winding. When the stator is
connected to an AC supply flux an air gap is formed rotating the flux at a fixed synchronous
speed, which produces voltages in the stator and rotor winding.
How AC Motors Work

The term AC motor describes several versions of the motor, which include single phase, three
phase, brake, synchronous, asynchronous, customized, two speed, and three speed single phase.
The difference between the various versions relates to the type of work that is required where
some forms of AC motors are simple and used for small jobs while other versions are designed
for bigger more demanding work. A key difference is the phase of the electrical feed, which is
different for residential use compared to industrial use.
Residential electricity is single or double phased while electricity for industrial use is three
phased. This distinction is the reason for the difference between industrial AC motors and
residential ones.
AC motors are referred to as induction motors since they use electric current to produce torque,
which is created by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator.
Start Up
An AC motor can be started by a simple on and off switch, which can be a contactor or manual
starter. A contactor allows the control of toggle power to an AC motor. Manual starters have a
manual switch that allows the operator to switch or change the power. This type of starter is
known as across the line meaning the motor is wired directly to the power source. It directly
connects the contacts of the motor to the full supply of voltage, which is normally six to eight
times the rated current.
Star delta starters are common types of starters, which use a reduced supply of voltage in
starting. The stator is connected in a star configuration, which switches to a delta configuration
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once the motor reaches a certain speed. By doing this, the line current drawn at starting is
reduced.
An auto transformer starter uses a similar method as a delta starter. Again, the initial current is
limited to reduced voltage being applied to the stator. The advantage of an auto transformer
starter is that the torque and current can be adjusted by the correct tapping.
A rotor impedance starter is connected directly to the rotor through the slip rings and brushes. At
first, the rotor resistance is set to its maximum but gradually decreases as the motor speed
increases. A rotor impedance starter is very bulky and expensive.
Since single phase motors produce a pulsating magnetic field they are unable to be self starting
since a pulsating magnetic field torque cannot produce.
Soft starters are a complex version, which allow for the control of acceleration and deceleration
for stopping and starting the motor smoothly and evenly, which is not possible with across the
line versions. The advantage of soft starters is the reduction of the wear on the motor and the
devices to which it is connected.
Stator
The stator produces a rotating magnetic field. It has a solid metal axle, a loop of wire, coils,
squirrel cage, and interconnections. Though a squirrel cage is not found in all AC motors, it is
the most common type. In AC motors, electricity is sent directly to the outer coils of the stator.
The stator has multiple plates that extend out from its center with copper magnetic wire.
For a three phase AC motor, it has three phase windings with a core and housing. The windings
are 120o apart, which can be six or twelve windings . The windings are placed on a laminated
iron core. The construction of the core can be seen in the diagram below.
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Rotor
Unlike a DC motor, the rotor on an AC motor does not have any connection with the external
power source. It receives its power from the stator. In a three phase induction motor, the rotor
can be a squirrel cage or wound version.
In the squirrel cage version, the rotor consists of rotor bars with end rings at both ends. There are
several versions of the squirrel cage rotor, which include split phase, capacitor start, capacitor
start and run, permanent split phase capacitor run, and shaded pole with classifications of A, B,
C, D, and E. In the majority of cases, the squirrel cage is made of aluminum or copper.
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In the operation of a squirrel cage motor, the bars of the rotor interact with the stator‘s
electromagnetic field (EMF). As the current fluctuates, the EMF does the same causing the rotor
to rotate producing rotational motion. A key factor in the motion is that the rotor does not turn at
the same frequency as the AC current and is constantly trying to catch up, which is how the
rotation is produced. If it did have the same frequency, the rotor would freeze, and there would
not be any motion.
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A wound or slip ring AC motor is a special type of AC motor. It contains the exact same parts as
all AC motors but is always three phase. The cylindrical laminated core of the rotor is wound
exactly like the windings on the stator with wire. The terminal ends of the wires are connected to
slip rings on the output shaft. The slip rings connect to brushes and a variable speed resistor. The
slip rings provide control of the speed and torque of the motor, which is the main positive feature
of a wound rotor.
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Wound motors are asynchronous where there is a difference between the stator speed and the
output speed. When generating current in the rotor, the motor will have slippage between the
rotating field and the rotor. As the motor is powered, the rotor lessens the strength of the stator,
which allows the control of the rotation and the ability to choose torque and running
characteristics.
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Types of AC Motors
The AC motor, invented by Nikola Tesla, is used in dozens of applications in every place in the
world. The basics of the motor were discovered by Tesla when he identified the rotating
magnetic induction (RMF) field principle, which is used in alternators. He pioneered the use of
the rotating field and inducting electromagnetic field force to generate torque in rotating
machines.
From its beginnings, over a hundred years ago, the AC motor has evolved into several forms that
are specially designed to fit multiple functions. One of the basic differences between AC motors
has to do with the rotor, which can be squirrel cage or wound. This primary difference expands
into AC motor types.
Types of AC Motors
Single Phase AC Motor
Single phase AC motors are used where there is a single phase supply. This type of AC motor is
smaller and less expensive. They are constructed using fractional kilowatt capacity. The stator is
activated by a single phase AC electrical supply. Unlike a three phase AC motor, a single phase
motor has one main winding and one auxiliary winding, which is perpendicular to the main
winding.
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The rotor rotates according to the sum of two oppositely rotating fields, which is the double
revolving field theory. The torque that is produced is equal and opposite.
Polyphase AC Motor
Polyphase Motors, or many phase motors, are a type of AC motor that can be two or three phase
and are similar to single phase motors in how they operate. The stator poles in a polyphase motor
are not aligned with each other, which means that the rotor passes by the stator poles at different
times. A polyphase system has a group of equal voltages at the same frequency that are placed to
have an equal phase difference between the adjacent electromagnetic fields (EMF). A polyphase
system can be two, three, or six phase with the majority being three phase.
A polyphase system is commonly referred to as a three phase system and produces 1.5 times
more output than a single phase system. The current from a polyphase system is constant, which
is unlike the single phase system that is pulsating.
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Synchronous AC Motor
A synchronous AC motor is where the rotation of the shaft is at the same frequency as the
current supply with the rotation period being equal to the integral number of AC cycles. The
synchronous speed is constant and at which the motor generates electromotive force.
The speed of a synchronous motor is independent of the load where variations in the load does
not affect the speed of the motor. Synchronous motors are not self-starting, which is unlike self-
starting motors where the power supply is connected directly to the stator.
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Reluctance Motors
Reluctance motors are a single phase motor, which operate with an accurate value of rotating
magnetic field without any synchronous speed. The motor uses reluctance of torque to operate, a
type of torque in iron devices. The torque for the motor is created by the exterior field generating
an inner field on the iron device. For the reluctance torque to be generated, it has to be stretched
around the axes at angles to the angle of the contingent poles of the outer field.
Hysteresis AC Motor
The unique nature of the rotor of a hysteresis motor is what makes it different from other AC
motors. The rotor contains semi-permanent magnetic material. Torque is created by the magnetic
flux lagging behind the external magnetizing force. The eddy of the current produces the motor‘s
torque. Hysteresis motors provide exact speed with low flutter and operate with little noise.
A hysteresis motor has a core of non-magnetic material with a layer of special magnetic material.
The rotor is a smooth cylinder without any windings. The hysteresis ring is made of chrome or
steel with a hysteresis loop.
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Repulsion Motor
A repulsion motor is a type of single phase motor that works by the repulsion of similar poles.
Aside from the rotor and stator, a repulsion motor has a commutator brush assembly. The rotor
has a distributed DC winding that is connected to the commutator like a DC motor with the
carbon brushes short circuited on themselves.
As the rotor circuit shortens, the rotor receives power from the stator by transformer action. The
working principle and function of a repulsion motor is the repelling of the similar poles where
the north poles repel each other as do the south poles.
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Asynchronous Motor
An asynchronous motor uses an induced current in its rotor to produce rotatory motion. This is
the most common of the AC motors since it relies on AC current that is connected to the stator
for its power supply. All of the power for an asynchronous motor is connected to the stator, none
of which is connected to the rotor. The power for the rotor comes from induction.
The induction for the rotor is due to its close proximity to the stators electromagnetic field,
which causes the rotor to generate its own electromagnetic field that causes it to spin. Since there
aren‘t any brushes or slip rings, an asynchronous motor is the most efficient and reliable of all of
the AC motors. It is used for heavy duty applications because of its simplicity of design and
ruggedness.
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The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Classification
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) dictates the standards for motors,
which are found in NEMA Standard Publication No. MG 1. The standards are based on electrical
equipment manufacturing and best practices. AC motors designed for specialty applications are
not classified by the NEMA and are referred to as above NEMA motors.
Induction motors are classified by their electrical design. The NEMA has five classifications for
AC motors, which are A, B, C, D, and E. A description of the characteristics of each of the
classifications is:
 Classification A:
 high breakdown torque
 designed for specific use
 slip characteristic less than 5%
 Classification B:
 general-purpose motor
 slip is 3-5% or less
 Classification C:
 high starting torque
 normal starting current
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 low slip
 little demand for overload
 Classification D:
 high starting torque
 high slip of 5 to 13%
 low full load speed
 speed fluctuations due to changes in load
 Classification E:
 high efficiency
 low starting torque
 requirements are low
The table below is a general description of the uses for the difference NEMA classifications.
NEMA Classifications from Panel Shop
Why Use An AC Motor?

