CE 4151

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-II
SYLLABUS

Highway Engineering
Railway Engineering

Reference Books:

1. Railway Engineering -- By Satish Chandra & M.M. Agarwal

2. A Text Book on Railway Engineering-- By Rangawala

MODE OF TRANSPORTATION

Air, rail, road , water, cable , pipeline, and space

ADVANTAGES:

The safest form of transport

The chances of accidents and breakdown of railways are minimum as compared to other
modes of transport
Facilitate long distance travel
Transport of bulky goods which are not easily transported through motor vehicles
Quick and more regular form of transport
Helps in the industrialization process of a country by easy transportation of coal and raw
materials at a cheaper rate
The largest public undertaking in the country. Their charges are based on charge what the
traffic can bear principles which helps the poor. In fact it is a national necessity.

DISADVANTAGES

Requires a large investment of capital

Infle

Intermediate loading or unloading involves greater cost, more wear and tear and wastage of
time. The tine cost of terminal operations area great disadvantages otfrail transport
Railway transport is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distances and small traffic of goods

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RAIL GAUGES
Definition:
The gauge of a railway track is defined as the clear minimum perpendicular
distance between the inner faces of the two rails.

TYPES OF GAUGE

Broad gauge
Narrow gauge
Metre gauge
Standard gauge

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF GAUGE

Traffic Condition
Development of Poor Area
Cost of Track
Speed of Movement
Nature of Country

DEVELOPMENT OF POOR AREA

Narrow gauge is laid in certain poor areas to connect it to the outer developed areas.

COST OF TRACK:

The cost of track is directly proportional to the width of gauge Hence if the fund is not available

SPEED OF MOVEMENT:

The higher speed demands wider gauge of the railway track

UNIFORMITY IN GAUGES

The gauge in a country, generally, should uniform.

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 Difficulties to passengers
Difficulties for sending goods
Inefficient use of the rolling stock
Inefficient use of equipment

LOADING GAUGE & CONSTRUCTION GAUGE

LOADING GAUGE

The loading gauge represents the maximum width and height to which a rollingstock, namely, a
locomotive, coach, or wagon, can be built or loaded.

Sometimes, a loading gauge is also used for testing loaded and empty vehicles as per the
maximum moving dimensions prescribed for the section.

CONSTRUCTION GAUGE

The construction gauge is decided by adding the necessary clearance to the loading gauge so That
vehicles can move safely at the prescribed speed without any infringement. The various fixed
structures on railway lines such as bridges, tunnels, and platform sheds are built in accordance with
the construction gauge so that the sides and top remain clear of the loading gauge.

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 RAILS
The railway tracks are consist of three components:

Rails
Sleeper
Ballast

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL RAILWAY TRACK

Gauge should be uniform.
Minimum friction between the wheels and the rails.
Load should be uniformly distributed to the rails.
Gradient should be even and uniform
Should have sufficient lateral rigidity and vertical stiffness.
Drainage facilities should be good.
The rail joints should be properly designed and maintained.

FUNCTIONS OF RAILS

Provide a continuous and level surface.

Serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
Provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction.
Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles and wheels of
rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
Carry out the function of transmitting the load to a larger area of the formation through sleepers and the
ballast.

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CROSS SECTION OF A RAIL

REQUIREMENTS FOR AN IDEAL RAIL SECTION

The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength, stiffness, and
durability.

The center of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the mid-height
of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be an economical
and balanced distribution of metal in its various components so that each of them can
fulfill its requirements properly

CROSS SECTION OF A RAIL

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STANDARD RAIL SECTION

The rail is designated by its weight per unit length.

In FPS units, it is the weight in lbs per yard and In metric units it is in kg per metre.

A52kg/mraildenotesthatithasaweightof52Kg per metre.

TYPES OF RAILS

Double Headed Rails(DH)

Bull Headed Rails(BH)
Flat Footed Rails(FF)

DOUBLE HEADED RAIL

The first rails used were double headed (DH) and made of an I or dumb-bell section.
The idea was that once the head wore out during service, the rail could be inverted and reused.
Experience, however, showed that while in service the bottom table of the rail was dented to such
an extent because of long and continuous contact with the chairs that it was not possible to reuse
it.
Thus, these rails are now-a-days practically out of use.
The double headed rails were made of wrought iron with length Varying from 610 to 732 cm and
weight of 49.6kg/m.

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BULL HEADED RAIL

The unsuitability of using double headed rail led to the development of the bull headed
(BH) rail, which has an almost similar shape but with more metal in the head to better
withstand wear and tear.

This rail section had the major drawback that chairs were required for fixing it to the
sleepers.

It is made of steel with length generally 18.29 m and weight of 43.9 kg/m.

FLAT FOOTED RAIL

A flat-footed rail, with an inverted T-type cross section therefore, developed, which could be
fixed directly to the sleepers with the help of spikes.
Another advantage of the flat-footed rail is that it is a more economical design, giving greater
strength and lateral stability to the track as compared to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional area.
This form of rail has become so much popular that at present about 90% of the railway track in
the world is made of this type.

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ADVANTAGES OF FLAT FOOTED RAIL

Chair
Stiffness
Kinks
Cost
Load distribution

CHAIR OF RAIL

KINK OF
RAIL

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WEIGHT OF RAILS

Though the weights of a rail and its section dependupon various considerations, the
heaviest axle load that the rail has to carry plays the most important role. The following is
the thumb rule for defining the maximum axle load with relation to the rail section:
Maximum axle load = 560 × sectional weight of rail in kg per metre
LENGTH OF RAILS

Theoretically, the longer the rail, the lesser the number of joints and fittings required and
the lesser the cost of construction and maintenance.

Longer rails are economical and provide smooth and comfortable rides.

