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A Practical Guide for the Use of Seeds in Eelgrass (Zostera

marina L.) Restoration

Article · January 2003

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A Practical Guide for the
Use of Seeds in Eelgrass
(Zostera marina L.)
Restoration

Part I: Collection,

Processing, and Storage

Stephen Granger
Michael S. Traber
Scott W. Nixon
Raymond Keyes
This pamphlet is the first of a two-part series of practical “how-to”
guides that discusses the collection and use of Zostera marina L.
seeds for the restoration of seagrass habitat. A second pamphlet
will present data collected during several years of experimental
plantings, discuss optimum seed application rates, planting
depth, and stratagies, and present the mechanical design of an
underwater planting machine for seeding marine sediments.

We would like to express our appreciation to Robert Orth of the

Virginia Institute of Marine Science for his patient guidance and
valuable consultation during our work with seagrass seeds and to
Mark Fonseca from the NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean
Science for his helpful review of the manuscript. We also owe a
great deal of our success to Stephanie Robbins, Ben Allen, Sean
Vasas, Shawn Henderson, and Chris Mueller, who, through their
long hours of work, maintained the seed stocks and assisted in
the development of the techniques presented in this manual.

The proper citation for this booklet is:

Granger, S., M. Traber, S.W. Nixon, and R. Keyes. 2002. A practical guide
for the use of seeds in eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) restoration. Part I.
Collection, processing, and storage. M. Schwartz (ed.), Rhode Island Sea
Grant, Narragansett, R.I. 20 pp.

Additional copies of this publication are available from the Rhode Island
Sea Grant Communications Office, University of Rhode Island Bay
Campus, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197. Order P1635. $5.

Loan copies of this publication are available from the National Sea Grant
Depository, Pell Library Building, University of Rhode Island Bay
Campus, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197. Order RIU-H-02-001.

This publication is sponsored by the Cooperative Institute for Coastal and

Estuarine Environmental Technology (CICEET), a NOAA program that
supports the scientific development of innovative technologies for
understanding and reversing the impacts of coastal and estuarine
degradation. It is also sponsored in part by Rhode Island Sea Grant,
under NOAA Grant No. NA16RG1057. The views expressed herein are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of NOAA or
any of its sub-agencies. The U.S. Government is authorized to produce
and distribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any
copyright notation that may appear hereon.
A Practical Guide for the

Use of Seeds in Eelgrass

(Zostera marina L.)

Restoration

Part I: Collection,

Processing, and Storage

by
Stephen Granger
Michael S. Traber
Scott W. Nixon
Raymond Keyes

Editor
Malia Schwartz

1
2
INTRODUCTION

Eelgrass Basics
Eelgrass, or Zostera marina L. as it is known to botanists, is a
submersed marine angiosperm. In other words, it is not a sea-
weed or macroalgae — it is a plant that grows underwater with
roots, leaves, flowers, and a particular type of seed. However, the
flowers and seeds are not showy or obvious, and it requires
some knowledge and experience to know where and when to
look for them and how to harvest and care for the seeds. Zostera
is not a true grass, but like a terrestrial grass it does have a
special underground stem or rhizome from which the roots and
leaves grow (Fig. 1).
Eelgrass is the most
widely distributed and
intensely studied of the
58 existing species of
seagrasses (6). In North
America, eelgrass can be
found in the shallow
wave-protected waters
of bays and estuaries
from southwestern
Greenland to the Caroli-
nas (27) and from the
Bering Sea to the Gulf of
California (21).
Because eelgrass
must be rooted in the
sediment, yet requires
light, it is usually con-
fined to water less than
2 meters (6.6 feet) deep,
except where the water
Figure 1. The vegetative and reproductive is exceptionally clear. As
forms of Zostera marina L. The reproductive
shoot, pictured on the right above, has a a rough rule of thumb,
single inflorescence on each branch.