There are any number of uses for AC motors from running appliances to supplying power to
large pieces of machinery. Their low cost with high efficiency makes them applicable to a
variety of applications. Wherever electrical motors are needed, AC motors are generally at the
heart of the application.
AC motors are more powerful than other types of motors because they can generate more torque
using powerful current. They come in a wide variety of sizes, configurations, and strengths to
meet the power needs of any industry.
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Reasons to Use AC Motors
AC motors are flexible and adaptable to meet the needs of a variety of functions due to their
efficiency and low noise. Uses for AC motors include pumps, water heaters, lawn and garden
equipment, ovens, and off-road motorized equipment.
AC induction motors are the most common type and the most widely used.
Why use an AC motor?

 Efficiency – AC motors have a high speed to torque characteristic, which offers excellent
performance without overheating, braking, or degeneration. The performance of AC
motors is why they are used in high demand applications. About 85% of the incoming
energy is used to create the outgoing mechanical energy.
 Lifespan – AC motors last in the most demanding of conditions. The only component that
may need to be replaced are bearings, which is a simple, easy, and affordable repair. AC
motors have two bearings that have to be periodically lubricated. The durability of AC
motors is one of the reasons that they are chosen for off road applications or use in
rigorous conditions.
 Quiet – Since AC motors have a very low sound output, they are chosen for commercial
environments where food is being served or customer service is essential. The sound that
AC motors produce is a low hum.
 Adaptability – There are several factors that make AC motors adaptable and flexible.
They are powered on using a simple on and off switch, which can be reversed. An
additional factor is their variable speed and power output that makes them adaptable to
conditions where there are multiple users.
 Accessibility – Every industrial operation has a variety of conditions that require multiple
sources of power and energy. Since AC motors come in several shapes, sizes, and
different power outputs, they can easily be fitted to any possible situation or be
customized and designed to fit specialized and unique conditions.
 Simplicity – The fact that an AC motor has only one moving part is a major benefit to
their use. The stator of an AC motor is the same for asynchronous and synchronous
motors. This simplicity of design is the reason that they are quiet running, low cost, and
long lasting.
 Brushless – A brush motor uses brushes and a commutator to supply electricity to
magnetic coils on the armature. This process creates friction, heat, and a loss of energy. A
brushless motor, AC motor, eliminates the brushes and commutator, which creates a
cooler and more efficient motor that has less wear.
 Self-Starting – Only AC excitation is necessary to operate an AC motor. The simplicity
of the starting mechanism does not require any additional component for an AC motor to
start.
 Speed Regulation – The speed of an AC motor can be controlled by changing the
frequency that is sent to the motor, which causes it to speed up or slow down.
 Single Phase Input – Part of the adaptability of an AC motor is how it can run using a
single phase input for a three phase motor even though the location may not have a three
phase input.
Chapter Five – How AC Motors Are Made
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Three phase AC motors are used for most industrial applications. The three main parts of an AC
motor are the rotor, stator, and enclosure with working parts being the stator and rotor, while the
enclosure protects the motor and serves as its housing.
AC motors are used for a wide variety of industrial applications because of their strength,
adaptability, endurance, and simplicity of design, which makes for easy maintenance. They can
operate an industrial pump or a home mixer and adapt to each function with ease.
Stator Core
The stator is the stationary part of an AC motor and the motor‘s electromagnetic circuit. It is
made from laminations, which are thin metal sheets, that are stacked on each other to form a
hollow cylinder. The use of laminations reduces the loss of energy.
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Stator Windings
Stator windings refer to the copper wire that is wound around the stator in its slots. The number
of slots in the stator depends on the phases of power that is provided to the coils. A three phase
motor has six slots with three pairs of coil windings that are offset by 120o. The term winding is
used to describe an entire electromagnetic circuit composed of multiple coils. The coils are of the
same shape and size. The more coils a motor has, the more smoothly it will run.
The number of electric currents energizing the coils is known as the phase of the motor. A three
phase motor can have three, six, or twelve coils.
When the motor is activated, the stator is connected directly to the power source, which
transforms the coils and stator into an electromagnet.
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Rotor
The rotor is the part of an AC motor that moves or rotates. The squirrel cage type of rotor
construction is the most common type. Much like the stator, a squirrel cage rotor is made by
stacking laminations to form a cylinder. The squirrel cage is formed by conductor bars that are
evenly spaced inserted into the rotor‘s slots. The bars for the squirrel cage are made of aluminum
or copper.
Once the laminations have been stacked and the conductor bars inserted, a steel shaft is pressed
into the middle of the assembly.
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Bearings
The function of bearings on an AC motor are to support and locate the rotor, to keep the air gap
small, and transfer loads to the motor. They are able to operate at a variety of speeds while
minimizing friction.
There are several types of bearings that are used in AC motors, which include ball and roller
bearings. The life of a bearing in an AC motor is determined by the number of revolutions or
operating hours a bearing can endure. Other factors include operating conditions and lubrication.
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Air Gap
The air gap is the gap between the rotor and stator, which is a necessary part of the motor and a
key to its design. The gap has to be large enough to prevent contact between the surfaces of the
rotor and stator accounting for tolerances related to their dimensions, loose bearings, and
movement. The air gap has to be as small as possible to enhance the efficiency of the motor since
larger air gaps require more power to achieve sufficient magnetization.
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Fan
In AC motors, heat builds up in the windings. For this reason, AC motors have a built in cooling
system. Inside the enclosure, a fan is attached to the shaft of the rotor at the opposite end of the
axle that drives the machine that the AC motor is attached to. The fan pulls in cool air and forces
it across the windings. Hot air is blown out the rear of the enclosure.
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Enclosure
The enclosure protects the internal parts of an AC motor from particles and liquids, provides
convective cooling, and ensures electrical safety. The amount of protection depends a great deal
on the quality of materials used to produce the enclosure. NEMA and IEC have specifications for
enclosure designs. An ingress protection (IP) code is used to classify enclosures, such as IP65.
The higher the number of the IP code the better is the protection.
Some enclosures come with heat fins on the side and do not have a fan for cooling. Totally
enclosed fan cooled enclosures have a fan on the rotor shaft.
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Conclusion
 An AC motor is an electric motor that uses alternating current to produce mechanical
energy using magnetism blended with alternating current.
 The main benefit of an AC motor is its ability to produce constant torque up to the rated
speed.
 The main components of an AC motor are the stator, stationary outer drum, and the rotor,
the rotating inner portion attached to the motor shaft.
 The basics of the motor were discovered by Tesla when he identified the rotating
magnetic induction (RMF) field principle, which is used in alternators.
 The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) dictates the standards for
motors, which are found NEMA Standard Publication No. MG 1.
 AC motors are used for a wide variety of industrial applications because of their strength,
adaptability, endurance, and simplicity of design, which makes for easy maintenance.
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Assignment no.9
TRANSFORMERS
What are Electrical Transformers?
Electrical transformers are machines that transfer electricity from one circuit to another with
changing voltage level but no frequency change. Today, they are designed to use AC supply,
which means that fluctuation in supply voltage is impacted by the fluctuation in the current. So,
an increase in current will bring about an increase in the voltage and vice versa.
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Transformers help improve safety and efficiency of power systems by raising and lowering
voltage levels as and when needed. They are used in a wide range of residential and industrial
applications, primarily and perhaps most importantly in the distribution and regulation of power
across long distances.
The Construction of an Electrical Transformer
The three important components of an electrical transformer are a magnetic core, primary
winding, and secondary winding. The primary winding is the part that is connected to an
electrical source, from where magnetic flux is initially produced. These coils are insulated from
each other and the main flux is induced in the primary winding from where it is passed to the
magnetic core and linked to the transformer’s secondary winding through a low reluctance path.
The core relays the flux to the secondary winding to create a magnetic circuit that closes the flux,
and a low reluctance path is placed within the core to maximize flux linkage. The secondary
winding helps complete the movement of the flux that begins at the primary side, and using the
core reaches the secondary winding. The secondary winding is able to pick momentum because
both windings are wound on the same core and hence their magnetic fields help to create motion.
In all the types of transformers, the magnetic core is assembled by stacking laminated steel
sheets leaving the minimum required air-gap between them to ensure the continuity of the
magnetic path.
How Do Transformers Work?
An electrical transformer uses Faraday’s electromagnetic induction law to work – “Rate of