The length of a rail is, however, restricted due to the following factors.

a) Lack of facilities for transport of longer rails, particularlyon curves.

b) Difficulties in manufacturing very long rails.
c) Difficulties in acquiring bigger expansion joints for longrails.
d) Heavy internal thermal stresses in long rails.

DECAY OF RAIL

Corrugation of rails / Roaring of rails

Corrosion of rails
Wear of rails
Coning of rails
Hogging of rails
Buckling of rails

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CORRUGATION OF RAILS

What is Corrugation of rails ?

Causes:

High speed of trains

Excessive tight gauge
Coning of engine wheels
Non-uniformity of diameter of engine wheels
Sudden application of brakes

Occurrence:

At the starting and stopping of the trains.

On the electrified section of a railway track
In long tunnels

Remedy:

Corrugation can be removed by grinding the rail head by a fraction of a

millimeter
Rail grinding train, which moves at a speed of 30 kmph and grinds both rails
simultaneously.

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CORROSION OF RAILS

What is Corrosion of rails ?

Reasons:
Due to the presence of damp condition of weather.
Coastal area where salt is found in water and soil.
Usually found in industrial areas, wet tunnels and near ash-pits.

Effect

The rail section is gradually reduced.

The strength of rail is lowered.
Increase in wear of rail and resulted in failure of the rail.

Remedy:

Quality of rail: For the areas, where corrosion is likely to occur, the rails prepared from special
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 steel or alloysteels can be used.
Surface treatment: The rail surface is coated with non-corrosive material. Special paints, red lead,
bitumen,coal tar etc, can be used

WEAR OF RAILS

What is Wear of rails ?

Due to the passage of moving loads and friction between the rail and the wheel, the rail head
gets worn out in the course of service.

Reasons
The impact of moving loads,
the effect of the forces of acceleration, deceleration, and braking of wheels,
the abrasion due to rail wheel interaction,
the effects of weather conditions such as changes in temperature, snow, and rains,
the presence of materials such as sand,
the standard of maintenance of the track, and such allied factors cause considerable wear and tear
of the vertical and lateral planes of the rail head.
Wear at the top location occurs due to wheel-rail interaction.
Lateral wear occurs more on curves because of the lateral thrust exerted on the outer rail by
centrifugal force.
A lot of the metal of the rail head gets worn out, causing the weight of the rail to decrease. This
loss of weight of the rail section should not be such that the stresses exceed their permissible
values. When such a stage is reached, rail renewal is called for.

Locations:

on sharp curves, due to centrifugal forces

on steep gradients, due to the extra force applied by the engine
on approaches to railway stations, possibly due to acceleration and deceleration
in tunnels and coastal areas, due to humidityand weather effects

Types of wear:

Vertical Wear : on top of the rail head

Lateral Wear : on the sides of the rail head
Battering : on the ends of the rail of rail ends

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Vertical Wear

The metal from the top of rail flows and forms projections. These are known as burrs.

Lateral Wear

This is the most destructive type of wear and occurs on the curvature of a railway
track.

Reasons:

Due to curvature of the track.

Straight vehicles, curved track.
Slipping action of wheel on curves.

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Wear at Rail End

Occurs due to the jump of the wheel from on rail section to the other.

Effect of Jump of wheel

1. Fish-plate and bolts become loose.

2. Contact surface of rail and sleeper worn out.
3. Sleepers at the expansion joints depressed

Methods to reduce wear:

Coning of wheels and super-elevation can reduce wear of rail significantly. In addition, the following
methods can reduce wear significantly.

1. Use of special alloy steel

2. Good maintenance of the track
3. Reduction of expansion gap
4. Introducing check rails
5. Use of lubricating oil
6. Head hardened rails
7. Exchange of inner and outer rails on curves

CONING OF WHEELS

Definition:

The flanges of wheels are never made flat, but they are in the shape of a cone with a slope of about 1
in 20.

As the wheels are set on the axle, there is some chance for lateral movement between the flanges of
the wheels would cause a slight but sudden shock to the sides of the rail.
Hence, without coning, the flanges would cause a slight but sudden shock to the sides of the rails.

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TILTING OF RAILS

How to facilitate the coning of wheels?

Answer: Tilting of rails.

How does it work?

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HOGGING OF RAILS

Definition:

A Hogged Rail is the surface defect of the rail in which the rail ends are bent downward at the joints.

How to remove it?

Dehogging of the rail end

Welding of the rails end
Cutting off the rail end
Removing the whole section

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 SLEEPERS

Definition:

Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails.
They have an important role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.

Functions of sleepers:

Holding the rails in correct gauge and alignment

Giving a firm and even support to the rails
Transferring the load evenly from the rails
Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and ballast
Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the track
Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life.

Requirements of ideal sleepers:

Initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.

The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix and remove
the rails easily.
Should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not crushed.
The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge properly.
The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get damaged
during packing.
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 The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.
The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage of fast
moving trains.
The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features.

Types of sleepers based on position:

Depending upon the position of in the railway track, sleepers may be classified into two categories

Longitudinal sleeper
Transverse sleeper

Types of sleepers based on position:

Depending upon the materials, sleepers may be classified into following categories

Timber / wooden sleeper

Steel sleeper
Cast-iron sleeper
Concrete sleeper

Timber sleepers:

It fulfils the requirements of an ideal sleepers satisfactorily and hence, it is universally used almost
ever since the invention of rail.

Only the possible shortage of wood in future has led to the thinking of sleepers of other materials.

Properties of timber sleepers:

Utility
Life
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 Corrosion
Insulation
Treatment
Size

Properties of timber sleepers:

Utility: Suitable for heavy loads and high speeds.

Life: Depends on climatic conditions, intensity and nature of traffic, quality of wood and
maintenance of the track. Service life, usually, 12 to 15 years.
Corrosion: Does not corrode.
Insulation: Good for track circuiting.