3
about 20 percent of the surface light should reach the sediment surface for
eelgrass to survive (5; 8). The ideal sediment is a silty sand or sandy silt with
an organic content of about 1 to 3 percent (1; 17). While eelgrass requires
protection from waves, it thrives in current speeds of 0.15 meters per
second (m/s) up to 0.50 m/s (0.3 to 1.0 knot) but can endure maximum
velocities of 1.5 m/s (3.0 knots) (10; 17). It tolerates a wide range of salinities
from full strength seawater to about 10 parts per thousand (2; 27; and
others). More information about eelgrass and the organisms associated
with it can be found in readable summaries prepared by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (27).
During the 1930s, a virulent fungal disease swept through eelgrass
beds in North America and Europe and almost completely eliminated the
plants from many areas (7). A slow recovery over the next 30 years renewed
scientific interest in the ecology and reproduction of Zostera, and numerous
studies began to reveal the importance of eelgrass habitats as nursery areas
for fish (15), as food sources for various organisms, as depositional areas
for removing suspended sediments (23), and as wave dampening structures
that helped reduce storm damage (11; 13). Ironically, the recovery of eel-
grass, at least along the U.S. East Coast, coincided with the migration of the
human population to the coast, the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer
following World War II, and increasing atmospheric emissions of nitrogen
from electric power generation and transportation. The increasing inputs of
sediment and nutrients combined to reduce coastal water clarity. As a
result, the natural recovery of eelgrass largely stopped, and the plants were
lost once again from many bays and estuaries. It is estimated that from one-
to two-thirds or more of the once-recovered eelgrass has been lost (14; 16;
18; 24).
On a more positive note, however, the loss of eelgrass attracted atten-
tion and helped to stimulate initiatives designed to reduce sediment and
nutrient inputs to coastal waters. In many places, initiatives have started to
succeed in improving water clarity so that more areas are becoming suit-
able for eelgrass (13). Because now there is a greater and more widespread
appreciation for the ecological importance of eelgrass habitat, and perhaps
because the more recent losses were due to pollution rather than to dis-
ease, many environmental organizations and coastal management agencies
are becoming involved in eelgrass restoration efforts in areas where water
clarity and quality is improving. The intent is that, by planting eelgrass, the
slow process of natural recovery will be accelerated (9; 12; 14; 25; 26).

4
Restoration Approaches

Since it had been shown that most eelgrass meadows spread and
maintain themselves through asexual vegetative growth of their
rhizomes and associated lateral shoots (28), the first approaches
to eelgrass restoration involved harvesting shoots from “donor
beds” and planting them in various ways at the site where a new
bed was desired. Unfortunately, these techniques have proven to
be labor intensive and expensive (averaging approximately
$37,000 per acre) and have achieved limited success (14).
It is not surprising that transplanting mature plants has failed
to keep pace with the loss of eelgrass habitat. Consequently,
there has been growing interest in the use of Zostera marina L.
seeds as an alternative method of eelgrass habitat restoration
(20). Sexual reproduction through flowering, cross or self-
pollination, and seed production has been shown to be an effec-
tive means by which Zostera colonizes new areas, fills in gaps
that may form within a meadow, and increases genetic diversity
within existing beds (19; 22). While there are many good reasons
to believe that the use of seeds is an ecologically and economi-
cally attractive alternative to mature shoot transplants, the
approach is still experimental. This guide has been prepared in an
effort to encourage additional field trials and to assist those who
may wish to help develop this very promising method. This guide
describes the field and aquarium techniques for harvesting,
preparing, and storing large quantities of viable eelgrass seed. A
subsequent booklet will describe the methods used for planting
the seeds in the field and offer preliminary cost comparisons
between whole plant and seed-based restorations. Seeds can
also be used to raise seedlings in aquaria for later field planting.
Before designing a field program, however, keep in mind
that some states have laws protecting submerged aquatic vegeta-
tion and a permit may be required for harvesting flowering stalks.
It is always prudent to contact the relevant state and federal
environmental and coastal management agencies to get the most
up-to-date information.