change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a
conductor or coil”.
A transformer’s physical basis lies in the mutual induction between two circuits that are linked
by a common magnetic flux. It is usually equipped with 2 windings: primary and secondary.
These windings share a magnetic core that is laminated, and the mutual induction that takes place
between these circuits helps transfer electricity from one point to another.
Depending on the amount of linked flux between the primary and secondary windings, there will
be different rates of change in flux linkage. To ensure maximum flux linkage, i.e. maximum flux
passing through and linking to the secondary winding from the primary, a low reluctance path is
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placed common to both windings. This leads to greater efficiency in working performance, and
forms the core of the transformer.
The application of alternating voltage to the windings in the primary side creates an alternating
flux in the core. This links both windings to induce EMF in the primary as well as the secondary
side. EMF in the secondary winding causes a current, known as load current, if there is a load
connected to the secondary section.
This is how electrical transformers deliver AC power from one circuit (primary) to another
(secondary), through the conversion of electrical energy from one value to another, changing the
voltage level but not the frequency.
Electrical Transformer – Efficiency and Losses
An electrical transformer does not employ any moving parts to transfer energy which means that
there is no friction and hence no windage losses. However, electric transformers do suffer from
negligible copper and iron losses. Copper losses occur due to heat loss during the circulation of
currents around the copper windings, resulting in loss of electrical power. This is the greatest
loss in the operation of an electrical transformer. Iron losses are caused by the lagging of the
magnetic molecules that lie within the core. This lagging happens in response to the alternating
of the magnetic flux which results in friction and this friction produces heat which leads of loss
of power in the core. This loss can be greatly reduced if the core is constructed from special steel
alloys.
The intensity of power loss determines the efficiency of an electrical transformer and it is
represented in terms of power loss between the primary and secondary windings. The resulting
efficiency is then calculated in terms of ratio of the power output at the secondary winding to the
power input at the primary winding. Ideally, the efficiency of an electrical transformer is
anywhere between 94% to 96%
Types of Transformers
Electrical transformers can be classified into different categories depending upon their end-use,
construction, supply, and purpose.
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On the Basis of Design
 Core Type Transformer This transformer features two horizontal sections with two
vertical limbs and a rectangular core with a magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and
LV) are placed on the central limb of the core type transformer.
 Shell Type TransformerThe shell type transformer has a double magnetic circuit and a
central limb with two outer limbs.
On the Basis of Supply
 Single Phase TransformerA single-phase transformer has only one set of windings.
Separate single-phase units can offer the same results as three-phase transfers when they
are externally interconnected.
 Three Phase TransformerA triple-phase (or three-phase) transformer has three sets of
primary and secondary windings to form a bank of three single phase transformers. The
three phase transformer is mainly used for generation, transmission and distribution of
power in industries.
On the Basis of Purpose
 Step Up Transformer
This type is determined by the number of turns of wire. So, if the secondary set has a
greater number of turns than the primary side, it means that the voltage will correspond to
that, which forms the base of a step up transformer.
 Step Down Transformer