Advantages of timber sleepers:

Cheap and easy to manufacture

Absorbs shocks and bears a good capacity to dampen vibrations; therefore, retains the packing
well
Easy handling without damage
Suitable for track-circuited sections
Suitable for areas with yielding formations
Alignment can be easily corrected
More suitable for modern methods of maintenance
Can be used with or without stone ballast
Can be used on bridges and ash pits

Disadvantages of timber sleepers:

Lesser life due to wear, decay, and attack by vermin

Liable to mechanical wear due to beater packing
Difficult to maintain the gauge
Susceptible to fire hazards
Negligible scrap value

Steel sleepers:

In view of the great shortage of wooden sleepers, steel channel sleepers have been developed.

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Properties of steel sleepers:

Life: Usually 30 to 40 years

Corrosion: Corrode
Insulation: cannot be used in track circuiting.

Section of steel sleepers:

Advantages of steel sleepers:

Long life
Easy to maintain gauge and less maintenance problems
Good lateral rigidity
Less damage during handling and transport
Simple manufacturing process
Very good scrap value
Free from decay and attack by vermin
Not susceptible to fire hazards

Disadvantages of steel sleepers:

Initial cost is comparatively high

Liable to corrode
Unsuitable for track-circuited areas
Liable to become center-bound because of slopes at the two ends
Develops cracks on rail seats during service
Design is rail specific

Cast-iron sleepers:

Made of cast-iron. Two types of sleepers are used; pot and plate type .

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Types of cast-iron sleepers:

Pot type
Plate type

Types of cast-iron sleepers:

Pot type

Plate type

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Properties of cast-iron sleepers:

Life: Usually 35 to 50 years

Maintaining gauge: is not good
Fittings: requires larger number of fittings and fastenings
Scrap value: good in scrap value

Advantages of cast-iron sleepers:

Less corrosion
Less probability of cracking at rail seat
Easy to manufacture
Higher scrap value

Disadvantages of cast-iron sleepers:

Gauge maintenance is difficult as tie bars get bent

Provides less lateral stability
Unsuitable for track-circuited lines
Susceptible to breakage

Concrete sleepers:

History of development:

The need for concrete sleepers has been felt mainly due to

Economic considerations coupled with changing traffic patterns.

Shortage of resource of wood
Development of concrete technology in the nineteenth century,
In the year 1877, Mr Monnier, a French inventor of reinforced concrete, suggested for concrete
sleeper.

Properties of Concrete sleepers:

Life: usually 40 to 50 years

Weight: varies from 150 to 300 kg
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 Suitability: most suitable for welded rail track
Insulation: good for track circuiting
Scrap value: not good in scrap value

Advantages of concrete sleepers:

being heavy, lend more strength and stability to track

allow a track to maintain better gauge, cross level, and alignment. They also retain packing very
well
can be used in track-circuited areas
neither inflammable nor subjected to damage by pests corrosion under normal circumstances
have a very long lifespan, probably 40 50 years

Disadvantages of concrete sleepers:

Handling and laying concrete sleepers is difficult

Mechanical methods, which involve considerable initial expenditure, have to be adopted for
handling them
heavily damaged at the time of derailment
have no scrap value

Sleeper Density:

Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length.

It is specified as M + x or N + x,
where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that varies according to factors
such as

axle load and speed

type and section of rails,
type and strength of the sleepers,
type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
nature of formation.

BALLAST
Definition:

The material placed in between the sleeper and the topof the formation is known as ballast.

The load from the wheels of trains ultimately comes to the ballast through rails and sleepers.

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Functions:

Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to reston.

Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to alarge area of the formation.
Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
Provides effective drainage to the track.
Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.

Requirements:

It should be

tough and wear resistant.

hard so that it does not get crushed under loads.
generally cubical with sharp edges.
non-porous and should not absorb water.
resist both attrition and abrasion.
durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse weather conditions.
allow for good drainage of water.
cheap and economical.

Materials used as ballast:

Broken stone
Gravel
Sand
Kankar
Moorum
Brickbats
Selected earth
Ashes

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Depth of ballast
:
The depth of the ballast is defined as the distance between the bottom of the sleeper and top of the
sub-grade.

Laboratory Tests for Properties of Ballast:

Aggregate abrasion value

Aggregate impact value
Flakiness index
Specific Gravity and
Water Absorption Test

Track Fitting and Fastenings

Definition

The purpose of providing fittings and fastenings in railway tracks is to hold the rails in their proper
position in order to ensure the smooth running of drains.

These fitting and fastenings are used for joining rails together as well as fixing them to the sleepers
and they serve their purpose so well that the level, alignment and gauge of the railway track are
maintained with permissible limits even during the passage of trains.

Types of track Fittings:

Rail to Rail
Rail to wooden sleeper
Rail to steel sleeper
Rail to cast-iron sleeper
Rail to concrete sleeper

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Requirements for ideal fastenings:

Capable of absorbing shocks and vibrations

Capable of holding rails and sleepers in positions
Having insulation capacity of electrified sections
Should be economical
Should be tough and durable
Should be easy to fix and adjust
Should be designed that it is possible to remove it only by special tools

Rail to Rail fastenings

Fish plates
Combination fish plates
Bolts and
Nuts

Rail to Wooden sleeper fastenings:

Dog spikes
Fang bolts
Screw spikes and
Bearing plates

Rail to steel sleeper fastenings:

Losse jaws
Keys &
Liners

Rail to cast iron sleeper fastenings:

Tie bar
cotters

Rail to concrete sleeper fastenings:

Elastic or pandral clip

IRN 202 dip
Rubber pad
HM fastening
Spring steel clip
Mylon liners

Bearing plates:

The chair for flat footed rails are known as bearing plates
Formerly, flat footed rails were directly fixed to the sleepers with dog spikes
But at present the bearing plates are placed below the rails on tracks carrying heavy vehicles at
high speed, mainly because of the following advantages

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Bearing plates

Mild steel casted bearing plates

Mild steel flat bearing plates
Cast-iron anti creep bearing plates
Special CI bearing plates

Station and Yard

Reference Books:
1. Railway engineering by satish Chandra
2. Railway engineering by rangwalas

Station

A railway station is that place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealt withand where
trains are given the authority to proceed forward.

