water
Editorial
Hydraulic Transients in Water Distribution Systems
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel
Citation: Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.
Hydraulic Transients in Water
Distribution Systems. Water 2022, 14,
3612. https://doi.org/10.3390/
w14223612
Received: 2 November 2022
Accepted: 3 November 2022
Published: 9 November 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Water 2022, 14, 3612. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14223612
Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de València,
46022 Valencia, Spain; vfuertes@upv.es
1. Introduction
Hydraulic transients in water distribution systems (WDS) is a field of research that has
advanced greatly in the last few decades. However, there are still many aspects of hydraulic
transients that require further research. Hydraulic transients result from sudden changes in
flow conditions in pipeline systems because of planned or accidental maneuvers. Failures
related to the effects of hydraulic transients can lead to major accidents and significant
damage to pipeline systems. Nowadays, hydraulic transient analysis is a fundamental part
of the design of water distribution systems. Of particular importance are the maximum
and minimum pressures which are reached during hydraulic transients.
Hydraulic transient analysis is a complicated research topic. In recent years, con-
siderable progress has been made due to developments in computer science, numerical
models, and novel analysis techniques. This Special Issue focuses on all advancements
related to hydraulic transients in water distribution systems, mathematical simulations,
new analysis techniques, laboratory tests, protection elements and systems against water
hammer, innovative strategies for controlling water hammer, hydraulic transients with
trapped air, hydraulic transients with water column separation, the consequences and risks
of hydraulic transients, etc. This Special Issue aims to collect novel research related to
hydraulic transients in any subject.
Hydraulic transients with entrapped air are a particular case which are even more
complex because there are two fluids (water and air) in two phases (liquid and gas). Many
causes lead to the presence of air inside pipelines. They include filling and emptying the
hydraulic system, transient interruptions in the supply, deliverance of dissolved air, vortex
creation in the pump groups, depressurization occurring in the air valves due to transient
operations, etc. High points along pipelines are likely locations for the accumulation of air
pockets, which can experience pressure surges during a filling process.
The effects of entrapped air in water pipelines are generated with regard to two
features: (i) air density is much lower than water density by a ratio of approximately 1:800,
considering atmospheric conditions and a temperature of 20 ◦ C; and (ii) the elasticity of air
is much higher than the elasticity of water.
Whatever the origin of air in the pipes, its presence creates unwanted problems in
the majority of cases [1]. One of the most important problems is overpressure genera-
tion. Other problems include section reduction inside the pipe, which may cause collapse;
the additional generation of head losses, which cause an increase in the electricity con-
sumption; reduction in the efficiency of the pumps; problems with noise and vibrations;
failures in the measurement instrumentation; and interior corrosion due to the oxygen
transported by the air.
In water distribution networks under pressure, the installation of air valves is nec-
essary. Nevertheless, air valves are not always a guarantee of good system performance.
They can cause some problematic circumstances. An inappropriate valve selection, an
inaccurate performance measurement, or inadequate maintenance may cause significant
system problems [2].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2022, 14, 3612 2 of 5

Filling and emptying processes are common maneuvers while operating, controlling,
and managing water pipeline systems. Currently, these operations are executed following
recommendations from technical manuals and pipe manufacturers. However, these recom-
mendations demonstrate a lack of understanding about the behavior of these processes.
The application of mathematical models considering transient flows with entrapped air
pockets is necessary because a rapid filling operation can cause pressure surges due to
air pocket compressions [3], whereas an uncontrolled emptying operation can generate
troughs of sub-atmospheric pressure caused by air pocket expansion [4].
Hydraulic transients (with and without air) is a subject on which much remains to be
investigated. This Special Issue includes various articles dealing with hydraulic transients,
filling and emptying processes, air valves, etc.