This type is typically used for stepping down the level of voltage in the power
transmission and distribution network and so its mechanism is the exact opposite of a step
up transformer.
On the Basis of Use
 Power transformer
Typically used to transmit electricity and has a high rating.
 Distribution transformerThis electrical transformer has a comparatively lower rating

and is used to distribute electricity.
 Instrument transformerThis electrical transformer is further sub-categorized into

current and potential transformers
o Current transformer
o Potential transformer
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These transformers are used to relay and protect instruments simultaneously.
On the Basis of Cooling
 Self-Cooled Oil-Filled TransformersThis type is generally employed in small

transformers of up to 3 MVA and is it designed to cool itself by the surrounding air flow.
 Water-Cooled Oil-Filled TransformersThis type of electrical transformer employs a

heat exchanger to facilitate the transfer of the heat from the oil to the cooling water.
 Air-Cooled (Air Blast) TransformersIn this type of transformer, the heat that is
generated is cooled with the help of blowers and fans that force the circulation of air on
the windings and the core.
Main Characteristics of a Transformer
All transformers share some common features regardless of their type:
 The frequency of input and output power is the same
 All transformers make use of electromagnetic induction laws
 The primary and secondary coils are devoid of electrical connection (except for auto
transformers). The transfer of power is through magnetic flux.
 No moving parts are required to transfer energy, so there are no friction or windage losses
as with other electrical devices.
 The losses that do occur in transformers are smaller than those in other electrical devices,
and include:
o Copper loss (electrical power lost in the heat created by circulation of currents
around the copper windings, considered the heaviest loss in transformers)
o Core loss (eddy current and hysteresis losses, caused by lagging of magnetic
molecules in response to the alternating magnetic flux within the core)
Most transformers are very efficient, delivering between 94% to 96% energy at full load. Very
high capacity transformers may deliver up to 98%, especially if they operate with constant
voltage and frequency.
Uses of Electrical Transformer
The major uses of an electrical transformer include:
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 Raising or lowering the voltage level in the circuit of an AC.
 Increasing or decreasing the value of an inductor or capacitor in an AC circuit.
 Preventing the passage of DC from one circuit to another.
 Isolating two electric circuits.
 Stepping up the voltage level at the site of power generation before the transmission and
distribution can take place.
Common applications of an electrical transformer include pumping stations, railways, industries,

commercial establishments, windmills and power generation units.
Tips for Troubleshooting an Electrical Transformer
Using a multimeter is the best way to test and troubleshoot issues in the electrical circuit.
1. Start by checking the voltage of the circuit that needs testing. This step will help you
determine the type of light bulb needed to build your circuit tester.
2. Cut out 2 strips from the AWG 16-gauge wire while ensuring each one is at least 12
inches long.
3. Use a stripper to remove one-fourth of the outer plastic from either end of both the wire
strips and 1 inch of the outer plastic from the other two ends. Once this is done, twist the
exposed wire to keep the strands together.
4. Attach the two ends from which you have removed 1/4th inch of plastic to the terminals
of the bulb holder.
5. Insert the light bulb into the holder and attach the remaining two ends of wire to the
terminals that you want to test.
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Assignment no.10
1. Elementary Principles of Transformer Operation
What is a Transformer?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission
current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change
in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer works on basic principles
of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
Transformer Types
Transformers are used in various fields like power generation grid, distribution sector,
transmission and electric energy consumption. There are various types of transformers which are
classified based on the following factors;
 Working voltage range.

 The medium used in the core.
 Winding arrangement.
 Installation location.
Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:
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 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid.
The secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
 Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary
supply to low voltage secondary output.
Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
 Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is
through the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
 Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together,
which provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.
Based on the Winding Arrangement
 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The
primary and secondary share the same coil. Auto also means “self” in language Greek.
Based on Install Location
 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they are suitable for high
voltage application
 Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes.
They are designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by
low magnetic losses.
 Measurement Transformers: These are further classified. They are mainly used for
measuring voltage, current, power.
 Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits,
some components must be protected from voltage fluctuation etc. Protection transformers
ensure component protection.
Working Principle of a Transformer
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The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and
mutual induction.
There are usually two coils primary coil and secondary coil on the transformer core. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high mutual inductance. When an
alternating current pass through the primary coil it creates a varying magnetic flux. As per
faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces an emf
(electromotive force) in the secondary coil which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This
is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries the below operations:
1. Transfer of electrical energy from circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
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The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-carrying wire. The
normal of the plane containing the flux lines are parallel to normal of a cross-section of a wire.
The figure shows the formation of varying magnetic flux lines around a wire-wound. The
interesting part is that reverse is also true, when a magnetic flux line fluctuates around a piece of
wire, a current will be induced in it. This was what Michael faraday found in 1831 which is the
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fundamental working principle of electric generators as well as transformers.
Parts of a Single-phase Transformer
The major parts of a single-phase transformer consist of;

1. Core
The core acts as a support to the winding in the transformer. It also provides a low reluctance
path to the flow of magnetic flux. The winding is wound on the core as shown in the picture. It is
made up of a laminated soft iron core in order to reduce the losses in a transformer. The factors
such as operating voltage, current, power etc decide core composition. The core diameter is
directly proportional to copper losses and inversely proportional to iron losses.
2. Windings
Windings are the set of copper wires wound over the transformer core. Copper wires are used
due to:
 The high conductivity of copper minimizes the loss in a transformer because when the
conductivity increases, resistance to current flow decreases.
 The high ductility of copper is the property of metals that allows it to be made into very
thin wires.
o

There are mainly two types of windings. Primary windings and secondary windings.
 Primary winding: The set of turns of windings to which supply current is fed.
 Secondary winding: The set of turns of winding from which output is taken.

o
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

The primary and secondary windings are insulated from each other using insulation coating
agents.
3. Insulation Agents
Insulation is necessary for transformers to separate windings from each other and to avoid short
circuit. This facilitates mutual induction. Insulation agents have an influence on the durability
and the stability of a transformer.
Following are used as an insulation medium in a transformer:

o

 Insulating oil
 Insulating tape
 Insulating paper
 Wood-based lamination
Ideal Transformer
The ideal transformer has no losses. There is no magnetic leakage flux, ohmic resistance in its
windings and no iron loss in the core.
EMF Equation of Transformer
N1 – number of turns in primary.