Purposes of a Railway Station

A railway station is provided for one or more of the following purposes

Entrain or detrain passengers

Load or unload goods or parcels
Control the movement of trains
Enable trains to cross each other in the case of a single-line Section
Enable faster trains to overtake slower ones
Enable locomotives to refuel, whether it be diesel, water, or Coal
Attach or detach coaches or wagons to trains
Collect food and water for passengers
Provide facilities for change of engines and crew \ staff
Provide facilities and give shelter to passengers in the case of emergencies such as floods and
accidents, which disrupt traffic.

Selection of Site for a Railway Station

The following factors are considered when selecting a site for a railway station:
Adequate land
Level area with good drainage
Alignment
Easy accessibility
Water supply arrangement

Facilities Require at Railway station:

Public requirements
Traffic requirements
Requirements of locomotive department
General requirements

Functional Classification of Stations

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 Halt station
Flag stations
Way side stations
Junction stations
Terminal stations

Halt Station

Characteristics of a Halt station:

Simplest station
Has only a rail level platform with a name board at either end
Sometimes a small waiting shed is also provided which also serves as a booking office
No station building of staff provided
Some selected trains are allotted a stopping line of a minute or two
Booking of passengers is done by travelling ticket examiners or booking clerks

Flag Station

Is usually provided with a small waiting hall and booking office, platforms and benches, and
arrangements for drinking water

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Wayside Station

Fig: A wayside or crossing station on a single-line section

Fig: A wayside or crossing station on a Double-line section

Characteristics of a way side station:

A crossing station has arrangements for controlling the movement of trains on block stations

The idea of a crossing station was initially conceives for single line station, to facilitate the
crossing of trains going in opposite directions so that there may be a more rapid movement of
trains

The main operations performed at these stations include attending to the passing and crossing of
trains, giving precedence to important trains.

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 Junction Station

Figure: Junction station with single main line and single branch line

Characteristics of a Junction station:

A junction statin is the meeting point of three or more lines emerging from different directions
There is two platforms one is main line platform and the other is an island platform
On case the timings of two trains match, both the trains can be received and made to wait on
either side of the island platform
A foot over bridge is provided for passengers to move between the station platform and the island
It is provided with a small goods siding and a goods platform to deal with good traffic
A turnable is provided for reversing the direction of an engine, if required.

Terminal Station

Characteristics of a Terminal station:

The station at which a railway line or one of its branches terminates is known as a terminal station or a
terminal junction
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The reception line terminates in a dead end
There is provision for the engine of incoming train to turn around and move from the front to the rear of the
train
A terminal station may need to be equipped with facilities for watering, cleanings, coaling, fueling and
stabling the engines storing, inspecting ,washing and charging the carriages

Yard
A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the passenger as well as goods traffic being handled
by the railways. This includes receipt and dispatch of trains apart from stabling, sorting, marshalling,
and other such functions. Yards are normally classified into the following categories.

Types of Yards

Coaching Yards
Good yards
Marshaling yards
Locomotive Yards

Coaching Yards

The main function of a coaching yard is to deal with the reception and dispatch of passenger
trains.
Depending upon the volume of traffic, this yard provides facilities such as watering and fuelling
of engines, washing of rakes, examination of coaches, charging of batteries, and trans-shipment
of passengers.

Good yards

A goods yard provides facilities for the reception, loading, unloading, and dispatch of goods
wagons
Most goods yards deal with a full train load of wagons.
No sorting, marshalling, and reforming is done at goods yards except in
or a few wagons booked for that particular station.
Separate goods sidings are provided with the platforms for the loading and unloading of the
goods being handled at that station.

Marshaling yards

The marshalling yard is a yard where goods trains are received and sorted out, and new trains are
formed and finally dispatched to various destinations.

Functions of Marshalling Yard

Reception of trains
Sorting of trains
Departure of trains

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Types of Marshalling Yard

Marshalling yards can be classified as:

Flat Marshalling yard

Gravitation Marshalling yard
Hump Marshalling yard

Locomotive Yards

This is the yard which houses the locomotive. Facilities for cleaning, fueling , examining
locomotives, watering ,repairing, etc., are provided in this yard.
The facilities are so arranged that a requisite number of locomotives are serviced simultaneously
and are readily available for hauling the trains.
Such yards should have adequate space for storing fuel.
The water supply should be adequate for washing the locomotives and servicing them.

Level Crossing
Problems at level crossing

Level crossing are vulnerable to accidents due to a number of reason

Some of the safety measures that can be taken to reduce accidents on level crossings are as follows

Providing lifting barriers

Level crossing indicators
Stop signs for level crossings
Speed breaker at level crossings
Rumble strips at level crossing
Visibility

Track Resistance and Rolling Stock

Rolling Stock
Rolling stock consist of three components

Locomotives
Coach
Wagon

Locomotives
A locomotive is a machine which transfers the chemical energy of fuel into the mechanical energy of
fuel into the mechanical energy of motion.
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Type of Locomotives

Steam Locomotive
Diesel Locomotive
Electric Locomotive

Coach
In order to provide accommodation passengers, the coaches are provided

Wagons:
In order to transport goods, the wagons are used

Train Breaks:

Brakes in the locomotive are applied to stop a moving train

They are basically two types

Compressed air breaks

Vacuum brakes

Compressed air breaks

Essential Parts:

An air pump
A break pipe
A brake cylinder

This brake system is made up of a brake cylinder containing a piston and lever arrangement, which is
provided under each vehicle. A brake pipe running is also provided under each vehicle, which
extends from the main reservoir to the locomotive. The reservoir is provided in that part of the
locomotive where compressed air is fed in through the air pump (Fig. 24.4). When compressed air is
admitted into the system, the movement of the piston results in the application of
the brakes.