5
FLOWERING AND SEED PRODUCTION
While the stages and progression of flowering and seed development in
Zostera remain consistent throughout its geographical range (21; 27), the
onset, duration, and magnitude of flowering and seed production can vary
widely with temperature, light, depth, sediment characteristics, and perhaps
other environmental factors. As a result, there can be substantial variation
from place-to-place, and from one year to the next at any one place. The
information given here is based on several years’ experience in Rhode
Island, and the timing of events will need to be modified to fit other loca-
tions. However, the process described for identifying, harvesting, process-
ing, and storing eelgrass seeds can be applied to any eelgrass meadow that
provides viable seeds.
Because only some shoots in an eelgrass meadow will develop flow-
ers, because the flowers and seeds do not all develop at exactly the same
time or at the same rate, and because the seeds are small and sink rapidly
once they are released, it is not practical to collect seeds directly in the field.
Instead, plan to collect the seed bearing stalks before the seeds are fully
matured and released. This has no real impact on the bed because flowering
shoots die after the seeds are released. However, as a precaution, we only
collect a small portion of the seeds from one location to assure that suffi-
cient seeds remain for bed maintenance.
In order to determine the optimum time for the collection of seed bear-
ing stalks from a donor bed, it is not only important to distinguish flowering
shoots from the vegetative form, but also to determine the stage of seed
development and maturity. Reproductive shoots mature acropetally, that is,
development of reproductive structures occurs first at the base of the plant
and on the main axis of the stem, then progresses upward and outward
toward terminal inflorescences (Fig. 1). As a result, neither flowering nor
seed production occurs uniformly over the entire plant, and some judgment
is required to choose a harvest time that ensures the greatest yield of seeds.
Reproductive stalks collected before pollination will obviously never
produce viable seeds and stalks collected with very immature seeds will
require additional holding time in a flowing seawater aquarium to allow the
seeds to mature. On the other hand, it is inefficient to harvest stalks from
the field after they have released a substantial portion of their seeds. The
drawings and photographs presented here illustrate the major developmen-
tal stages of reproduction to assist the reader in monitoring potential donor
sites and determining the optimum time for plant collection.

6
Early Development

Elongation of the Flowering Stalk

The vegetative form of eelgrass is characterized by three to five
(sometimes more) ribbon-like leaves emerging from a central
sheath located at the base of the plant (Fig. 1). A flowering or
reproductive shoot is produced through the metamorphosis of a
mature vegetative shoot. The flowering shoot is typically taller
than the original vegetative shoot and easily recognized by an
erect stem with several branches bearing reproductive struc-
tures called inflorescences or spathe. These branches are alter-
nately arranged along the main axis of the stem and are sepa-
rated by normal vegetative leaves. A branch can contain a single
inflorescence—defined by the particular arrangement of flowers
on a plant—(as seen in Fig. 1) or groups of inflorescences called
rhipidia. A flowering shoot is not usually developed before the
second year of a plant’s growth. However, recent observations
of an annual form of Zostera marina L. indicate that flowering
plants in some populations are produced during the first year of
growth. All flowering shoots, regardless of their age, will die by
the end of the growing season.
Light and water temperature have been identified as the
most important environmental cues for initiating the develop-
ment of flowering shoots (27). Flower primordia (immature
flowering structures) have been found at water temperatures
below 5 C (41 F), but for further development of the reproduc-
tive structures to occur, water temperatures must reach from 10
to 15 C (50 to 59 F). When water temperatures reach 15 to 20 C,
(59 to 68 F), flowering can be completed and viable seeds
produced (4). Exceptions to this general rule have been found in
areas where water temperatures never reach these upper
ranges, and the formation and development of flowering shoots
occur at slightly lower temperatures (27).