N2 – number of turns in secondary.
Φm – maximum flux in weber (Wb).
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T – time period. Time is taken for 1 cycle.
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value Φ m and decreases to negative
maximum Φ m. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is equal to
T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm
Where f = frequency
T = 1/f
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Form factor = rms value / average value
Rms value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of sine wave is 1.11]
RMS value of emf induced in winding = RMS value of emf per turn x no of turns
Primary Winding
Rms value of induced emf = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1
Secondary winding:
Rms value of induced emf = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2
This is the emf equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,
E1 = supply voltage on the primary winding.
E2 = terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding.
Voltage Transformation Ratio
K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case1: if N2 > N1, K>1 it is called a step-up transformer.
Case 2: if N2< N1, K<1 it is called a step-down transformer.
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145
146
Assignment no.11
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
OBJECTIVES:
• describe a single-phase, double-wound transformer, including its primary applications.
• diagram the series and parallel methods of coil connection for a double-wound transformer and
for dual-voltage connections, primary and secondary.
• define what is meant by subtractive polarity and diagram the connections and markings for this
polarity.
• define what is meant by additive polarity and diagram the connections and markings for this
polarity.
• list the steps in the ac polarity test for a single-phase transformer.
• demonstrate good electrical safety practices.
• describe an autotransformer, including its primary applications.
• identify primary taps.
A single-phase transformer usually has a core and at least two coils. The single-phase
autotransformer has only one .coil. The specifications for single-phase transformers vary greatly
and the applications of these transformers are unlimited.
THE DOUBLE-WOUND TRANSFORMER (ISOLATING AND INSULATING)
The double-wound transformer has a primary winding and a secondary winding. These windings
are independently isolated and insulated from each other. A shielded winding transformer, on the
other hand, is designed with a metallic shield between the primary and secondary windings,
providing a safety factor by grounding. This prevents accidental contact between the windings
under faulty conditions. The illustrations in unit 16 show a double-wound transformer. The coils
of double-wound transformers may be connected in several different arrangements.
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ill. 1: Coil arrangements for single-phase transformers: A. Single Coils; B. Multiple Coils
ill. 1 shows a popular arrangements of single-phase transformer windings. Two single coils (ill.
1A), are used for specific step-down or step-up applications, including bell ringing transformers,
neon transformers, and component transformers for commercial equipment, such as automatic
machines, switchgear, and other devices. Multiple coil primary and secondary windings (ill. 1B),
are used in distribution transformers where dual voltage ratings are desired. Arrangements for
voltage ratings of 2,400//120/240 or 220/440//i 10/220 are common.
Double-wound transformers separate or insulate the high transmission voltages from the typical
consumer voltages of 115/230/460. The National Electrical Code requires the use of this type of
transformer in all distribution circuits with the exception of those circuits assigned to
autotransformers. Here, as in the Code, the voltage considered shall be that at which the circuit
operates, except for the examples given.
Polarity
A 460//115/230 transformer may be connected for two ratios:
460/115 or 460/230
To obtain the 460/115 ratio, the secondary coils are connected in parallel; the 460/230 ratio is
achieved by connecting the secondary coils in series. To complete these connections, the polarity
of the leads must be determined.
ill. 2 Series and parallel transformer and battery voltage connections: A. Series Connection;
INSTANTANEOUS POLARITY; B. Parallel Connection
ill. 2 shows how the transformer series and parallel coil connections are made. Note that instead
of polarity indications such as (+, —) the coil leads are identified here by S (start) and F (finish),
or by 1 (start) and 2 (finish) as in H1, H2 and X1, X2 in ill. 3.
The beginning or ending of a transformer coil is usually indicated by a tab placed on the lead by
the technician in charge of the winding process. When the transformer is assembled, other
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markings often replace the original ones. Before final inspection, a polarity test must be made to
be certain that the leads are marked correctly.
IDENTIFYING AN UNMARKED TRANSFORMER
Installed transformers often have missing or disfigured tabs. Every time a transformer is to be
reconnected following repairs, or must be reconnected for other reasons, the polarity of the leads
must be checked.
ill. 3: (left, above) Subtractive polarity: Note the induced voltage
ill. 4: (right, above) Additive polarity: Note the induced voltage
ills 3 and 4 illustrate two systems of marking polarity. In conventional usage, polarity refers to
the induced voltage vector relationships of the transformer leads as they are brought outside of
the tank. The American National Standards Institute has standardized the location of these leads
to obtain additive and subtractive polarity conditions. All high-voltage leads brought outside the
case are marked H1, H2 and so forth, while the low-voltage leads are marked X1, X2. The H
lead is located on the left side when facing the low-voltage leads. Both H1 and X1 are both
positive at the same instant of time.
Subtractive Polarity. The tank diagram in ill. 3 shows the relationship of the induced voltages
in the primary and secondary windings for the subtractive polarity condition. Transformers
connected in this manner have the H and X leads located directly opposite each other. If H1 and
X1 are connected together (as shown in ill. 5), the voltage measured between H2 and X2 is less
than the primary voltage. The induced voltages opposes the supply voltage and thus causes the
secondary induced voltage to be subtracted from the primary voltage.
Additive Polarity. The tank diagram in ill. 4 shows the voltage relationship of the induced
voltages for the additive polarity connection. When H1 and X2 are connected, the voltage across
H2 and X1 is greater than the primary voltage. The measured voltages add up to the sum of the
primary and secondary voltages.
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Transformers which are rated up to 200 kVA and have the value of the high-voltage winding
equal to 8,660 volts or less will be additive. All other transformers will be subtractive.
Test for Polarity. Transformer coils often must be connected in series or parallel as in ill. 6. For
these situations, the polarity of a transformer or any secondary coil can be found by making the
connections shown in ill. 5A and B. Connect the adjacent left-hand, high-voltage and low-
voltage outlet leads facing the low-voltage side of the transformer. Apply a low-voltage supply
to the primary and note the voltage between the adjacent right-hand, high- and low-voltage
terminals.
• For subtractive polarity, the voltmeter reading (V) is less than the applied voltage.
The voltage is the difference between the primary and secondary voltages, Ep - Es (ill. 5 A).
• For additive polarity, the voltmeter reading (V) is greater than the applied voltage.
The voltage is the sum of the primary and secondary voltages, Ep + Es (ill. 5B).
If the test shown in ill. 5B indicates additive polarity, the secondary leads inside the tank must be
reversed at the bottom of the bushings to obtain a true subtractive polarity. If the transformer
requires all additive polarity and the test indicates subtractive, reverse the secondary lead
markers so that X2 is located opposite H1. Most transformers are connected in additive polarity.
In all transformers, the H terminals are always the high voltage terminals. The X terminals are
always the low voltage terminals. Either the H or X terminals can be designated as the primary or
the secondary, depending upon which is the source and which is the load, and if the transformer
is used as a step up or step down transformer.
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ill. 5 A) Test used to determine subtractive polarity transformer B) Test used to determine
additive polarity transformer. Note use of jumper.
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
Series Connection
If a 460/115/230-volt single-phase transformer is to be connected to obtain 460/230 volts, the