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Vacuum brakes

Essential Parts:

A reservoir
A break pipe
A cylinder

The equipment consists of a vacuum brake cylinder with a piston and lever arrangement provided
under each vehicle. The cylinder is connected to the train pipe running from one end of the vehicle to
the other. A direct admission valve provided with each coach is also used for applying brakes in the
case of an emergency. A vacuum of about 20 inches of mercury is maintained in the vacuum cylinder
on one side of the piston in order to operate the brake system. This vacuum exerts an effective
working pressure of about 10 psi on the piston when the brakes are applied. The vacuum cylinders
are designed to supply the required amount of brake power at the wheels by making use of this
vacuum (Fig. 24.5).

Defects in Compressed air brakes:

If train is long, time required for the compressed air to reach the last vehicle would be
considerable and in case of emergency stop this delay might prove to be fatal
If there is bursting of air pipe under any vehicle and if such things happens during an emergency
stop, the accident becomes fatal

Advantages of Vacuum brakes:

When the pressure in break pipe is reduced ,the valves under coach vehicle start functioning
automatically and operate the piston .Consequently the breaks are applied almost simultaneously
on all vehicles.
During the bursting of air pipe the brakes are at once applied due to entry of air, and thus it is
possible to detect the defect
If by chance the train breaks into two parts , both the portion will at once have all the brakes
applied automatically and thus the dangerous collision of rear portion with the front portion of

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 the train is avoided

Train Resistance
When a train moves along the rails, various resistive forces develop on the movement of the train

These resistance may be a result of

Movement of the various parts of the locomotives

Friction between them
Irregularities in the track profile
The atmospheric resistance to train moving

The tractive power of a locomotive should be adequate to

Overcome these resistances and

Haul the train at a specified speed

The train resistance may be classified as

Resistance due to friction

Resistance due to wave action
Resistance due to gradients
Resistance due to curvatures
Resistance due to starting and accelerating

Resistance due to friction

Resistance due to friction is the resistance offered by

friction between the internal parts of locomotives and wagons as well as between the metal
surface of the rail and the wheel to a train moving at a constant speed
This resistance is independent of speed

Resistance Due to Wave Action

When a train moves with speed, a certain resistance develops due to the wave
action of the train.
Similarly, track irregularities such as longitudinal unevenness
and differences in cross levels also offer resistance to a moving train.
There is no method for the precise
calculation of these resistances but the following formula has been evolved based
on experience:

Resistance Due to Friction and Wave Action

R2 = 0.0025W
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where R2 is the resistance due to wave action and track irregularities on account of
the speed of the train, W is the weight of the train in tonnes,

Resistance Due to Curvature

When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to overcome the
resistance offered by the curvature of the track.
The resistance due to curvature depends on the following factors

Curve resistance increases with the speed of the train.

Curve resistance increases with increase in gauge length
Curve resistance increases with an increase in the degree of the curvature.

Empirical formulae have been worked out for curve resistance, which are as follows:

Curve resistance for BG (R5) = 0.0004WD

Curve resistance for MG (R5) = 0.0003WD

Curve resistance for NG (R5) = 0.0002WD

where W is the weight of the train in tonnes and D is the degree of the curve. It means that for a 4°
curve on a BG line, the curve resistance for a train weighing 250 t would be 0.0004 × 250 × 4 = 0.4 t

Resistance Due to Gradient

When a train moves on a rising gradient, it requires extra effort in order to move against gravity

Assuming that a wheel of weight W is moving on a rising gradient OA, the following forces act
on the wheel.

The resistance due to curvature depends on the following factors:

(a) Weight of the wheel (W), which acts downward
(b) Normal pressure N on the rail, which acts perpendicular to OA
(c) Resistance due to rising gradient (R4), which acts parallel to OA

36
Resistance Due to speed of the train:

When a vehicle moves with speed, a certain resistance develops, as the vehicle has to move
forward against the wind
Wind resistance consists of side resistance, head resistance, and tail resistance, but its exact
magnitude depends upon the size and shape of the vehicle, its speed, and wind direction as well
as velocity.
Wind resistance depends upon the exposed area of the vehicle and the velocity and direction of
the wind.
Wind resistance can be obtained by the following formula:
R4= 0.000017AV2
where A is the exposed area of vehicle (m2) and V is the velocity of wind (km/h).

Signalling & Interlocking

Signalling

The purpose of signalling and interlocking is primarily to control and regulate the movement of
trains safely and efficiently.
Signalling includes the use and working of signals, points, block instruments, and other allied
equipment in a predetermined manner for the safe and efficient running of trains.
Signalling enables the movement of trains to be controlled in such a way that the existing tracks
are utilized to the maximum.

Objectives of Signalling :
37
The objectives of signalling are as follows

To regulate the movement of trains so that they run safely at maximum permissible speeds.
To maintain a safe distance between trains that are running on the same line in the same
direction.
To ensure the safety of two or more trains that have to cross or approach each other.
To provide facilities for safe and efficient shunting.
To regulate the arrival and departure of trains from the station.
To guide the trains to run at restricted speeds during the maintenance and repair of tracks.
To ensure the safety of the train when it comes in contact with road traffic at level crossings.