2. Articles
In total, six papers were published in this Special Issue. The article titles, authors and
keywords are summarized in Table 1.
The risks associated with unsteady two-phase flows in pressurized pipe systems
must be considered in both system design and operation. To this end, Ramos et al. [5]
present experimental tests and numerical analyses that highlight key aspects of unsteady
two-phase flows in water pipelines. The essential dynamics of air–water interactions in
unvented lines are first considered, followed by a summary of how system dynamics
change when air venting is provided. System behavior during unsteady two-phase flows is
shown to be complex, counter-intuitive, and surprising. The role of air valves as protection
devices is considered, as is the reasonableness of the usual assumptions regarding air valve
behavior. The paper then numerically clarifies the relevance of cavitation and air valve
performance to both the predicted air exchanges through any installed air valves and their
role in modifying system behavior during unsteady flows.
The study of draining processes without admitting air has been conducted using
only steady friction formulations in the implementation of governing equations. However,
this hydraulic event involves transitions from laminar to turbulent flow, and vice versa,
because of the changes in water velocity. In this sense, Coronado-Hernández et al. [6]
improved the current mathematical model considering unsteady friction models. An
experimental facility was configured, and measurements of air pocket pressure oscillations
were recorded. The mathematical model was performed using steady and unsteady friction
models. Comparisons between measured and computed air pocket pressure patterns
indicated that unsteady friction models slightly improved the results compared with steady
friction models.
The rapid filling process in pressurized pipelines has extensively been studied using
mathematical models. On the other hand, the application of computational fluid dynamics
models has emerged during the last decade, which consider the development of CFD
models that simulate the filling of pipes with entrapped air, and without air expulsion.
Currently, studies of CFD models representing rapid filling in pipes with entrapped air
and with air expulsion are scarce in the literature. Aguirre-Mendoza et al. [7] developed a
two-dimensional model using OpenFOAM software to evaluate the hydraulic performance
of the rapid filling process in a hydraulic installation with an air valve, considering different
air pocket sizes and pressure impulsion by means of a hydro-pneumatic tank. The two-
dimensional CFD model captures the pressure evolution in the air pocket very well with
respect to experimental and mathematical model results, and produces improved results
with respect to existing mathematical models.
Studying sub-atmospheric pressure patterns in emptying pipeline systems is crucial
because these processes could cause collapses depending on the installation conditions.
Pipeline studies have focused more on filling than on emptying processes. Hurtado-Misal
et al. [8] present an analysis of the hydraulic transient during the emptying of an irregular
pipeline without an air valve by two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model
simulation using OpenFOAM software. The mathematical model predicts the experimental
Water 2022, 14, 3612 3 of 5

results. Water velocity vectors are also analyzed within the experimental facility, assessing
the sensitivity of the drain valve to different openings and changes in water column length
during the hydraulic phenomenon.

Table 1. Summary of the papers published in the Special Issue entitled “Hydraulic Transients in
Water Distribution Systems” for the journal Water.

Title Authors Keywords

Óscar E. air pocket
Assessment of Steady and
Coronado-Hernández draining process
Unsteady Friction Models in
Ivan Derpich friction factor
the Draining Processes of
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel transient flow
Hydraulic Installations
Jairo R. Coronado-Hernández unsteady
Aris D. Hurtado-Misal sub-atmospheric pressure
Analysis of Sub-Atmospheric
Daniela Hernández- Sanjuan OpenFOAM
Pressures during Emptying
Óscar E. emptying process
of an Irregular Pipeline
Coronado-Hernández air pocket
without an Air Valve Using a
Héctor Espinoza-Román irregular pipeline
2D CFD Model
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel CFD
Andres M. Aguirre-Mendoza
Sebastián Oyuela computational fluid dynamics
2D CFD Modeling of Rapid Héctor G. Espinoza-Román pipeline filling
Water Filling with Air Valves Óscar E. transient flow
Using OpenFOAM Coronado-Hernández OpenFOAM
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel air valve
Duban A. Paternina-Verona
Andres M. Aguirre-Mendoza
Duban A. Paternina-Verona
Sebastián Oyuela
air valves
Effects of Orifice Sizes for Óscar E.
computational fluid dynamics
Uncontrolled Filling Coronado-Hernández
pipeline filling
Processes in Water Pipelines Mohsen Besharat
hydraulic transients
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel
Pedro L. Iglesias-Rey
Helena M. Ramos
Helena M. Ramos
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel pipelines
Concerning Dynamic Effects
Elias Tasca entrapped air
in Pipe Systems with
Óscar E. two-phase flow
Two-Phase Flows: Pressure
Coronado-Hernández air valves
Surges, Cavitation, and
Mohsen Besharat hydraulic transients
Ventilation
Ling Zhou cavitation
Bryan Karney
air valve
Elias Tasca
The Crucial Importance of characteristic curve
Bryan Karney
Air Valve Characterization to air pocket
Vicente S. Fuertes-Miquel
the Transient Response of water hammer
José Gilberto Dalfré Filho
Pipeline Systems pipeline
Edevar Luzivotto, Jr.
water supply

The sizing of air valves during the air expulsion phase in rapid filling processes
is crucial for design purposes. Mathematical models have been developed to simulate
the behavior of air valves during filling processes for air expulsion. The effects of air
valves under scenarios of controlled filling processes have been studied by various authors.
However, the analysis of uncontrolled filling processes using air valves has not yet been
considered. In this scenario, water columns reach high velocities, causing part of them
to close air valves, which generates an additional peak in air pocket pressure patterns.
Water 2022, 14, 3612 4 of 5

Aguirre-Mendoza et al. [9] developed a two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics

model in OpenFOAM software to simulate this phenomenon.
Obviously, air valves are often crucial components in an air management strategy for
pressurized water systems. However, the reliability of characteristic curves of air valves
found in product catalogs is quite variable. Tasca et al. [10] evaluated the consistency
of a selection of product curves to basic airflow principles. Several recurring issues are
identified: catalogs that present identical curves for admission and expulsion (they are, in
fact, quite distinct); admission curves that are inconsistent with the isentropic inflow model;
inflow (admission) curves which are actually consistent with the shape of the isentropic
outflow model; limited validity curves that encompass only part of the subsonic flow
regimen; and unclear or unstated specifications regarding the conditions under which the
characterization tests are performed or their results displayed. To examine the significance
of these representational issues related to air valve capacity on system behavior, this paper
presents a case study involving the simulated transient response arising from a pump
trip at the upstream end of a rising water line having a distinct high point fitted with an
air valve. It was found that employing inaccurate air valve characteristics in a transient
simulation may potentially result in appreciable or even dangerous simulation errors.

3. Conclusions
This Special Issue highlights and discusses topics related to hydraulic transients with
entrapped air. One paper deals with dynamics effects in pipe systems with two-phase flows
(pressure surges, cavitation, and ventilation). Another article evaluates steady and unsteady
friction models in the draining processes of hydraulic installations. Three papers focus on
the two-dimensional computational fluid dynamics models to simulate hydraulic transients
during filling and emptying processes in water pipelines. The last article deals with the
crucial importance of air valve characterization to the transient response of pipeline systems.
In any case, it is important to point out that there are still many aspects of hydraulic
transients that require further research.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to all of the contributions to this Special Issue, the time invested by each
author, as well as the anonymous reviewers who contributed to the development of the articles in
this Special Issue. The Guest Editor greatly appreciates the review process and management of the
Special Issue.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References
1. Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Coronado-Hernández, O.E.; Mora-Meliá, D.; Iglesias-Rey, P.L. Hydraulic modeling during filling and
emptying processes in pressurized pipelines: A literature review. Urban Water J. 2019, 16, 299–311. [CrossRef]
2. Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; López-Jiménez, P.A.; Martínez-Solano, F.J.; López-Patiño, G. Numerical modelling of pipelines with air
pockets and air valves. Can. J. Civ. Eng. 2016, 43, 1052–1061. [CrossRef]
3. Izquierdo, J.; Fuertes, V.S.; Cabrera, E.; Iglesias, P.L.; García-Serra, J. Pipeline start-up with entrapped air. J. Hydraul. Res. 1999, 37,
579–590. [CrossRef]
4. Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Coronado-Hernández, O.D.; Iglesias-Rey, P.L.; Mora-Meliá, D. Transient phenomena during the emptying
process of a single pipe with water-air interaction. J. Hydraul. Res. 2019, 57, 318–326. [CrossRef]
5. Ramos, H.M.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Tasca, E.; Coronado-Hernández, O.E.; Besharat, M.; Zhou, L.; Karney, B. Concerning dynamic
effects in pipe systems with two-phase flows: Pressure surges, cavitation, and ventilation. Water 2022, 14, 2376. [CrossRef]
6. Coronado-Hernández, Ó.E.; Derpich, I.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Coronado-Hernández, J.R.; Gatica, G. Assessment of Steady and
Unsteady Friction Models in the Draining Processes of Hydraulic Installations. Water 2021, 13, 1888. [CrossRef]
7. Aguirre-Mendoza, A.M.; Oyuela, S.; Espinoza-Román, H.G.; Coronado-Hernández, O.E.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Paternina-Verona,
D.A. 2D CFD Modeling of Rapid Water Filling with Air Valves Using OpenFOAM. Water 2021, 13, 3104. [CrossRef]
Water 2022, 14, 3612 5 of 5

8. Hurtado-Misal, A.D.; Hernández-Sanjuan, D.; Coronado-Hernández, O.E.; Espinoza-Román, H.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S. Analysis of
Sub-Atmospheric Pressures during Emptying of an Irregular Pipeline without an Air Valve Using a 2D CFD Model. Water 2021,
13, 2526. [CrossRef]
9. Aguirre-Mendoza, A.M.; Paternina-Verona, D.A.; Oyuela, S.; Coronado-Hernández, O.E.; Besharat, M.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.;
Iglesias-Rey, P.L.; Ramos, H.M. Effects of Orifice Sizes for Uncontrolled Filling Processes in Water Pipelines. Water 2022, 14, 888.
[CrossRef]
10. Tasca, E.; Karney, B.; Fuertes-Miquel, V.S.; Dalfré Filho, J.G.; Luvizotto, E., Jr. The Crucial Importance of Air Valve Characterization
to the Transient Response of Pipeline Systems. Water 2022, 14, 2590. [CrossRef]