two secondary coils must be connected in series. The beginning and ending of each coil must be
joined, as shown in ill. 6A. The “start” of each coil is identified by an odd-numbered subscript.
Note: If the voltage is zero across X1 — X4 after the series connections are complete, the coils
are opposing each other (the polarity of one coil is reversed). To correct this situation, reverse
one coil, then reconnect and recheck the polarity.
Parallel Connection
To obtain 460/115 volts, the two secondary coils must be connected in parallel as shown in ill.
6B. The polarity of each coil must be correct before making this connection. The parallel
connection of two coils of opposite polarity will result in a short circuit and internal damage to
the transformer.
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ill. 6 Single-phase transformer connections: A. Series connected secondary; ADDITIVE
POLARITIES; B. Parallel connected secondary
Note: An indirect polarity check can be made by completing the series connection and noting the
total voltage. As noted above, zero voltage indicates opposite polarities. Reverse one coil to
remedy the condition and then recheck overall polarity. Re-tag leads if necessary.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Single-phase distribution transformers can be connected in parallel only if the voltage and
percent impedance ratings of the transformers are identical. This information is found on the
nameplates of large size transformers. It is recommended that this rule be followed when making
permanent parallel connections of all transformers.
TRANSFORMER PRIMARY TAPS
Taps are nothing more than alternative terminals which can be connected to more closely match
the supply, primary voltage. These taps are arranged in increments of 2 1/2 percent or 5 percent
of the primary nominal voltage rating of the transformer (ill. 7). This provides a job site
adjustment to ensure that the primary of the transformer matches the supply voltage. The
secondary will then produce the desired secondary voltage.
ill. 7 Primary terminal taps
The voltage received from the power utility may be low or high. Since the transformer is a fixed
voltage device, the output voltage is always in direct proportion to the input voltage. If the ratio
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is 2:1 and the supply voltage is 480 volts, the output will be 240 volts. If the primary voltage is
438 volts, the secondary will be only 219 volts.
High and low voltages can have serious effects on different connected loads. There fore, care
must be taken to deliver a voltage as close as possible to the desired primary — so that the
secondary voltage will match the equipment nameplate voltages. Consistently high and low
voltage problems can be solved by connecting the proper primary taps (ill. 8). If the voltage
fluctuates consistently, tap changing isn't the solution. A voltage regulating transformer is
needed.
ill. 8: Tap connections used on three phase power transformer.
REGULATION
A slight voltage drop at the secondary terminals from no load to full load is called regulation;
these are caused by resistance and reactance drops in the windings. Regulation is expressed as a
percentage. Regulation of constant potential transformers is about 1 per cent to 5 percent.
Secondary terminals:
% E regulation = ((no load E - full load E) / (full load E)) x 100
Example: The secondary voltage of a transformer rises from 220 to 228 volts when the rated load
is removed. What is the regulation of the transformer?
% regulation = ((228 – 220) / 220) x 100 = .036 X 100 3.6%
AUTOTRANSFORMER
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Transformers having only one winding are called autotransformers. An auto transformer is a
transformer in which a part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits.
This is the most efficient type of transformer since a portion of the one winding carries the
difference between the primary and secondary currents. ill. 9 shows the current distribution in an
autotransformer used in a typical lighting application. The disadvantage of an autotransformer is
the fact that the use of only one winding makes it impossible to insulate the low-voltage section
from the high-voltage distribution line. If the low-voltage winding opens when stepping down
the voltage, the full line voltage appears across the load. According to the National Electrical
Code, the use of autotransformers is limited to certain situations, such as where:
a. the system supplied contains an identified grounded conductor which is solidly connected to a
similar identified grounded conductor of the system supplying the autotransformer;
b. an induction motor is to be started or controlled (ill. 10);
c. a dimming action is required, as in theater lighting;
d. the autotransformer is to be a part of a ballast for supplying lighting units;
e. to boost or to buck a voltage under certain conditions.
ill. 9: Autotransformer used for lighting.
154
ill. 10: Autotransformer used for motor starting duty.
DRY AND LIQUID-FILLED TRANSFORMERS
Dry transformers are used extensively for indoor installations. These transformers are cooled and
isolated by air and are not encased in heavy tanks, such as those required for liquid-filled
transformers. Dry transformers are used for bell ringing circuits, current and potential
transformers, welding transformers, and almost all transformers used on portable or small
industrial equipment.
Liquid-filled transformers consist of the core and coils immersed in a tank of oil or other
insulating liquid. Oil cooling is approximately fifteen times more effective than air cooling. Most
distribution transformers designed for outdoor installation are liquid filled.
METHODS OF COOLING
The method selected to cool a transformer must not only maintain a sufficiently low average
temperature, but must also prevent an excessive temperature rise in any portion of the
transformers. In other words, the cooling medium must prevent the formation of “hot spots.” For
this reason, the working parts of the transformer are usually immersed in a high grade of
insulating oil. The oil must be free of any moisture so, if necessary, the oil must be filtered to
remove moisture. The electrical insulating value of the oil is checked periodically.
155
ill. 11: An oil-filled power transformer with radiators.
Duct lines are arranged within the transformer to provide for the free circulation of oil through
the core and coils. The warmer and thus lighter oil rises to the top of the steel tank. The
transformer core and windings are placed near the bottom of the tank. The cooler and heavier oil
settles to the bottom of the tank, This natural circulation provides for better cooling (ill. 11).
Forced Cooling
Several methods of removing heat from a transformer involve forced cooling. Cooling is
achieved by using pumps to force the circulation of the oil or liquid, by forcing the circulation of
air past the oil filled radiators (ill. 12) or by immersing water-containing coils in the oil. Cold
water circulating in the coils removes the heat stored in the oil. Forced air movement by the use
of fans is a common practice. Fans are generally con trolled by thermostats (ill. 14). ill. 13 shows
internal construction of an oil filled transformer.
APPLICATION
Single-phase transformers are suitable for use in a wide variety of applications as shown by the
examples illustrated by figures 15, 16, 17, and 18.
Distribution transformers are usually oil filled and mounted on poles, in vaults, or in manholes.
156
ill. 12 Cross section of a shell form transformer showing oil-forced air cooling (FOA or FOAL
FOA with typical temperature rises (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Power Transformer
Division)
ill. 13 Assembly of a large, three-phase, oil-filled station-class power transformer, such as the
one shown in ill. 11 (McGraw-Edison Company, Power Systems Division)
ill. 14 Transformer temperature indicators (A) Winding temperature indicator (B) Liquid
temperature indicator (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Power Transformer Division)
157
ill. 15 Pole mounted single phase distribution transformer
ill. 16 Cutaway view of distribution transformer
Compensator starters are tapped autotransformers which are used for starting induction motors.
Instrument transformers such as potential and current transformers are made in indoor, outdoor,
and portable styles used for metering.
Welding transformers provide a very low voltage to arc welding electrodes. Movable secondaries
provide the varying voltage and current characteristics required.
Constant-current transformers are used for series street lighting where the current must be held
constant with a varying voltage. The secondary is movable.
158
ill. 17 Control circuit transformer
ill. 18 Transformer used for electronic equipment
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Although there are no moving parts in a transformer, there are some maintenance procedures that
must be performed. For a general overhaul of an operating transformer or when an internal
inspection is to be made, the transformer must be deenergized. Don't assume either that the
transformer is disconnected or rely on someone else to disconnect it, always check the
transformer yourself. You must be sure that the fuses are pulled open or out and that the switch
or circuit breaker is open on both the primary and secondary sides. After the transformer is
159
disconnected, the windings should be grounded to discharge any capacitive energy stored in the
equipment. This step protects you while you are at work also. Grounding is accomplished with a
device commonly known as a “short and ground.” This is a flexible cable with clamps on both
ends. The ground end is clamped first, then, using a hook stick, the other end is touched to the
conductor. Do this with each leg on the primary and secondary sides. The phases are then shorted
together and grounded for your protection.
The tank pressure should be relieved. This may be done by bleeding a valve or plug above the oil
level. Any gas in the tank must be replaced with fresh air before a person enters the tank. The
absence of oxygen in a tank will cause asphyxiation quickly and without warning. A second
person should be on duty outside the transformer as a safety precaution whenever someone must
enter the transformer. Be sure to follow OSHA rules on hazardous entry and restricted work
space. All tools should have safety cords attached with the other end tightly secured. All pockets
in clothing should be emptied. Nothing must be allowed to fall into the tank. Great care must be
exercised to prevent contacting or coming close to the electrical conductors and other live parts
of the transformer unless it's known that the transformer has been deenergized. The tank and
cooling radiators shouldn't be touched until it's determined that they are adequately grounded (for
both new and old installations).
SUMMARY
Single-phase transformers are used in a variety of applications. In order to connect them