7
Pre-Pollination

Spathe Development
The formation and development
of specialized flower parts com- Figure 2. Immature male and female flowers held in the
protective sheath of the spadix. Flowering will begin a
prising an inflorescence occurs few weeks after further development of the flowers.
concurrently with the elongation
of the stem. A thin (two cells thick), nearly transparent structure called the
spathe overlaps and encloses a spadix (an inflorescence consisting of
flowers without stalks), on which the male flower (anther) and female
flower (pistil) are alternately arranged (Fig. 2). The membranous sheath
protects the spadix before flowering and during seed development. During
this early stage of spathe development, the male and female flowers appear
light yellow in color and are difficult to distinguish.

Stamen and Pistil Development

Stigma
The pistil, or female flower, is composed Style
of an ovary, a narrow tube connected to A
the ovary (the style), and two long slender
stigma or pollen receptacles attached to
the style; the stamen, or male flower, Ovary

consists of the anther, which is composed

of two capsules or thecae that are joined B
together and connected to the spadix
(Fig. 3). Typically, equal numbers of male
and female flowers are developed within
the spathe. The reproductive output of a
Anther Spathe
plant is dependent upon the number of
spathe, the number of ovules per spathe, C
and the number of ovules that are fertil-
ized and produce seeds. All of these vary
within and between seagrass beds, so
that selecting the most promising donor
site often requires inspection of plants in
Figure 3. The spathe is composed of female
different beds to determine which will
(A) and male (B) flowering parts, which are
yield the most seeds. contained in the sheath of the spadix (B). In
C, the ovary wall has split, exposing a
mature seed. Drawings by S. Amelia.

8
Pollination

Pistil Projection
The complete sequence of flowering (anthesis) requires 30 to
60 days and begins with the first appearance of the female
flowers outside of the spathe. In the shallow coastal lagoons
along the Rhode Island coast, this usually occurs during April,
while in the less protected and cooler water of Narragansett
Bay, it begins about four weeks later. Starting at the base and
progressing toward the apex of the spathe, each pistil bends
outward and pushes through the membranous margins of the
spathe to project its small forked stigmata (Fig. 4). Over a
period of time that varies from several hours to a few days, all
of the female flowers will ultimately emerge from the spathe
and remain there until pollinated. Female flowers mature and
emerge before male flowers on the same inflorescence and
therefore cross-pollination among different shoots is common.

Figure 4. A spadix shortly after the styles have extended

and the stigmata are ready for pollination. This first step in the
anthesis or flowering process of Zostera marina L. begins when
water temperatures reach 15 C (59 F).

Pollen Release
The emergence of the male flowers on each flowering shoot
follows approximately four days after female flowering on that
shoot. The stamen or male flower is composed of two separate
pollen-bearing thecae which, in a manner similar to that of the
female flowers, also presses through the margins of the spathe
(Fig. 5). The emergence of the theca occurs quickly (hours to a
day) and is followed shortly by the release of pollen. The theca
then detaches and floats away. Once released, the long sticky
filamentous pollen mass remains viable for two to three days

9

and relies on water movement for
transport (3). The pollen becomes
entangled on the extended female
stigmata and, if fertilization is suc-
cessful, the stigmata drop off or
dehisce, leaving behind a truncated
style. The fertilized female flower then
bends back into the spathe (Fig. 6).
Figure 5. A spathe with
extended male flowers or
thecae. Pictured above is
a single theca that has
been released from the
spathe. The lower scale is
in inches and the upper
scale is in millimeters.

Figure 6. A spathe after pollination

before the styles have been re-
tracted into the protective sheath.
Notice the stigma have dropped
off or dehisced—an indication of
successful fertilization.

Post-Pollination

Seed Maturation and Release

After approximately four to six weeks, when the seeds are mature, the
ovary wall splits and its margins curl back along the sides of the emerging
seed (Figs. 3 and 7). This process can take from a few hours to a day. The
ripened seeds will remain exposed until agitated or until further emergence
causes their release. Once released, the negatively buoyant seed will
quickly sink. Immature seeds are white or light green in color, with a soft
outer coat. Mature seeds can range in color from white to olive to dark
brown or black, with varying degrees of a blue hue. They have a hard
longitudinally ribbed coat. The embryonic hypocotyl can be seen through
the transparent seed coat as a light-colored triangular area.