Types of Signals :

Various types of signals can be classified as follows

Classification according to function

Classification according to location
Special types of signal

Classification according to function :

Stop signal / Semaphore signal

Warner signal
Disc / Ground signal
Coloured light signal

Semaphore signal :

A semaphore signal consists of a movable arm pivoted on a vertical post through a horizontal
pin.

38
Working principle of a Semaphore signal :

Warner signal :

In order to ensure that trains speed up safely, it is considered necessary that warning be given to
drivers before they approach a stop signal.

39
Working principle of a Warner signal :

Disc signal :

These are miniature signals and are mostly

used for regulating the shunting of vehicles in
station yards.
Unlike fixed signals, these are small in size
and are placed on an independent post of a
running signal post.

40
Coloured light signal :

These signals use coloured lights to indicate track conditions to the driver both during
the day and the night.

Working principle:

Classification according to location:

Outer signal
Home signal
Starter signal
Advance starter signal

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Outer signal:

A certain distance is required for a train in motion to be brought to a halt.

Therefore, the first signal is provided at this distance beyond the station limit and this signal is
known as OUTER signal.
In the ON position, the signal indicates that the driver must bring the train to STOP before the
outer signal and then proceed to the HOME signal.
In the OFF position, the signal indicates that the HOME signal is also in OFF position and the
train can proceed without any danger.

Home signal:

This signal is provided exactly at the station limit.

The main function is to protect the stations and junction.
This signal allows the train to enter into the station.
indicates that the train must come to a halt
short of the signal.
particular line is free and the train is
permitted to enter cautiously.

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Starter signal:
This signal is provided on the forward end of the platform.
It controls the movements of the trains as they leave the stations.
No train can leave the platform until the starting signal is OFF.

Advance Starter signal:

Signals in a station:

Special types of signal :

Routing signal
Repeating signal
Co-acting signal
Calling-on signal
Indicators

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Routing signal :

When various signals for main and branch lines are fixed on the same vertical post, they are
known as the routing signal.
Generally, the signal for the main line is kept at higher level than that for the branch line.
These signals indicate the route that has been earmarked for the reception of the train.

Repeating signal :

In cases where a signal is not visible to the driver from an adequate distance due to

sharp curvature or any other reason or

where the signal is not visible to the guard of the train from his position at the rear end
of a platform a repeater signal is provided at a suitable position at the rear of the main
signal.

repeater signal is provided with an R marker and can be of the following types.

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Calling-on signal :

This consists of a small arm fixed on a home signal post below the main semaphore arm.
When the main home signal is in the horizontal (on)position and the calling-on signal is in on
inclined (off) position, it indicates that the train is permitted to proceed cautiously on the line till
it comes across the next stop signal.
Thus the calling- which is waiting beyond the home signal.
The calling-on signal is useful when the main signal fails, and in order to receive
a train, an authority letter has to be sent to the driver of the waiting train to instruct him/her to
proceed to the station against what is indicated by the signal.

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 Interlocking

Interlocking can, therefore, be defined as an arrangement of signals, points, and other apparatus
so interconnected by means of mechanical or electrical locking that they can be operated in a
predetermined sequence to ensure that there is no conflicting movement of signals and points and
trains run safely.

The signal and interlocking system is so designed that the failure of any equipment results in the
turning on of the signal, thus ensuring train safety.

46
Essential principles of interlocking:

It should not be possible to turn a signal OFF unless all points for the line on which the train is to
be received are correctly set, all the facing points are locked, and all interlocked level crossings
are closed and inaccessible to road traffic.
The line should be fully isolated before the signal is turned off, i.e., no loose wagons should be
able to enter this line
possible to make adjustments in the
points or locks on the route, including those in the isolated line.
Also, no interlocked gates should be released until the
the same time, as this can lead to
conflicting movements of the trains.
Wherever feasible, the points should be so interlocked as to avoid any conflicting movement.

POINTS AND CROSSING

Point and crossing is a system of arrangement which allows to transfer railway vehicles from one
track to another
Also, no interlocked gates should be released until the signal is replaced in the On position
It should not be possible same time, as this can lead to
conflicting movements of the trains.
Wherever feasible, the points should be so interlocked as to avoid any conflicting movement.

COMPONENTS OF A TURNOUT

Points or Switch
Crossing
Tongue rail
Stock rail
Check rail
Wing rail

Points or switch: A pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary connections and fittings forms
a switch.
Crossing : A crossing is a device introduced at the junction where two rails cross each other to
permit the wheel flange of a railway vehicle to pass from one track to another.

Sleeper layout at point and crossing

Through sleepers
Interlaced sleepers

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THROUGH SLEEPERS

INTERLACED SLEEPERS

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 CURVATURE OF TRACK

Definition

Curves are introduced on a railway track to

Bypass obstacles
Provide longer and easily traversed gradients
Pass railway line through obligatory or desirable locates
Horizontal curves are provided when a change in the direction of the track is required
Vertical curves are provided at points where two gradients meet or where a gradient meets level
ground

Designation of a curve:

A curve is defined either by its radius or by its degree

, is the angle subtended at its centre by a chord of
length 30.5 m or 100 ft
It is very easy to determine the degree of curvature of a curve. The procedure is as below

Angle subtended at the center by a circle with this circumference = 360°

Angle subtended at the centre by a 30.5 m chord

(Where R is in meter)

A 2° curve therefore has a radius of

Relation between radius and versine of a curve :

The versine is the perpendicular distance of the midpoint of a chord from the arc of a circle

The relationship between the radius and versine of a curve can be established

49
B is above the center line

Let r be the radius of the curve, C be the length of the chord and V be the versine of a chord of
length C

AC and DE two chords meeting perpendicularly at a common point B, Simple geometry can
prove it

AB * BC = DB * BE

V being very small. So v^2 can be Neglected

Special case:
From Previous equation we can write

50
Suppose
R in meter , C in meter , V in Centimeter

Determination of degree of a curve in field:

A chord length of either 11.8m or 62 ft is adopted for determining the degree of the curvature in the
field. From previous equation we have got

Substituting the value

If V = 70 cm, then D =? As D = V D =70°

Transition Curve:

A transition curve is a type of curve which is introduce between a straight and a circular curve or
between two branches of a compound curve
It is in fact a curve with varying radius and is sometimes called the spiral curve

The functions of a transition curve are as follows:

It creates smooth running and imparts comfort to the passengers

It helps in attaining the desired super elevation
There is a gradual increase in curvature of the track from zero at the straight end to that of the
circular curve at the junction with the circular curve
The chances of derailment are greatly decreased

Super elevation or Cant:

Super elevation or cant (Ca) is the difference in height between the outer and the inner rail on a
curve.

How it is provided:

It is provided gradually lifting the outer rail above the level of the inner rail

51
 The inner rail is taken as the reference rail and is normally maintained at its original level

The inner rail is also known as the gradient rail. The main functional of super elevation are the
following

Functions of cant:

To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails

To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
To neutralize the effect of lateral forces
To provide comfort to passengers.

Definition of some important term:

The main functions of super elevation are the following:

Equilibrium speed
Maximum permissible speed
Cant deficiency
Cant excess

Equilibrium Speed:

When the resultant force is perpendicular to the plane of the rails.

Maximum Permissible Speed:

This is the highest speed permitted to a train on a curve

Cant deficiency ( Cd ) :
Cd occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed higher
than the equilibrium speed

Cant excess:
Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed lower than the equilibrium
speed

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Calculation of super elevation:

Let

W = Weight of moving train

v= Velocity in metres per second
P= Centrifugal force acting on the vehicle through its centre of gravity
g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/sec^2
R= Radius of curve in m
G= Gauge of track in m
e= super-elevation in cm

S= Length of inclined surface

The centrifugal force acting on the body of the train

From figure we can get

We can write

53
Where
e in cm, v in , R in m, g in ,G in m

If V = Velocity in km per hour

Negative super elevation or Deficiency in cant:

Under certain conditions.it may not be possible to provide the equilibrium superelevation.

As for example, when the main line lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading to a
branch line, the super elevation necessary for the average speed of trains running area.

Let,
S1=super elevation for main line at point A
S2=Super elevation for branch line at point C

Now, considering main line, point A should be higher than point C by the amount S 1
Considering branch line point, A should be lower than point C by the amount S2

However, it is impossible that point A is higher and lower at the same time with respect to point C.
Hence under such condition a small amount of deficiency in super elevation is permitted without
reducing speed. This is known as negative super elevation or deficiency in cant
54
How to provide negative Super elevation

The equilibrium super elevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using the
formula

The equilibrium super elevation e is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency C d and the
resultant super elevation to be provided is

X=e-Cd
Where
X = Superelevation
e= Equilibrium super elevation
Cd=cant deficiency =75 mm for BG (Broad Gauge)

The value of Cd is generally higher than that of e and therefore X is normally negative
Therefore, the branch line thus has a negative super elevation of x.

The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a super elevation of X is then
calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency (X+Cd)

The safe speed is also calculated and smaller of the two value is taken as the maximum permissible
speed on the main line curve

Problem 3(Rangwala): A 6° curve branches off from a 3° main curve in an opposite direction in the
layout of a BG yard. If the speed on the branch line is restricted to 35 kmph. Determine the speed
restriction on the main line. Assume permissible deficiency in cant as 75 mm.

Solution:
For branch line,
D = 6°
G=1.67m(Broad gauge)
V= 35 Km/hr =9.7222 m/s
For main line,
D=3°
G=1.676m
V=?
Permissible cant deficiency =75
Super elevation for branch line

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Negative super elevation on branch line =5.54-7.5 =-1.96 cm
Maximum super elevation on main line = 1.96 cm
Theoretical super elevation on main line = 1.96 +7.5 =9.46 cm

Rangwala (4) home work.

Work out the maximum speed of a train on a B.G. track having a curvature of three degrees and cant
of 10 cm. Assume allowable cant deficiency as 76 mm

Solution:

Theoretical cant = Actual cant + cant deficiency = 10+7.6 =17.6 cm

According to the formula of the indian Railway Board

Lower value of above two V is the maximum permissible speed. So maximum permissible speed of
the train is 88 km/hr

Track maintenance
Introduction:

Railway tracks can be maintained either conventionally by manual labour or by the application of
modern methods of track maintenance

In Bangladesh, maintaining tracks has traditionally been a manual activity and the calendar
system of maintenance has taken deep roots

In this system a time table or programme that outline the track maintenance work to be done

56
 As per the time table on calender the 12 months cycle of maintenance consists of the Following
operation
Through packing
Systematic overhauling
Picking up slacks

Necessity and Advantages of track maintenance:

1. The railway track should be maintained properly in order to enable trains to run safely at the
highest permissible speeds and provide passengers a reasonable level of comfort during the ride.

2. Track maintenance becomes a necessity due to following reasons:

a) Due to the constant movement of heavy and high-speed trains, the packing under the
sleepers becomes loose and track geometry gets disturbed.
b) The gauge, alignment, and longitudinal as well as cross levels of the track thus get
affected adversely and the safety of the track is jeopardized.
c) Due to the vibrations and impact of high-speed trains, the fittings of the track come
undone and there is heavy wear and tear of the track and its components.
d) The track and its components get worn out as a result of the weathering effect of rain,
sun, and sand.

3. A well-maintained track offers a safe and comfortable journey to passengers.

4. If the track is not maintained properly, it will cause discomfort to the passengers and in extreme
cases may even give rise to hazardous conditions that can lead to derailments and a consequential
loss of life and property.

5. Track maintenance ensures that such situations do not arise.

Types of maintenance:
Through packing
Systematic overhauling
Picking up slacks

Through packing: is carried out in a systematic and sequential manner, usually, the hole track is
inspected and maintained as per requirement. This system usually involves the following works.

1. Opening of road
2. Examination of rails, sleepers, and fastenings
3. Squaring of sleepers
4. Aligning the track
5. Gauging
6. Lubrication of rail joints

Systematic overhauling

1. The track should be overhauled periodically with the object of ensuring that the best possible
standards of track condition are met and maintained

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2. The systematic overhauling of track should normally

It involves the following operations in sequence

Shallow screening and making up of ballast section

Replacement of damaged or broken fittings
All items included in through packing
Making up the cess

Picking up slacks

1. Slacks are those prints in the track where the running of trains is faulty or substandard

2. Lacks generally occur in the following cases:

Stretches of yielding information

Poorly maintained sections
Improperly aligned curves
Approaches to level crossing, girder, bridge etc.
Portions of track with poor drainage
Sections with a inadequate or

Equipment and tools:

1. Track gauge or rail gauge - To check the gauge

2. Straight edge and spirit level To check the alignment as well as the cross level
3. Gauge cum level To check the gauge as well as cross level
4. Cant board To check the super elevation
5. Mallet or wooden hammer To check the packing of sleepers
6. Canne a boule To asses the voids under the sleepers
7. T square To check the squareness of sleepers
8. Stepped feeler gauge To measure wear or clearance

Maintenance tools:

1. Sleeper long To carry sleepers

2. Rail long To lift and carry rails
3. Beater To pack ballast under sleepers
4. Crowbar To correct alignment and to lift the track for surfacing.

Flooded cause why:

1. When a cause way gets flooded and the velocity of water is not too high, trains may be allowed
to pass subject to the following conditions

2. The inspector has examined the track on foot and is satisfied as to the safety and integrity of the
permanent way

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3. The depth of the water does not exceed the following values

Passanger trains Goods trains

BC 300mm 450mm

MG 225mm 225mm

NG 225mm 225mm

What is cause way?

In modern usuage a causeway is a road or railway on top of an embankment usually across a broad
body of water or wet land

Flooded track:

1. When a track gets flooded, trains should be made to halt and then proceed at a speed of 8 km/h
subject to the following condition

2. If the water rise over the ballast level , but remains below the rail level , the before the passage
of every train, at least two men should walk abreast the length of the track one at either end of
the sleepers. The rain should be allowed to pass only if the track is undamaged

3. When the water covers the rails, the inspector should conduct probes along the length of the track
in order to ascertain whether, it is safe and only then should be trains be allowed to pass

Docks and Harbours

Introduction:

The transportation system of a country consists of rail, road, water and air transport
However, most of the national and international trades are carried out by water transport
Bangladesh government is spending a lot of money to improve existing ports (eg. Chittagong and
Mongla port ) and to build new ports (eg. Paira Bondor)
Water transport has some distinguished advantages
Is the cheapest mode of transportation
Has higher load carrying capacity
Natural tracks like oceans, seas, rivers or utilized
Water transportation has some disadvantages
Requires more time due to slow speed
Natural disaster usually causes great loss of cargo

Harbour:

A harbour is a partly enclosed water area which provides safe and suitable accommodation for
59
useless seeking shelter, supplies, refueling, repaires, loading and unloading cargo

Classification of Harbour Based on Formation

Natural Harbour
Semi-natural Harbour
Artificial Harbout

Natural Harbour
A natural harbour is one which is protected from stroms and waves by the natural land contours,
rocky out- crops or island

Semi natural Harbour

A semi natural harbour is protected on the sides by the contours of land and requires manmade
protection only to the entrance

Artificial Harbour
An artificial harbour is one which is manmade and is protected from stroms and waves by
engineering work.

Classification of Harbour Based on Functions:

Commercial Harbours
Refuge Harbours
Military Harbours
Fishing Harbours

Port:
A part is a harbour in which terminal facilities are provided. These facilities include

Provisiion of wharves and quays for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers
Provision of transit sheds
Ware houses where goods may be stored for longer periods
Types of Port:

1. Ocean Port
2. Inland port

Ocean Port:
This is a part of carll for large going ships

Inland or River Port

An inland or river port is located on the banks of a river or inside the land

Entry port:
This is a location where foreign citizens and goods are cleared through immigration and customs.

Components of a Harbour:

Entrance
Appoarch Channel
Turning basin
60
 Sheltered basin
Break Water
Wharves and quays
Dry dek
Jetty and piers

Components of a Harbour:

61
Classification of Break water:

1. Mound Break water

a) Stone Rubble
b) Concrete Block

2. Vertical Faced Back water

a) Timber crib
b) Stone and concrete masonry
c) RCC or Steel sheet Pile

62
Wharf and Quary

Thse are platforms built parallel to the shareor break water to berth vessels for loading and unloading
of cargo

Functions of wharf and quary:

Provide facilities for berthing of ship

Facilitate handling and storage of cargo

Provide terminal facilities for rail and truck transportation

Dredging:

Dredging is the technique and operation of removal of material from the sea or river bed to
increase the draft in the basin

The machine which is specially useful for removal of bed material from underwater is called a
dredger

Dredging is usually two types capital dredging and maintenance dredging

The initial removal of bed material at the time of bulding a harbour is called capital dredging

The recurring work required for the removal of bed material to maintain the required draft in the
basin is called maintenance dredging

Types of dredging

Mechanical dredging
Hydraulic dredging

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64