correctly, the electrician must know how the ac polarities are established at the transformer leads.
Because the internal windings of the transformer are often not accessible, polarity checks must
be made on the external leads. The transformer leads are marked according to the standards for
additive or subtractive polarity. If the lead markings are not apparent or the voltages expected are
not obtained, then the polarity must be tested. If the lead markings are known, the transformer
coils may be connected in series or parallel to yield the desired voltage. Auto-transformer
connections or tap-changing transformers may be used to bring the voltage within the desired
range. Much of the transformers ability to operate satisfactorily depends on the ability to
dissipate the heat produced in the windings. Many methods are used to dissipate this heat and
keep the transformer from overheating and being destroyed.
160
Assignment no.12
1. Autotransformer
An autotransformer (or auto transformer) is a type of electrical transformer with only one
winding. The “auto” prefix refers to the single coil acting alone (Greek for “self”) – not to any
automatic mechanism. An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but varies in
the way the primary and secondary winding of the transformer are interrelated.
Autotransformer Theory
In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for primary and
secondary purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is shown below.
The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is tapped from
point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let’s assume the number of turns in
between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N2.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
161
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value
of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto transformer. When load is
connected between secondary terminals i.e.between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts flowing.
The current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of I 2 and I1.
Copper Savings in Auto Transformer
Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to conventional two
winding transformer.
We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross-sectional area.
Again length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of turns and cross-sectional
area varies with rated current.
So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number of turns and rated
current of the winding.
Therefore, weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,
and similarly, weight of copper in the section BC proportional to,
Hence, total weight of copper in the winding of auto transformer proportional to,
In similar way it can be proved, the weight of copper in two winding transformer is proportional
to,
N1I1 + N2I2
162
⇒ 2N1I1 (Since, in a transformer N1I1 = N2I2)
Let’s assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and two winding transformer
respectively,
∴ Saving of copper in auto transformer compared to two winding transformer,
Auto transformer employs only single winding per phase as against two distinctly separate
windings in a conventional transformer.
Advantages of using Auto Transformers
The advantages of an auto transformer include:
1. For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be approximately
50% of the corresponding size of two winding transformer. For transformation ratio say
20 however the size would be 95 %. The saving in cost of the material is of course not in
the same proportion. The saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of transformer is
low, that is lower than 2. Thus auto transformer is smaller in size and cheaper.
2. An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding transformer. This is because
of less ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of transformer material.
3. Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage drop in resistance and reactance
of the single winding is less.
Disadvantages of Using Auto Transformer
The disadvantages of an auto transformer include:
1. Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary windings the

lower voltage circuit is liable to be impressed upon by higher voltage. To avoid
breakdown in the lower voltage circuit, it becomes necessary to design the low
voltage circuit to withstand higher voltage.
163
2. The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small and hence
the impedance is low. This results into severer short circuit currents under fault
conditions.
3. The connections on primary and secondary sides have necessarily needs to be
same, except when using interconnected starring connections. This introduces
complications due to changing primary and secondary phase angle particularly in
the case of delta/delta connection.
4. Because of common neutral in a star/star connected auto transformer it is not
possible to earth neutral of one side only. Both their sides should have their
neutrality either earth or isolated.
5. It is more difficult to maintain the electromagnetic balance of the winding when
voltage adjustment tappings are provided. It should be known that the provision
of tapping on an auto transformer increases considerably the frame size of
the transformer. If the range of tapping is very large, the advantages gained in
initial cost is lost to a great event.
The applications of an auto transformer include:
1. Compensating voltage drops by boosting supply voltage in distribution systems.

2. Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting induction and
synchronous motors.
3. Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous variable
over broad ranges are required.
2. Dry and Liquid-Filled Transformer
With the variety of high- voltage power transformers available today, clients
must consider a range of factors before selecting equipment. Although
transformers are still categorized depending on whether they use wet or dry
dielectric materials, numerous options are available for fast track power high -
voltage applications. These are a few variables that will help to determine
if dry or liquid filled power transformers are your best choice to use at new or
existing sites.
o Maintenance
o Initial costs
o Operating costs
o Operating noise
o Recyclabilit y
o Required capacity
o Voltage losses
o Site selection
164
o Equipment size
o Safety requirements
o Environmental risks
Liquid-filled Transformers
The wet-type power transformer have been around for nearly a century, but
recent technical advances have improved the overall practicalit y of these
products. This proven technology is cost -efficient, versatile and easy to
maintain. With an average lifespan of 25 years and a potential service life of
35 years, they last longer than dry transformers while offering numerous other
benefits.
For decades, flammable and environmentally damaging dielectric fluids were a
major drawback. Oil- filled transformers required containment troughs and
other safety precaut ions. Indoor installations were regarded as risky due to
potential fire hazards and exposure to the dielectric fluids. However, many
alternatives to mineral oil are now available. Natural esters, silicone and
hydrocarbons are recommended alternatives to flammable mineral oil. Some
fluids are renewable, nontoxic and biodegradable.
Advantages of Liquid-filled Transformers
o New dielectric fluids have high flash points and minimal impact on
the environment.
o High- voltage clients can recycle or remanufacture liquid- filled
transformers easily.
o A wet-type power transformer is smaller and more efficient than dry
products.
o Liquid- filled transformers are suitable for indoor use because
operating noise is lower.
o These transformers last longer than dry-type products.
o Numerous recycling options are available.
Disadvantages of Liquid-filled Transformers
o Not all wet-type power transformers have the same safet y benefits.
o Fluid testing and on-site maintenance is required for reliabilit y.
o Additional protocols are required to manage fire and environmental
risks.
o Oil- filled transformers may have lower cooling ratings than some
cast-coil products.
o Insulating fluids must be appropriate for the application.
Dry-type Transformers
165
The dry-type power transformer has been traditionally used for low- and
medium- voltage applications in buildings. Improved safety made dry-t ype
transformers preferred for indoor power distribution. However, these systems
have some drawbacks and limitations.
Air-cooled transformers are larger than liquid- filled products with the same
capacity and voltage ratings, so they are not the best choice for a mobile
substation or a site where space is limited. Air natural transformers have
ratings up to 3 MVA. With higher capacities, dry transformers must use air -
blast systems to cool the core and windings. Due to these limitations, many
experts recommend 2.5 MVA as the changeover point for dry and wet
products.
Advantages of Dry-type Transformers
o Air-cooled transformers are practical for low- and medium- voltage
sites.
o Dry-systems eliminate environmental risks related to leaks and spills.
o Cast coils outperform conventional transformers in extreme
conditions.
o Some cast-coil products offer extraordinary resistance to surges and
short circuits.
o Air-cooled systems are often preferred at indoor sites where safety is
a priority.
Disadvantages of Dry-type Transformers
o Dry-type transformers are more expensive to purchase and to operate.
o Repairs are difficult, and end-of- life recycling is limited.
o Coils can pose fire risks when they are not properly cleaned.
o Annual maintenance usually requires deactivation and downtime.
o Electrical losses associated with dry transformers are significant ly
higher.
o Heat generated by losses must be controlled with a cooling system.
o Dry transformers have high operating noises, so they are not suitable
for all indoor applications.
3. Transformer's Methods of Cooling
No transformer is truly an 'ideal transformer' and hence each will incur some losses, most of
which get converted into heat. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the excess temperature in
transformer may cause serious problems like insulation failure. It is obvious that transformer
needs a cooling system. Transformers can be divided in two types as (i) dry type transformers
and (ii) oil immersed transformers. Different cooling methods of transformers are -
166
 For dry type transformers
 Air Natural (AN)
 Air Blast
 For oil immersed tranformers
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)
 Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
Cooling Methods For Dry Type Transformers
Air Natural Or Self Air Cooled Transformer