Figure 7. A spathe that has

opened to reveal mature
seeds. Seeds are released
after reaching this stage of
development.

10
COLLECTION AND SEPARATION
The specific design of a field program
to collect reproductive eelgrass
shoots is determined by the number
of seeds needed and by practical
constraints such as the availability of
boats, scuba divers, equipment, and
whether shore or open-water access
to the seagrass bed is most efficient.
The collection of a few thousand
seeds in a shallow bed may be
accomplished by wading from shore Figure 8. A diver returning to the boat after
with a snorkel and mask. However, to collecting flowering shoots. The plants are
handed to the surface team and placed in fish
collect hundreds of thousands of totes. Once filled, the totes are stacked and
seeds usually requires both a boat (or covered with tarps.
easy access from shore) and scuba
divers. The chronicle of a typical collection, given below, is only
meant to be a general guide. The design of each field program
will vary depending on the specific requirements and resources
of the collecting group.
Generally collection of the seed-bearing shoots begins in
July. Scuba divers either swim or, if weighted heavily enough,
walk (without fins) through the selected donor eelgrass bed,
picking individual reproductive stalks with a quick upward
snapping motion. The stem often breaks on the lower portion of
the stalk, but in some cases a small portion of the rhizome will
come off with the stalk. In order to minimize disturbance to the
bed, care should be taken not to remove any vegetative shoots.
Divers return to the boat or shore where support personnel
place the collected stalks into plastic tubs such as fish totes (Fig.
8). Commercially available fish totes are nearly indestructible,
reasonably priced, save space by nesting when not in use, and
stack when filled with plants. After the tubs are filled with plants,
they are covered with a tarp, kept cool and moist, and trans-
ported as soon as possible to flow-through seawater tanks.
To allow for the full development and ripening of the seeds,
the reproductive stalks are held in large tanks with flowing
seawater at ambient temperature and salinity. The shape and

11
size of the tanks are not critical, as
long as the plants can be kept fully
submerged, cool (less than 25 C, or
77 F), and well flushed with seawater
(Fig. 9). The tank should have a
bottom-mounted drain and a
standpipe to regulate water level. The
tank is filled about one-quarter to
one-third full of reproductive stalks
and the remainder with seawater. This Figure 9. A tank filled with harvested flowering
allows the seawater to flow in and stalks. The tank has a bottom-mounted drain to
around the plants while avoiding facilitate the collection of released seeds, a side-
mounted standpipe that regulates water depth,
areas of stagnant water. The inflow of and seawater inflow (seen on left) sufficient to
seawater to the tanks should be completely flush the tank in a few hours.
sufficient to replace the water every
one to two hours. Newly collected eelgrass plants are very buoyant, so
place 1-inch-square nylon-coated wire mesh (used in the construction of
commercial lobster traps) on top of the floating plants to keep them sub-
merged and prevent desiccation. The mesh covers are removed each day
and the plants stirred (an
ordinary garden rake
works well) to release
Cumulative Yield of Seed,

the mature seeds from

the reproductive shoots
g wet weight

and to gently agitate and

aerate the mass of
flowering plants. The
mature seeds that are
released quickly settle to
the bottom of the tank.
An average holding time
of four to six weeks is
usually sufficient to
harvest the majority of
Figure 10. Zostera marina beds were monitored at two locations
the seeds, but this will in Narragansett Bay, and the seed-bearing plants were harvested
depend somewhat on when mature seeds were first released in the field. The stalks
the maturity of the seeds were placed in flowing seawater tanks, kept at ambient
temperature, and drained weekly. We separated the seeds and
when the plants were detrital material and measured the wet weight of the seeds.
collected (Fig. 10). Seed collections from both donor sites yielded 80 percent of
their seeds in the first six weeks after collection.

12
Seed Winnowing
The first collection of the released
seeds usually takes place approxi-
mately two weeks after harvesting
the flowering shoots. Begin by
removing the mesh covers and
raking all of the plant material from
the holding tank into fish totes (Fig.
11). The bottom of the tanks re-
mains covered with detritus and
miscellaneous plant material that is
difficult to remove completely with
the rake. However, if a little extra
time is taken at this point to remove
the debris, the rest of the seed
extraction process will be signifi-
cantly more efficient. To remove the Figure 11. Plants being removed from the
holding tank a few weeks after their collection
smaller detrital material, pull a from the field. A fish tote makes a useful
1-inch-quare-mesh screen (used storage container. The vinyl-coated wire mesh
previously to submerge the flower- used to keep the plants submerged can be
seen resting against the tote.
ing stalks) at a 45-degree
angle along the bottom of
the tank and sieve the
mixture of plant debris and
seeds. Seeds and smaller
plant pieces pass through
the screen while large debris
is captured and discarded
(Fig. 12). After the bottom
has been thoroughly
screened, attach a nylon
filter bag with an 800-micron
mesh to the end of the
drainpipe. As the drain is
opened, the bag or sock
filter captures the seeds and Figure 12. After the plants have been removed, a 1-inch-
smaller remaining detritus square mesh (held at a 45 degree angle)is moved by hand
along the bottom of the tank to remove large pieces of
(Fig. 13). When the tank is detrital material.

13
 Figure 13. Left: A nylon 800-
micron mesh filter bag is
attached to the end of the
drainpipe. Bottom: When the
bottom drain is opened, a
mixture of seeds and detritus
is captured in the bag.

empty, any seeds that remain on the bottom can be scraped toward the
drain opening with a floor squeegee and rinsed down the drain with sea-
water. Before removing the filter bag, make sure the drainpipe has also
been rinsed free of seeds. Once the nylon filter bag is removed, the drain is
closed and the tank is refilled with seawater. A close inspection of the plants
that were removed determines if they should be returned to the tank to
allow for continued seed development and later collections or discarded
because they have lost almost all of their seeds.
Next, empty the mixture of fine detritus and seeds collected in the
nylon bag onto an eighth-inch-mesh polyethylene screen that has been
fitted to a PVC frame constructed so that it fits snugly into a tank (or bucket),
but can be easily removed. This container should also have a bottom drain
with a valve (Fig. 14). Rinse the seed mixture several times with seawater to
wash the seeds into the underlying tank, while the larger plant material
remains on the screen and is discarded (Fig. 14). A visual inspection of the
material on the screen determines when most of the seeds have been
washed through. If the tank has a small volume, or large amounts of sea-

14
Figure 14. Top: The filter bag containing a mixture of
detritus and seeds is emptied on a screen (eighth-
inch-square mesh) for further processing. Middle:
Seawater is used to rinse the seeds into the under-
lying tank. Bottom: Once the seeds have been
separated from the detritus, the screen is removed
and the plant material discarded.

water are used to rinse the material, it is helpful to have an

overflow pipe or standpipe that will drain excess water while
retaining the seeds on the bottom of the tank. After the rinsing
procedure is complete, attach the nylon filter bag to the drainpipe
of the tank, open the valve, and, in the manner described above,
drain the tank and collect the seeds and very fine detrital material.
Empty the contents of the filter bag into a white plastic
5-gallon pail and add seawater until it is about three-quarters full.
Stir the water by hand in a circular manner to create a vortex,
then pause to let the seeds settle to the bottom of the bucket
while the lighter detrital material remains suspended in the water.
Carefully pour off or decant the seawater with its suspended

15
 material while retaining
the seeds in the bucket.
Refill the bucket and
repeat this procedure
perhaps four to five
times until most of the
detritus has been
removed. The seeds at
the bottom of the
bucket may still be
mixed with snail shells
Figure 15. Seeds were planted in holding tanks and gently or worm casings if they
circulated in seawater at ambient temperatures. Bimonthly
monitoring of seed stocks for loss (rotting seeds), develop-
were present at the
ment, and germination (splitting of seed coat or emergence time of plant collection
of cotyledon) revealed a constant rate of germination but these present no
independent of donor site or time of collection.
real problem.
Seeds collected in
this manner remain viable for months
in tanks with ambient flowing sea-
water. However, approximately two to
three weeks after collection, the seeds
begin to germinate at a constant rate,
and the entire seed stock will germi-
nate by the following spring (Fig. 15).
The seeds contain a large reserve of
starch and, if not properly mixed and
aerated during storage, a fungal mat
may develop over the surface of the
stock, leading to premature germina-
tion or to death of the seeds. In order
to minimize this damage, store the
seed stock in a tank with a conical
bottom where seawater enters from the
bottom and gently flushes and agitates
the seeds (Fig. 16).
Figure 16. Cutaway view of a lobster larvae rearing tank used to hold eelgrass seeds. Seawater
enters the tank through a bottom-mounted diffuser, gently agitating and aerating the seeds.
The conical bottom creates a rotation in the seeds whereby seeds that have been moved away
from the diffuser by the entering seawater are constantly replaced by seeds settling toward the
bottom of the tank.

16
Calculating Seed Harvest
The number of seeds needed for a project is primarily dictated
by the size of the area to be seeded. Eelgrass spreads relatively
rapidly by vegetative growth once it is established, therefore
the number of seedlings produced is not a good indication of
the final density of shoots in the bed. In other words, a lush
meadow with 500 to 1,000 shoots per square meter may
develop over a few years from an initial seedling density of 50
to 100 plants per square meter. On the other hand, it is not
known if there is some minimum density required for the
seedlings to survive and prosper. The target is usually to try to
achieve 300 to 400 healthy seedlings per square meter. With
that goal in mind, it is possible to calculate the amount of time
and effort necessary to collect the seeds needed to plant a 100-
square-meter (0.025-acre) field plot.
The first consideration is the proportion of seeds that will
germinate and produce a seedling. Many factors effect the
success of germination, including planting depth, sediment
type, seed density, the burrowing activities of animals, and
probably other factors that are not yet well understood. While
50 to 80 percent germination is routinely achieved in labora-
tory tanks, only about 5 to 15 percent of the seeds planted in
the field usually germinate. For this example, a conservative 10
percent germination rate will be used. In order to get 300 to
400 seedlings per square meter, 3,000 to 4,000 seeds per
square meter must be planted for a total of 300,000 to 400,000
seeds in the 100-square-meter plot. While these numbers may
seem daunting, it is possible to collect enough seed-bearing
stalks to yield these amounts with three divers working under-
water for 60 to 90 minutes. Five to seven fish totes hold
enough seed-bearing stalks to provide about 100,000 seeds.
Estimating the number of seeds actually harvested is a bit
more difficult than it may first seem. Because the material
remaining after screening and swirling still contains a mixture
of seeds and shells, the number of seeds is estimated by
weight. To do this, take three to five small subsamples of the
material and blot each on a paper towel. Separate the seeds by
hand and weigh the seed fraction and the shell fraction. The

17
separation is not difficult because the mature seeds are very uniform in size
and shape. In this way the percent of each subsample weight due to seeds
is determined, then calculated for the average of three to five subsamples.
The drained weight of the total collected material is measured and multi-
plied by the average percent seed weight from the subsamples. This gives
the wet weight of seeds in the collected material. One gram of wet but
drained seeds contains about 125 seeds. Multiplying the calculated weight
of seeds in the collected material (expressed in grams) by 125 gives a rough
estimate of the total number of seeds collected. A 1-cup measure will hold
approximately 40,000 seeds, so it might take 7 to 10 cups of “pure” seeds to
plant the entire sample plot.

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