This method of transformer cooling is generally used in small transformers (upto 3 MVA). In
this method the transformer is allowed to cool by natural air flow surrounding it.
Air Blast
For transformers rated more than 3 MVA, cooling by natural air method is inadequate. In this
method, air is forced on the core and windings with the help of fans or blowers. The air supply
must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts. This method
can be used for transformers upto 15 MVA.
Cooling Methods For Oil Immersed Transformers
Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
167
This method is used for oil immersed transformers. In this method, the heat generated in the
core and winding is transferred to the oil. According to the principle of convection, the heated oil
flows in the upward direction and then in the radiator. The vacant place is filled up by cooled oil
from the radiator. The heat from the oil will dissipate in the atmosphere due to the natural air
flow around the transformer. In this way, the oil in transformer keeps circulating due to natural
convection and dissipating heat in atmosphere due to natural conduction. This method can be
used for transformers upto about 30 MVA.
Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
The heat dissipation can be improved further by applying forced air on the dissipating surface.
Forced air provides faster heat dissipation than natural air flow. In this method, fans are mounted
near the radiator and may be provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on
when temperature increases beyond certain value. This transformer cooling method is generally
used for large transformers upto about 60 MVA.
Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF)

In this method, oil is circulated with the help of a pump. The oil circulation is forced through the
heat exchangers. Then compressed air is forced to flow on the heat exchanger with the help of
fans. The heat exchangers may be mounted separately from the transformer tank and connected
through pipes at top and bottom as shown in the figure. This type of cooling is provided for
higher rating transformers at substations or power stations.
168
Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF)
This method is similar to OFAF method, but here forced water flow is used to dissipate hear
from the heat exchangers. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help of a
pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water which is also forced to flow. The heated water is
taken away to cool in separate coolers. This type of cooling is used in very large transformers
having rating of several hundreds MVA.
4. Applications of Single-Phase Transformers
Transformers are widely used in electronic components because they can convert voltages from
one power level to another without affecting frequency. For this reason they are commonly used
in household appliances. Even though there are a variety of different types of transformers, they
are all based on the concept of an enclosure designed to shield electromagnetic fields, known as
169
Faraday's Cage. Here are details on a single-phase transformer and how it protects electrical
equipment.
How a Single-Phase Transformer Works The single-phase transformer is an electronic
component that operates on a single-phase alternating current, as the voltage cycle occurs within
a unified time phase. It is commonly used to lower long distance signals for both light-
commercial and residential electronic devices. Here are the steps involved with this process:
1. external AC power generates an alternating electromagnetic field through the primary
winding
2. the electromagnetic field collapses in the iron core, linking the flux in both windings
3. power is induced through the secondary winding connected to a load at 60 Hz
4. Faraday's Law determines the induced voltage and amperes, which can be modified by
the nature of the primary and secondary windings
5. external radio interference (RFI) is shielded to protect electronic equipment
Primary and secondary windings are usually made of insulated copper wire and must be isolated
from the iron core, which has high permeability. The highest voltage that can be used for single-
phase is controlled by utility companies and industrial regulations. Before deciding on whether to
use single-phase or three-phase transformers, you should check the manufacturer's specification
on using the electronic components, or consult with an electrical expert.
Applications
 step-down localized power distribution
 television sets to regulate voltage
 low voltage electronic devices
 step-up power in home inverters
 non-urban areas where electrical demand is lower
 commercial and residential lighting and heating equipment
Conclusion When deciding on whether to use a single-phase or three-phase transformer, you

should consider the operating frequency range, voltage rating of the windings, power rating,
secondary current rating and temperature requirements. A key advantage to single-phase vs.
three-phase transformers is lower cost. Three-phase transformers are used in high power systems,
while single-phase transformers are more appropriate for lighter equipment.
170
5. Safety Precautions of Transformers
171
15 Safety Precautions for Electrical System
It’s relatively important to take safety precautions when working with electricity.
All the people engaged in the electrical work should follow all safety rules and regulations. The
workers in the electricity field should be extremely disciplined.
Before starting the work, the working place should be clean and tidy. It is necessary to check All
levels of voltage before operating. It is needed to ignore even the voltage levels which cannot
produce an electrical shock. Workers should ensure that the circuit is dead before touching it for
repairing maintenance and any others works.
The safety guidelines are given to help the electrical workers.
1. Switch off, isolate and properly earth the circuit before doing any work with the circuit.
2. Avoid water while working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of the electric current.
3. Always use insulated tools while working. Only permit after making the circuit completely
dead, isolated, and earthed.
4. Display Danger Board at the place of work.
5. Avoid putting any new equipment into the service without necessary testing by authority.
6. Forbid any unauthorized person to enter the working place.
7. Label all electrical equipment, bays, circuits to avoid any mistake.
8. Shouldn't work on the electrical circuits during a heavy lightning storm.
9. Wearing shoes having sewn soles, preferably insulated rubber soles.
10. Avoid wearing suspenders, armbands, metal buckets or other metal parts, metal key
chains, or metal keepers for key rings, or watch rings outside the clothing during work.
11. Stop working when the workers feel tired and exhausted.
12. Should not keep any tools at the edge of equipment cabinet or structure from where these
may fall off.
13. Should not do anything which may startle the person working in a hazardous condition.
14. Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the
cable is a good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of
underground cabling. Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it
is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing insulated gloves.
172
15. Never use an aluminum or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in
your home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass
through your body.
173

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0R. A.

9299 Republic of the Philippines June 25, 2004

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

A Compilation of Assignments presented to

Engr. Gil Tuban

In Fulfillment to the subject

Decipolo, Kenneth John E.

Assignment no.1 3-24

Assignment no.2 25-42

Assignment no.3 43-49

Assignment no.4 50-64

Assignment no.5 65-75

Assignment no.6 76-97

Assignment no.7 98-107

Assignment no.8 108-131

Assignment no.9 132-137

Assignment no.10 138-146

Assignment no.11 147-160

Assignment no.12 161-173

1. What is an Electrical Generator?

History of Electric Generators

 Due to the difficulty in insulating machines that produced high voltages

Components of an Electric Generator

 The Frame – the structure

Types of Electric Generators

Uses of an Electric Generator

2. Types of Direct Current Generators.

figure1. Types of DC generators (reference: electricalacademia.com)

Permanent Magnet DC Generators

Figure2. Permanent magnetic DC generators (reference: electricalacademia.com)

the induced voltage is calculated as:

Vind = induced voltage, in V

B = flux density that is perpendicular to the motion, in Wb/m2

l = length of the conductor, in m

v = velocity of the conductor, in m/s

Separately Excited DC Generators

Figure3. Circuit diagram of the separately excited DC generators

1. Shunt Wound Generators

A DC generator consists of six main parts, which are as follows

 It provides support to the field coils.

12 Parts of DC Generators are:

Rotor or Armature Core

E.M.F Equation of DC generator

 Z means the total number of armature conductor

What is the Working principle of DC generator? How Does it Work?

What are the Types of DC generator?

DC generator has advantages

In many fields, we need a DC generator especially for the following reasons:

 It’s built and designed plainly.

Like other machines, DC generators have some disadvantages, such as:

 DC generators can’t be applied to a transformer.

 Separately excited DC machines: In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is

Self-excited machines can be further classified as –

6. Types of Armatures and Armature Windings.

Applications of Wave Winding

If Ia being the total armature current, then

7. Compensating Windings and Interpoles.

8. Proper Commutation and Armature Reaction in DC Generators.

MNA And GNA

The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:

How To Reduce Armature Reaction?

There are three methods of sparkles commutation: