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Architectural analysis of an Early Cambrian braided-river system on the north

Gondwana margin: The lower sandstone of the Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht
area, central Iran

Mehdi Reza Poursoltani

PII: S1464-343X(20)30186-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2020.103935
Reference: AES 103935

To appear in: Journal of African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 13 February 2019

Revised Date: 13 June 2020
Accepted Date: 18 June 2020

Please cite this article as: Poursoltani, M.R., Architectural analysis of an Early Cambrian braided-
river system on the north Gondwana margin: The lower sandstone of the Lalun Formation in the
Shirgesht area, central Iran, Journal of African Earth Sciences (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jafrearsci.2020.103935.

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 Lalun Formation, Cambrian, Iran Kalshaneh fm.
NE
Zaigun fm.
Lower Ss. Middle sh. Upper Ss (TQ)

The close up of channel-fill element CH, and sandy SB elements and cosets of
different facies, showing detailed lateral and vertical facies variations.

Generalized Early Cambrian paleogeography of Gondwana: The distribution of

quartz-rich sandstones were deposited over much of Northern Africa and Arabia
plate.
1 Architectural analysis of an Early Cambrian braided-river system on the north Gondwana

2 margin: the Lower Sandstone of the Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area, Central Iran

4 Mehdi Reza Poursoltani

5 Department of Geology, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran

6 poursoltani1852@mshdiau.ac.ir

7 mrpoursoltani@gmail.com

9 Abstract:

10 The Lalun Formation (Early Cimmerian), up to 867 m thick, was studied in the Shirgesht area,

11 Central Iran. It was laid down across the northern edge of Gondwana, where fluvial sandstones

12 were covered by marine shales, carbonates and sandstones. The Lower Sandstone unit of the

13 formation is dominated by sand-rich braided river deposits (97%) with a general scarcity of fine-

14 grained deposits (3%), and the unit consists nine lithofacies (Se, Spb, Sm, Sp, St, Sh, Sr, Fl and

15 Fm). Common sedimentary structures in the succession include planar and trough cross-bedded,

16 plane-laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstone, and mudcracks in laminated and

17 structureless mudstone. Architectural elements are defined as channel forms and fills (CHs and

18 CHm), sheet sandstone bodies (SB, DA, and LS) and mudstone bodies (FF). The Early Cambrian

19 fluvial system was operating in a non-vegetated setting, and it is probable that the major flooding

20 of the system took place on a seasonal basis. Six orders of surfaces are identified in the outcrops.

21 The highest order surface (sixth-order) includes the lower contact of the Lalun Formation (Lower

22 Sandstone), which was laid down on the Zaigun Formation, and the upper contact of the Lower

1
23 Sandstone with estuarine deposits of the Middle Shale, denoting a marine transgression. The

24 paleoflow direction is consistent with the reconstructed position of the Lalun Formation during

25 the Cambrian and indicates that sediment was transported eastward to northeastward in the

26 northern part of the Gondwana margin. The petrographic analysis suggests craton interior and

27 transitional continental sources under seasonal humid conditions, consistent with the

28 reconstructed position of Iran along the northeast margin of the Arabian Shield.

29 Keywords: braided river; fluvial architecture; provenance; Lalun Formation; Gondwana

30 1. Introduction

31 During the Cambrian and Ordovician, alluvial and shallow-marine sandstones accumulated

32 across much of the Middle East, South Asia and North Africa along the northern part of the

33 Gondwana margin, following the Pan-African Orogeny (Burke et al. 2003; Kolodner et al. 2006;

34 Linnemann et al. 2011). The Lower Cambrian Lalun Formation forms an important rock unit

35 with great lateral persistence across Iran (Aghanabati, 2004). The formation is recognized from

36 Azerbaijan Province in northwestern Iran through the Soltanieh Mountains of the Alborz Range,

37 and from the Tabas Block and most of the Kerman Block as far south as the Shirkuh Mountains

38 of the Zagros Range.

39 An excellent outcrop belt of the Lower Sandstone of the Lalun Formation in Central Iran

40 (northern Tabas area: Fig. 1), provides an opportunity to document the fine-scale fluvial

41 architecture, to infer depositional processes, and to study the provenance and paleoflow

42 direction. To date, several workers have inferred the depositional environment of the Lower

43 Sandstone in the Alborz region, attributing the strata to a meandering-fluvial system

44 (Aghanabati, 2004). However, there has been no facies analysis for the Lower Sandstone in the

2
45 study area, where a thick Early Cambrian succession is present. Recent study in the vicinity of

46 Shirgesht in Central Iran (Poursoltani et al., 2019) indicated the presence of braided-fluvial strata

47 in the Lower Sandstone, and this paper documents facies analysis, depositional environment and

48 provenance for the strata. Meandering-fluvial systems were rare prior to the spread of terrestrial

49 plants in the Devonian (Davies and Gibling, 2010), and determining the fluvial style of Cambrian

50 deposits of the Lalun Formation is significant for a global analysis.

51 2. Geological setting and stratigraphy

52 The study area is located in the north Tabas region of central Iran (Fig. 1). Stabilization of

53 basement rocks in Iran and Arabia took place in the Late Proterozoic to Early Cambrian (Wendt

54 et al. 2002; Torsvik and Cocks 2011; Meinhold et al. 2013), attributed to tectonic events

55 associated with the Baikalian, Asyntic, and Pan-African orogenies (Aghanabati 2004). The late

56 Precambrian to Paleozoic rocks of Iran have broad similarities with coeval rocks in Afghanistan,

57 Pakistan, Turkey and Saudi Arabia, indicating that Iran was part of the African–Arabian

58 continental platform in the northern part of the Gondwana supercontinent (Fig. 2).

59 The Lalun Formation transitionally overlies the Infracambrian rocks at many localities in Iran,

60 and the entire Paleozoic succession, along with the uppermost Precambrian and the Lower to

61 Middle Triassic, represents epicontinental conditions under a stable platformal setting (Stöcklin

62 1968). In the Tabas region, the Lalun Formation rests mainly on the Zaigun Formation, marking

63 a period of regression, and the two formations comprise more than 1000 m of fluvial and

64 marginal marine siliciclastic deposits, laid down above carbonate platforms in the Toyonian

65 Stage (e.g. Fedo and Cooper 2001; Flügel and Kiessling 2002). Alternate carbonate and

66 siliciclastic units within the succession primarily reflect changes in relative base-level, linked to

67 epeirogenic and eustatic changes (Hamdi 1995; Lasemi 2001).

3
68 Paleozoic epeirogenic events in the platformal successions may account for first-order changes in

69 depositional setting. They were associated broadly with the widespread Caledonian orogenic

70 period and were characterized by facies changes and hiatuses in parts of the Zagros, Alborz, and

71 Central Iran zones (Nabavi 1976). The Early Cambrian Zariganian movements, associated with

72 local regression, led to the deposition of the Lalun Formation and the marine Barut Formation on

73 the Zaigun Formation (Haghipour 1974; Fig. 1). The Milaian movements in Alborz, Zagros and

74 central Iran generated an unconformity between the Lalun Formation and younger formations in

75 the Early to Middle Cambrian. They also led to the formation of evaporite depositional basins

76 (Haghipour 1974) and deposition of carbonates of the Kalshaneh (Fig. 1), Kuhbanan and Mila

77 formations above the Lalun Formation.

78 The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Lalun Formation were documented by Assereto

79 (1963), Stöcklin et al. (1964), and Lasemi and Rasouli (2007) for the Alborz Region; by

80 Huckriede et al. (1962) at Kerman; and by Ruttner et al. (1968) in the Tabas area. Additional

81 regional studies were made by Alavi-Naini (1993) and Hamdi (1995). The Lalun Formation in

82 the Alborz type section (Fig. 1A) was divided into three lithostratigraphic units (Fig. 1C): Lower

83 Sandstone, Middle Shale, and upper white sandstone (Top Quartzite) (Assereto, 1963; Stöcklin

84 et al., 1964; Stöcklin and Setudehnia, 1971), although Geyer et al. (2014) used the Fasham

85 Formation for the topmost sandstone unit.

86 In the Shirgesht study area, the Lalun Formation is 867 m thick (not including intercalated sills

87 with 112 m of aggregate thickness in the outcrop section). The precise transition from the Zaigun

88 Formation to the Lower Sandstone is difficult to document in the field due to limited exposure of

89 this interval, although the formation base can be placed with reasonable certainty.

4
 90 The Lalun Formation is overlain by the Kalshaneh Formation (Middle Cambrian), 1000 m thick

91 and composed of dolomite, limestone, shale, sandstone, and gypsum, with local intrusive rocks

92 (Fig. 1B, C). The formation was studied in one stratigraphic section, which covers a large tract,

93 where the base and top of the strata are observed (Figs. 3A, 4). Informal units are comparable to

94 those of the Alborz type area, with modest exposure of shale but excellent sandstone outcrops.

95 The Lower Sandstone (~ 400 m thick) consists predominantly of red to brown, very fine- to very

96 coarse-grained sandstone with trough and planar cross-sets, ripple cross-lamination, and graded

97 beds. Lenses of granule to cobble conglomerate a few centimeters thick are present locally, and

98 laminated and structureless mudstones generally less than 1 m thick contain desiccation cracks.

99 The sandstones are organised in stacked sheets up to ∼2 m thick, with concave-up erosional

100 surfaces lined with conglomerate and some thin mudstone interbeds. No trace or body fossils

101 were noted.

102 The Middle Shale (~237 m thick), consists predominantly of massive purple and light gray shale

103 with minor beds of ripple cross-laminated and trough cross-bedded sandstone (Fig. 1C). Mud

104 drapes are present in some sandstones and desiccation cracks in some mudstones. Trace fossils

105 are present locally, including Planolites and Thalassinoides(?), and indeterminate trilobite

106 fragments are present (Poursoltani et al., 2019). About 80 m of gray shale near the top of the unit

107 is interbedded with carbonate (including reef horizons with a total thickness of up to ~4 m) and

108 laminae/very thin beds of very fine-grained sandstone/siltstone. Stromatolite-dominated

109 microbial buildups are present and were deposited in an estuarine setting, similar to coeval

110 deposits in the Alborz Mountains (Lasemi and Amin-Rasouli, 2007, 2016; Geyer et al., 2014).

5
111 The Top Quartzite (~150 m thick), consists almost entirely of thick units of white, medium- to

112 coarse-grained sandstone (Fig. 1C), predominantly plane bedded with scour-and-fill structures,

113 laid down in a high-energy shallow marine setting (Hamedi, 1995; Geyer et al., 2014).

114 4. Methodology

115 A bed-by-bed section 867 m thick was measured through the Lalun Formation. The Shirgesht

116 section was studied due to the presence of some bedding-plane views, preservation of

117 sedimentary structures, and the presence of three depositional units. Additionally, the section

118 records a transition from fluvial deposits of the Lower Sandstone to the fluvial-to marine

119 transition represented by the Middle Shale and Upper Sandstone. In this area outcrops provide

120 full exposure of both sandstone and mudstone over distances of tens of meters and locally for

121 hundreds of meters, allowing an assessment of the thickness variation and lateral extent of

122 lithofacies packages (Fig. 5).

123 Trends of upward bed thickening, thinning, coarsening and fining were compiled for stratal

124 packages. The relief of erosional surfaces and their irregular or planar nature were noted. The

125 relief (a proxy for depth) and apparent width of preserved channel forms were measured, the

126 latter corrected to true width using paleocurrent information where possible. Outcrop samples

127 and photographs of sedimentary structures (ripple marks, cross-beds, planar lamination, and

128 desiccation cracks) were obtained. The deposits are divided into nine facies (Table 1), two facies

129 assemblages, and five architectural elements. A facies code modified from Miall’s (1996)

130 classification was utilized, with S for sandstones facies and M for mudstone facies. Based on the

131 ratio of the aggregate thickness of each facies to the measured section thickness, the percentage

132 of each facies was calculated.

6
133 For the Lower Sandstone (418 m thick), 92 paleocurrent measurements were measured from

134 asymmetric ripple marks and ripple cross-lamination (56) and the axes of trough cross-strata

135 measured on bedding planes (36). Where the strata are dipping, the measurements were restored

136 to their original attitude and plotted on a rose diagram.

137 Macroscopic facies analysis was supplemented with 52 thin sections selected from 80 fresh and

138 unweathered samples, systematically collected from the measured section of the Lower

139 Sandstone. Detrital modes of 28 samples were plotted on Dickinson et al. (1983) diagrams for

140 provenance identification. Petrographic analysis used a Nikon Eclipse E200 Pol microscope and

141 a Nikon DS-Fil camera.

142 5. Facies and facies assemblages

143 Sandstone and Mudstone facies assemblages were identified in the Lower Sandstone and

144 comprise 97% and 3% of the section, respectively. Some facies are present in only a few parts of

145 the outcrop belt. The Sandstone Facies Assemblage comprises seven facies (Table 1, Fig. 3B),

146 with 3.5% of the section being mudclast-bearing sandstone (Se, Spb), 64% structureless and

147 planar cross-bedded sandstones (Sm, Sp), and 29% trough cross-bedded, horizontally bedded and

148 ripple cross-laminated sandstones (St, Sh, Sr). The Mudstone Facies Assemblage comprises

149 laminated and stucturwless mudstones (Fl 2.6%, Fm 0.7%). The sandstone varies from thick- to

150 thin-bedded and is dark-gray, purple, white and light-green, whereas mudstone is thin-bedded to

151 massive and gray to red-brown.

152 5.1 Erosional Scours (Mud clast-bearing sandstone) (Se, 1.3%)

153 Description: Thin beds comprise platy mud clasts 2 to 4 cm in diameter (Fig. 6A), mostly

154 subrounded but rarely subangular, in a sandy matrix. The variation of matrix content may have

7
155 resulted partly from the erosion of underlying beds, or mud-clast abrasion during transport. The

156 beds lie on erosional surfaces cut into thin mudstones within fine-grained sandstone or

157 underlying mudstone packages, and they pass upward into structureless sandstone (facies Sm), a

158 separate facies that is described below.

159 Interpretation: The mud clasts indicate strong erosional events that reworked cohesive mud

160 within the basin, and the upward passage into facies Sm implies that the two facies were

161 emplaced during a single flow event (Haughton et al. 2003). The presence of intraformational

162 mudstone clasts indicates a relatively short transport distance for the sediments. The facies is

163 attributed to upper flow-regime conditions, and was probably laid down rapidly as a traction

164 carpet from concentrated density or fluvial flows low in channels (Miall 1985).

165 5.2 Massive sandstone (Sm, 39.6%)

166 Description: Structureless beds of coarse- to medium-grained and rarely pebbly quartzose

167 sandstone form lenticular units up to 2.1 m thick. The basal beds of the Lower Sandstone

168 include medium- to thick-bedded units of the facies, with local millimeter-scale mudstone

169 laminae, normal grading, and cross-stratification in sets up to 0.2 m thick. Most units are

170 erosively based (Fig. 6B), with gray zones along bounding surfaces due to diagenetic effects.

171 Individual beds are tabular to lensoid (Fig. 7E). Coarser sand grains are composed of

172 polycrystalline and monocrystalline quartz, K-feldspar, and rarely rock fragments (mostly

173 metamorphic) (Fig. 6F).

174 Interpretation: The facies is attributed to traction carpets laid down from sediment gravity flow

175 (Miall 1985; Todd 1989), or to postdepositional deformation (Allen, 1986; Hjellbakk, 1997).

176 The structureless condition implies high sediment fallout close to the bed (Haughton et al. 2003),

177 as a result of short-lived and rapid stream flows with depositional rates too fast for hydraulic
8
178 sorting processes (Turner and Monro, 1987; Hjellbakk, 1997). An upward transition from Sm- to

179 Sp-dominated beds (Fig. 5C, 7A,) suggests that initial high-energy flow was replaced by more

180 steady flow that generated cross-beds.

181 5.3 Scour-fill sandstone (Ss, 2.2%)

182 Description: Thin units of poorly sorted sandstone rest on erosional surfaces and generally pass

183 up into facies Sm. Local extrabasinal pebbles are up to 0.5-1 cm in diameter, rounded to

184 subangular, with local imbrication (Figs. 6C, D), and they form part of normal and inversely

185 graded beds.

186 Interpretation: The facies was deposited from hyperconcentrated fluvial flows and density flows

187 (Miall 1996; Mulder and Alexander 2001; Satur et al. 2005; Poursoltani et al., 2007), laid down

188 on channel floors or in scour hollows, under upper flow-regime conditions. Deposition was

189 probably rapid (Todd 1989).

190 5.4 Planar cross-bedded sandstone (Sp, 24.2%)

191 Description: The sandstone is well sorted, fine- to medium-grained, with subarkosic, arkosic and

192 locally sublitharenitic composition (Poursoltani et al. 2014). The sandstone beds are interbedded

193 with siltstone or mudstone, grade upward, and form lenticular or tabular cosets from 1.3 m to a

194 maximum of 4 m thick (Fig. 7A, B, D). Sedimentary structures are predominantly planar cross-

195 stratification, with minor beds of ripple cross-lamination and plane-laminated sandstone.

196 Typically, decreased grain size correlates with thinner cross-sets (Fig. 7A, B). Foresets are

197 mainly planar with 15-25º dips (Fig. 7B, D), and the units are commonly capped by ripple cross-

198 laminated sandstone (facies Sr)(Fig. 7B). Weathered surfaces are commonly brown to dark gray,

199 and pink to brown on fresh surfaces.

9
200 Interpretation: Facies Sp may form under a range of flow conditions and is attributed to the

201 migration of bars or straight-crested dunes (Miall 1978, 1985, 1996; Capuzzo and Wetzel 2004).

202 The ripple cross-laminated caps suggest an upward transition to shallow-water bedforms on bar

203 tops, and probably towards the riverbank (cf. Mazumder and Sarkar 2004).

204 5.5 Trough cross-bedded sandstone (St, 10.2%)

205 Description: Trough cross-sets and cosets comprise fine- to medium-grained sandstone with

206 sublitharenitic to subarkosic composition and poor to moderate sorting. Mudstone interbeds (Fl)

207 are present locally (Fig. 7E, F). Fresh surfaces are brown to red and gray, whereas weathered

208 surfaces are mostly dark brown. Individual sets are up to 0.3 m thick. Typically, the contacts

209 between individual sets and cosets are marked by abrupt, thin layers of siltstone (Fig. 9A). Units

210 are mostly wedge-shaped or lenticular (Fig. 7E, F), and cosets extend laterally for several meters,

211 some with gently dipping bounding surfaces. The lower boundary of units is erosional and

212 commonly rests on facies Fm, whereas the upper boundary is sharp and flat below units of Sp

213 and Sh.

214 Interpretation: The facies is attributed to sinuous-crested dunes migrating under lower flow-

215 regime conditions (Cant and Walker 1976; Miall 1996; Capuzzo and Wetzel 2004). The

216 moderate to poor sorting of the sandstones and unimodal paleoflow favours a fluvial bedform

217 interpretation, and some cosets may represent linguoid or transverse bars (Miall 1978, 1985,

218 1996; Collinson 1996; Eriksson et al. 1998). Smith (1970) and Collinson (1996) discussed the

219 gently inclined dip of larger cosets, suggesting deposition on the low-angle inclined fronts of

220 bars, noting that smaller sets might be generated by dunes that migrated across or over the lee

221 faces of the bars. The thickness of individual sets of cross-strata indicate greater water depths

222 (Allen 1968; Miall, 1996; Went 2013).

10
223 5.6 Horizontally bedded sandstone (Sh, 14.2%)

224 Description: Plane-laminated beds of micaceous, medium- to very fine-grained sandstone

225 comprise poorly sorted and sub-rounded to sub-angular grains that are mostly feldspathic. They

226 are interbedded with micaceous siltstone. Unit are gradational with facies Fl and Sr at the upper

227 and lower contacts (Fig. 8) and are up to 2.6 m thick, with a sheet-like or tabular geometry with

228 near-parallel bounding surfaces. The units pinch out over tens of meters by onlap onto erosion

229 surfaces with a low angle. Weathered surfaces are brown, whereas fresh surfaces are lighter.

230 Generally, grain size profiles show fining-upward or no prominent trend, especially where

231 siltstone laminae are present (Fig. 8A). The laminae are low-angled (< 8°) to horizontal with

232 primary current lineation, and bed boundaries are marked by millimetre-scale layers of siltstone

233 or mudstone (facies Fl). Well laminated examples contain heavy-mineral zones (Fig. 8B, C, D)

234 and micaceous siltstone (Fig. 8E).

235 Interpretation: Deposition took place largely under upper flow-regime conditions, as indicated

236 by the presence of primary current lineation that resulted from micro-vortices acting under high

237 stream power, at water depths in places as shallow as 0.5 m (Miall 1985; 1996). The position

238 within depositional units suggests channel-based and bar-top sand sheets (Hjellbakk 1997).

239 Hjellbakk (1997) and Fielding (2006) noted that during flood, similar sediments form where

240 high-energy floods spill from a main channel into abandoned or partly abandoned channels. The

241 association with facies Sr and Fl suggests rapid changes in flood regime (Olsen 1988).

242 5.7 Ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr, 5%)

243 Description: Thin units of small-scale cross-lamination have asymmetrical ripple marks on bed

244 surfaces (Fig. 9A). Beds are dark gray to brown and pinch out within a few meters. The well

11
245 sorted and fine- to medium-grained sandstones are mainly sublitharenite, with angular to well

246 rounded quartz and lithic fragments (Fig. 9B). Units typically overlie facies Sm within

247 erosionally based channel forms and the lower parts of some beds are interstratified with Sh.

248 Where the facies overlies Sp (Fig. 9C), it contains thin claystone and siltstone horizons, loally

249 with desiccation cracks.

250 Interpretation: The cross-lamination represents the migration of sinuous asymmetrical ripples

251 under conditions of lower flow speed (<1m/s), and modest sediment supply (Allen 1963, Miall

252 1996). Deposition was within channels (Sr above Sm) and on bar-tops (Sr above Sp).

253 Intercalated fine beds with desiccation cracks indicates alternate traction and suspension

254 processes, with periodic exposure, possibly in slack water regions between overbank areas and

255 bars (cf. Bose and Chakraborty 1994; Collinson 1996).

256 5.8 Laminated mudstone (Fl, 2.6%)

257 Description: Layers of siltstone and mudstone with minor sandstone locally contain small-scale

258 cross-lamination (Fig. 10A, B) and desiccation cracks. On weathered surfaces, beds are gray to

259 dark brown and reddish. Units overlie Sm, Sh and St (Figs. 7, 8) as sheets up to 0.35 m thick

260 (Fig. 10A, B), and their tops are abruptly overlain and commonly eroded below Sp, Sm or Sh

261 (Figs. 9C, 10A, B).

262 Interpretation: The facies was deposited from weak traction currents and accumulated on top of

263 bars and bedforms in overbank areas or abandoned channels from waning flows (Allen 1964;

264 Jackson 1981). Suspension fallout was accompanied by periodic input of current-transported

265 sand (Hjellbakk, 1997; Ghazi and Mountney, 2009), and the bed surface was frequently exposed.

266 5.9 Massive mudstone (Fm, 0.7%)

12
267 Description: Lenticular to sheet-like units, common in the upper part of the Lower Sandstone,

268 consist of red to dark-brown and rarely gray structureless claystone, with rare gray to green

269 siltstone layers up to 3 cm thick. Two types have been identified (Fig. 10C, E). The first type, up

270 to 1 m thick, is generally interbedded with facies Sh and Fl in the lower part and with facies Sp

271 in the upper part of bedsets. Bed boundaries are sharp, and desiccation cracks are prominent (Fig.

272 10C, D). The second type has thin siltstone interbeds and is up to 3 m thick, usually resting on Sp

273 and truncated below overlying sandstones (Fig. 10E).

274 Interpretation: The facies was deposited from suspension within or flanking active channels

275 (type 1) and in overbank settings (type 2), draping the underlying deposits. Similar red mudstone

276 units with desiccation cracks are prominent in many floodplain deposits (Van Houten 1973;

277 Turner 1980; Mazumder and Sarkar 2004; Bridge 2006; Cain and Mountney 2009).

278 6. Architectural elements

279 A combination of geometry, vertical and lateral arrangement of lithofacies, sedimentary

280 structures and sediment textures leads to the identification of five architectural elements (Fig. 11)

281 (Miall 1996). They fall into three major groups: (1) discrete, commonly lenticular channel forms

282 and fills, CHs and CHm; (2) sheet sandstone bodies as more extensive channel deposits, SB, DA,

283 and LS; and (3) mudstone bodies, FF.

284 6.1 Channel-fill element (CH): These erosively-based units are incised into facies Fl and Sh,

285 (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 9). They are separated by thin mudstone, siltstone and finer grained sandstone

286 units, and are present in all parts of the succession. They are subdivided into channel bodies that

287 consist of sandstone (CHs) and mixed facies (CHm).

13
288 Channel bodies of sandstone (CHs) are 1-4 m thick and generally commence with Sm, overlain

289 by Ss and Sh. They are typically lenticular with a basal concave-up erosional surface (Figs. 6,

290 11). Erosively based, major sandstone bodies commonly comprise stacked CHs units as

291 multistorey bodies that extend for more than tens of meters, the maximum width of the exposure.

292 Because dip-parallel exposures are common at Shirgesht, the lenticular form is not always

293 visible. Many well exposed CHs bodies are incised into fine-grained deposits, with minimal

294 lateral migration (Bridge 2006; Gibling 2006; Ghazi and Mountney 2009).

295 Channel bodies of mixed facies (CHm) comprise facies Fl, Sh, Sr and Sp. The sediment bodies

296 are lenticular or irregularly wedge-shaped (Figs. 7, 9, 11), 0.2 to 1 m thick, and laterally

297 persistent for up to 15 m. With mudstone prominent, the element is interpreted as the fills of

298 abandoned channels, with both high- and low-energy components.

299 6.2 Sheet sandstone (SB) is the predominant element in the Lower Sandstone (Figs. 5, 11) as

300 wedge-shaped, lensoid, and tabular sandstone bodies of facies Sp and St from 1 to 6 m thick and

301 tens of meters in lateral extent. The element is overlain by finer-grained sandstones (Sr, Sh) and

302 mudstones (Fl, Fm). Individual cross-sets are up to 15 m in downdip extent and up to 0.7 m

303 thick. With its associated mudstone, element SB is similar to CHm but is sheet-like and lacks a

304 basal channel-form erosion surface. Based on the definition of Allen (1983), some sheet-like

305 bedsets are interpreted as 'simple bars'. Other bedsets have combined planar and trough cross-

306 stratified bedsets (Figs. 7, 9, 11), with sets of sigmoidal cross-strata that pass laterally into plane-

307 laminated sandstones, formed under upper flow-regime conditions. The latter bedsets include

308 examples that resemble both the composite compound bars and compound bars of Allen (1983).

309 6.3 Downstream–accretion element (DA) comprises sandstone bodies 0.8-3.2 m thick and >28 m

310 long. They are bounded by erosional to conformable surfaces and contain lenses up to 1.2 m
14
311 thick that extend for up to 30 m (Figs. 9B, 11). The lenses consist of solitary or grouped cross-

312 sets and structureless sandstone (St, Sp, Sm), with smaller-scale structures that include small

313 trough cross-sets, ripple cross-lamination, and plane-lamination above (Sr, St, Sh). Facies Se

314 with mudstone clasts lines erosional surfaces (Fig. 6A). The element is interpreted as near-axial

315 or axial sections through extended sheet-like sands that formed by downstream accretion

316 (Hjellbakk 1997), resembling the ‘down-climbing bars' of Allen (1983) and the 'downstream-

317 accretion deposits' of Miall (1988, 1992). The element may represent non-periodic macroforms

318 that were active during periods of major runoff. Mudstone drapes on some surfaces indicate

319 periods of low water.

320 6.4 Laminated sand sheet element (LS) forms tabular sheets of fine-grained sandstone, 0.5 to 1 m

321 thick, with laminae of micaceous siltstone (facies Sh with Sp and Sr; Figs. 5, 11). The bedsets

322 are usually laterally continuous for > 15 m. Rarely, structureless or weakly laminated sandstone

323 (Sm) was observed. This widespread element is associated with elements SB, DA and FF, and it

324 is prominent in the upper part of fining-upward rhythms. Deposition is attributed to high-energy

325 events in channels (cf. Tunbridge 1984; Olsen 1988; Ghazi and Mountney 2009), and as Bordy

326 and Catuneanu (2002) discussed, may have been laid down during sheet floods, where vertical

327 accretion occurred under upper flow-regime conditions. This element probably formed bar-flank

328 or bar-top sand sheets in shallower portions of the channels (Cant and Walker 1978; Nijman and

329 Puigdefabregas 1978; Miall 1985). Its common presence below channel bounding surfaces may

330 imply overbank sheet flows in some cases (cf. Olsen 1988).

331 6.5 Overbank fines (FF) comprise facies Fl and Fm, with two types of occurrence. The first type

332 is characterised by laminated Fl units of red, gray and brown mudstone up to 50 cm thick that

15
333 commonly display desiccation cracks (Figs. 7, 9, 10). Thin sheet-like bodies of fine-grained

334 sandstone (facies Sm, Sh) are prominent. The type is prominent in the upper parts of channel fills

335 and extends laterally for several meters, both parallel and perpendicular to the orientation of the

336 channel. The lower ratio of ferric:ferrous oxide probably caused the greenish-gray layers (cf.

337 Lehman 1989). The second type consists of 1-3 m units of structureless mudstone (facies Fm),

338 dark brown to red with rare siltstone and with desiccation cracks (Fig. 10). As Mrinjek et al.

339 (2006) suggested, deposition probably took place over a wide overbank area, and the prominence

340 of desiccation cracks suggests a seasonal climatic setting (cf. Reed 1991; Ghazi and Mountney

341 2009).

342 7. Hierarchy of bounding surfaces

343 Six orders of bounding surface are identified in the outcrops, following the hierarchical

344 framework set up by Miall (1988, 1996) (Fig. 5, 11, 12). Allen (1983) and Miall (1988, 1992,

345 1996) both proposed the contacts of simple lamination surfaces, cross-sets and cosets as the first

346 and second order bounding surfaces. In the Lower Sandstone, the boundaries of very fine- to

347 fine-grained sandstone and laminated siltstone within Fl, the bounding surfaces of plane-

348 laminated sandstone (Sh), and the boundaries of cosets in St and Sp and cross-sets are good

349 examples of these contacts (Figs. 7E, 11, 12).

350 Third-order bounding surfaces bound larger and more extensive accretion units. Good examples

351 are present in element SB, which exhibits planar cross-bedded and trough cross-bedded

352 successions (St and Sp) with planar, slightly erosional to non-erosional contacts (Figs. 7, 12).

353 These contacts bound mesoforms that include simple bars and dune complexes (Fig. 11, 12).

354 Such contacts are inferred to reflect a runoff peak in a single flood cycle, probably linked to a

16
355 high frequency of “flashy” decade-scale floods and seasonal events (Miall 1988, 1992; Hjellbakk

356 1997), the effects of which were probably enhanced in a non-vegetated setting.

357 Fourth-order surfaces bound macroforms of DA and LS elements (Fig. 11, 12), and the

358 boundaries between muddy facies (Fl, Fm) and sandy facies (Sm, Sp, St, Sh, Sr) are prominent

359 examples, indicating the margin of a macroform (Miall 1994). Two types of surfaces are

360 recognised. The first type is erosional with concave-up boundaries between sandy and muddy

361 facies, which indicates the margin of a macroform or thinner units of channel bodies (Figs. 11,

362 12B) (cf. Hjellbakk 1997). The second type is a flat, laterally extensive erosional surface that

363 bounds individual macroforms, the boundaries between very fine to fine-grained facies, in

364 downstream accretion complexes (Fig. 11, 12C). As Plink-Björklund (2015) discussed, plane-

365 bedded units of element LS are common components of seasonally variable rivers with a rapid

366 rise of upper flow-regime conditions and flash flooding, especially in sparsely vegetated areas.

367 Many of the fourth-order surfaces in the formation may represent such conditions.

368 Fifth-order surfaces form major erosional surfaces that are laterally extensive with some deeper

369 scours but rarely with deep incision (cf. Hjellbakk 1997). They form the lower boundaries of CH

370 elements (major channel bodies), which are commonly concave-up and erosional on FF elements

371 (overbank) and lined with intraformational clasts (facies Se)(Halfar et al. 1998). The surfaces

372 mark a renewal of channel activity (Ghazi and Mountney 2009) (Figs. 6B, 11, 12). In Miall’s

373 (1992) estimation, 1000-10,000 years is the timescale of processes that form fifth-order bounding

374 surfaces.

375 Sixth-order surfaces include the basal contact of the Lower Sandstone on the Zaigun Formation,

376 and the upper contact of the Lower Sandstone with estuarine deposits of the Middle Shale. The

17
377 latter surface defines a marine transgression. Due to outcrop limitations, a sixth-order basal

378 surface is in part an inference based on a regional analysis.

379 8. Paleoflow analysis

380 Paleoflow measurements were made throughout the full studied section (Fig 14). For the Lower

381 Sandstone, 92 paleocurrent measurements from cross-lamination, ripple marks and trough cross-

382 set axes indicate a unimodal eastward to northeastward flow, consistent with the reconstructed

383 Cambrian position of the Lalun Formation along the northeast margin of the Arabian Shield (Fig.

384 15). The paleocurrent readings were corrected for tectonic dip but do not take into account

385 oroclinal bending and possible rotation of the Lalun strata of the central Iran plate during

386 younger orogenesis.

387 9. Provenance analysis

388 Samples from the Lower Sandstone are grain-supported and mainly fine- to medium-grained,

389 with some coarse-grained samples with well-rounded components. On average, most samples are

390 well to very well sorted, and the remainder are moderately to poorly sorted. Detrital grains are

391 quartz (Qm = 76.8%; Qp = 6.79%), feldspars (K-feld = 10.2%; Plag = 1.24%), rock fragments

392 (VRF = 0.81%; MRF = 1.27%; SRF = 2.89%) and less than 1% of accessory minerals. Lithic

393 grains are mostly sedimentary (chert and sandstone), with some metamorphic (schist and gneiss)

394 and a few volcanic rock fragments. Based on Folk’s classification (1980), quartzarenite,

395 subarkose, and arkose are the main types, whereas sublitharenite is rare (Fig. 16A).

396 Based on plots of total quartzose grains, feldspar, and total unstable rock fragments (Dickinson

397 and Suczek 1979; Dickinson 1985; Marsaglia and Ingersoll 1992), the Lalun sandstones have an

398 overwhelming derivation from craton interior and transitional continental sources (Fig. 16B)

18
399 (Poursoltani et al. 2014). Based on the approach of Yerino and Maynard (1984), they were

400 derived from a passive margin (trailing-edge margin) (Fig. 16C). A plot using the paleoclimate

401 approach of Suttner et al. (1981) suggests humid conditions in the source area, with plutonic and

402 metamorphic sources (Fig. 16D).

403 10. Discussion

404 10.1 Depositional setting:

405 Predating the evolution of terrestrial vegetation, the Lower Sandstone fluvial system was

406 probably unable to form stable channels due to a combination of a lack of vegetation and high

407 energy that provided limited protection for fine- to very fine-grained deposits (Davies and

408 Gibling 2010; Long 2011). Proterozoic fluvial systems are characterised by considerable

409 thicknesses of sandstone, a scarcity of interbedded mudstone, rare occurrences of fining upward

410 units, and a unimodal paleoflow distribution (Long, 1978, 2011). These features are also

411 characteristic of the Lower Sandstone. Many pre-vegetational channels with non-cohesive banks

412 were shallow and wide (Cotter 1978; Fuller 1985; Røe and Hermansen 1993; Davies et al. 2011),

413 although more complex architecture has been documented in some formations (Ielpi et al. 2017).

414 The field evidence indicates that channel bodies laid down by the Lalun fluvial system are

415 generally sheet-like and characterised by a high width:thickness ratio, although the limited extent

416 of the outcrops precludes a full assessment (Figs. 6B, 12B, C, 13). However, narrower channel

417 bodies are also present, some of which represent abandoned channels that filled with coarse

418 bedload and fine-grained suspended sediment, and mudstone in some channels and overbank

419 areas may have provided sufficient cohesion locally to constrain channel migration.

19
420 As Hjellbakk (1997) proposed, transmission losses in many pre-vegetational fluvial systems

421 would have been very large, and this may have been significant in the Lower Sandstone with

422 high channel width/depth ratios. In such channels, large increases in width are associated with

423 small increases in depth, and this causes surface area to increase in the channels. Where channels

424 were cut into permeable alluvial sediments, wide channels would have promoted active recharge

425 of groundwater systems and interaction between surface and sub-surface water.

426 A paucity of fine-grained sediments is characteristic of pre-vegetational fluvial systems (Long

427 1978; Davies and Gibling 2010; McMahon and Davies 2018). This may reflect (1) a lack of

428 conditions favourable for the accumulation of fine- to very fine-grained deposits from suspension

429 flow; (2) a lower ratio of silt/clay production due to limited weathering in the absence of

430 vegetation; (3) overbank deposits that were vulnerable to later fluvial erosion, linked in part to

431 the low roughness of a vegetation-free substrate; and (4) removal of unprotected fines by the

432 wind (Fuller 1985; Dalrymple et al. 1985). Although the Mudstone Facies Assemblage at

433 Shirgesht forms only 3% of the strata, the common existence of intraformational mudstone and

434 siltstone clasts (facies Se; Fig. 6A) indicates that an unknown amount of mud was deposited in

435 abandoned channels and overbank areas but was later eroded.

436 Fluvial facies models are derived from modern vegetated settings and are largely inapplicable to

437 pre-vegetational river systems. However, the Lalun system shows some broad similarities to the

438 sandbed braided river model based on the River Platte in Nebraska (Miall 1996), which was

439 recently revised and improved by Horn et al. (2012). The Platte River sediments are

440 characterized by wide channels during high river stages, the predominance of sandy elements

441 (DA, LS, SB), abundant scour fills, and the abundance of downstream-migrating dunes (facies

442 St). Some features of the Platte sediment body reflect gradual abandonment of smaller
20
443 anabranches rather than stages of high river flow (Horn et al. 2012), and the mixed sand and mud

444 fill of narrower channels in the Lalun Formation also suggests gradual abandonment with periods

445 of more active flow.

446 Other modern sandbed rivers from strongly seasonal settings with modest vegetation provide

447 partial analogues for the Lower Sandstone, including rivers near Lake Eyre (Williams 1971),

448 Wadi El Arish in Egypt (Sneh 1983), the River Gash in Sudan (Abdullatif 1989), some Ethiopian

449 rivers (Billi 2008), and the Luni River of India (Carling and Leclair 2019). These rivers are wide

450 and shallow with scours of various scales, and they contain considerable proportions of plane-

451 bedded sand (Sh) that formed under critical to supercritical flow conditions during flood events

452 and generate flat-lying bed surfaces. Other facies include sheets of trough cross-bedded

453 sandstone (St) in channels, barforms (Sp), and modest amounts of ripple cross-lamination (Sr)

454 and little mud. Structureless sandstone (Sm) is present locally but is much less prominent than in

455 the Lower Sandstone.

456 An ancient analogue is the braided-fluvial Piekenierskloof Formation (Lower Ordovician, South

457 Africa), among other pre-vegetational systems. The formation shows the predominance of plane-

458 laminated, cross-stratified, and structureless sandstone (Sp, St, Sm, Sh), minor ripple cross-

459 lamination (Sr), and little fine-grained facies preserved (Bordy et al. 2016). The predominant

460 architectural elements are bar complexes with element SB and DA, as well as Channel fill (CH).

461 10.2 Provenance and paleogeography

462 At the northern margin of Gondwana, a very large composite basin overlies a complex system of

463 rift basins (Burke et al. 2003) and extended from Oman, where the basin covered evaporite-

464 bearing rifts, to the Bové Basin of southern Dakar (Droste 1997) and into parts of present-day

21
465 South America, India, Pakistan and Iran. Cambro-Ordovician paleogeographic reconstructions of

466 Arabia and North Africa show that these areas were part of a wide, stable continental shelf that

467 bordered the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Husseini 1989; Burke et al. 2003; Al-Juboury and Al-Hadidy

468 2009). Genna et al. (2002) inferred that a widespread extensional event in the Arabian Shield

469 (590-530 Ma) caused volcanism associated with the Shammar Group and dike swarms that are

470 broadly equivalent to the Riza Formation in Iran. Hamdi (1995) noted that a rift basin formed

471 after the Late Precambrian in Central Iran, based on Lower Paleozoic deposits in the Tabas-

472 Kerman region. Lasemi (2001) suggested that granitic detritus, tuff and volcanic rocks in the

473 Upper Precambrian and Lower Cambrian deposits of Iran was the result of periodic rifting and

474 intra-continental extension events during this period. However, Husseini (1989) inferred that,

475 about 620–540 Ma, the Mahatta Humaid and Fara formations in Oman, the Cambrian part of the

476 Saq Sandstone and Quweira Formation in Saudi Arabia, and the Zaigun, Lalun and Mila

477 formations in Iran were deposited during a post-rift stage.

478 Burke et al. (2003) noted that 'North African and Arabian Cambro-Ordovician Quartz Rich

479 Sandstones' were deposited in a huge basin, and Droste (1997; Fig. 9) described the

480 environments of these sandstones. Burke et al. (2003) considered that the erosion of latest

481 Precambrian mountains generated the first cycle of these sandstones (Fig. 15), and during the

482 Late Cambrian (520 Ma) to the Late Ordovician (440 Ma), the majority of the succession was

483 deposited on top of the rift fills due to thermal subsidence, filling accommodation space

484 generated during tectonic escape (Burke 1999; Burke et al. 2003, Fig. 6). McDougall et al.

485 (1987), Ketner (1966) and Mehring and McBride (2007) inferred a multi-cycle, sedimentary

486 origin and multiple local source areas for the quartzites, whereas Schmidt and McDonald (1979),

22
487 Johnson et al. (1988, 1991) and Dott (2003) inferred intense near-surface weathering and burial

488 diagenesis as the main factors for producing this type of sandstone.

489 The Lower Sandstone in the Shirgesht area is dominated by fluvial quartzarenite and subarkose

490 as part of the North African and Arabian sandstones belt of Burke et al. (2003), with some

491 arkosic and litharenitic strata in other areas (Fig. 16)(Poursoltani et al. 2019). Petrographic data

492 from the Lower Sandstone at Shirgesht suggests an origin from a cratonic interior, and the

493 easterly to northeasterly paleoflow suggests a source to the west and southwest, consistent with

494 an origin from the Arabian Shield. The present analysis does not constrain the age of the Early

495 Cambrian basement in Iran, but Horton et al. (2008) used zircon data to infer that upper

496 Neoproterozoic–Cambrian terrigenous deposits of Iran were derived from sources in Africa and

497 particularly the Arabian shield.

498 11. Conclusions

499 The Lower Cambrian Lalun Formation (Lower Sandstone) in the Shirgesht area of Iran is a sand-

500 rich rock unit subdivided into two facies associations. The Sandstone Facies Assemblage

501 comprises seven facies, with 3.5% of the section being gravel-bearing sandstone (Se, Ss), 64%

502 being massive and planar cross-bedded sandstone (Sm, Sp), and 29% being trough cross-bedded,

503 plane-laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstone (St, Sh, Sr). The Mudstone Facies

504 Assemblage comprises laminated and massive mudstone (Fl 2.6%, Fm 0.7%). Five architectural

505 elements, identified within a framework of bounding surfaces, are channel forms and fills (CH),

506 sandstone sheets and lenses (DA, LS and SB), and sheet and massive mudstone bodies (FF). The

507 fluvial system resembles in some respects models derived from modern sand-bed braided rivers,

508 but the prominent sheet-like architecture accords well with a pre-vegetational setting. Despite the

509 apparent simplicity of the architecture, lensoid channel fills and elements, varied grain size and
23
510 sorting, and mudstone sheets and lenses impart considerable heterogeneity to the succession,

511 which may serve as a model for Paleozoic fluvial reservoirs elsewhere in the region.

512 The similarity of the late Precambrian to Paleozoic rocks of Iran with those of Afghanistan,

513 Pakistan, Turkey and Saudi Arabia indicate that Iran formed part of the African–Arabian

514 continental platform, located in the north of the Gondwana supercontinent. This is consistent

515 with the reconstructed position of Early Cambrian deposits along the northeast margin of the

516 Arabian Shield. The eastward to northeastward paleoflow documented for the Lalun Formation

517 at Shirgesht accords with a source in the Arabian Shield and sediment transport to Paleo-Tethys.

518 Based on petrographic outcomes, the Lower Sandstone was mostly derived from a craton interior

519 where the paleoclimate was probably humid.

520

521 Acknowledgments

522 The author thanks the Islamic Azad University, Mashhad Branch of Iran for financial assistance,

523 and also would like to thank to Prof. Martin R. Gibling of Dalhousie University for reading an

524 earlier draft of the manuscript, and anonymous reviewers for comments on an earlier manuscript

525 version.

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840 Region, Egypt. Journal of Geosciences 53, 1-29.

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846 Trabeg Conglomerate Formation, SW Ireland and some theoretical considerations of their origin.

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856 Turner, B.R., Monro, M., 1987. Channel formation and migration by mass-flow processes in the

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863 setting. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 27, 416–429.

864 Wendt, J., Kaufmann, B., Belka, Z., Farsan, N., Karimi Bavandpur, A., 2002. Devonian/Lower

865 Carboniferous stratigraphy, facies patterns and palaeogeography of Iran. Part I. Southeastern

866 Iran. Acta Geologica Polonica 52, 129-168.

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872 Trench and adjacent areas. Sedimentology 31, 83–89.

873 List of Figures:

874 Fig 1: A, B) Tectonic setting of Iran and adjacent area, and geological map of study area. Present

875 location of the major regions and major structural lines. C) Generalized Cambrian stratigraphy of

876 the studied formation in the Shirgesht area (not to scale). Approximate ages for the formations

40
877 are based on biostratigraphic studies (Aghanabati, 2004), linked to the timescale of Gradstein et

878 al. (2004).

879 Fig 2: Early Cambrian (514 Ma) plate tectonic reconstruction (modified from Gradstein et al.,

880 2012). The yellow area showing the approximate location of Iran at the eastern edge of the

881 Proto-Palaeotethys Ocean. Red lines show subduction zones.

882 Fig. 3: A) Stratigraphic column for the Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area (for location see

883 Fig. 1). Rose diagrams show paleoflow in the Shirgesht section; arrows show vector means.

884 Number of data points shown in parentheses. Rose diagrams not corrected for visual bias. Red

885 numbers showing studied thin sections. Black arrows indicate paleocurrent directions (K. fm.:

886 Kalshaneh Formation). B) Histogram of percentage of Lower Sandstone facies of Lalun

887 Formation in the measured section in the Shirgesht area (see Table 1 for full facies names).

888
889 Fig. 4: Panorama of Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area. Lower and upper contact with older

890 and younger formations (Zaigun and Kalshaneh formations) is marked, and the extent and

891 thickness of all units are shown. (The units thickness include sills. Red arrows showing diabasic

892 sills).

893 Fig. 5. A) Photo of large outcrop showing multistorey channel-fill as exposed in the Lower

894 Sandstone unit of Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area. B, C) Close up of channel-fill element

895 CH, and sandy SB elements and cosets of different facies, showing detailed lateral and vertical

896 facies variations. Heavy lines delineate individual storeys; lighter lines delineate boundaries

897 between sets and cosets of different facies.

898 Fig. 6: Characteristic examples of lithofacies of lower sandstone in Lalun Formation, Shirgesht

899 area: A) Erosional scours sandstone facies Se, arrows show mudclasts. B) a channel body:
41
900 massive sandstone facies Sm; C) Scour-fill sandstone facies Ss, closeup of red box in A; D)

901 microscopic photo of a coarse grain within fine grains, facies Ss (C), the grains showing

902 imbricated fabric and arrow shows paleocurrent direction; E) tabular to lensoid beds with minor

903 low-angle cross-stratification; F) microscopic photo of facies Sm (ES: erosional surface; Ch:

904 channel; Q: quartz; F: feldspar; M: metamorphic rock fragment).

905 Fig. 7: Facies and SB architectural element and 3rd order surface of lower sandstone of the Lalun

906 Formation, in the Shirgesht area, and trough cross-bedded sandstone St: A) planar cross-bedded

907 sandstone facies Sp, with some low-angle cross-stratification, B) Facies Sh, Sp, Sr, and Fl with

908 erosional surface, fining upwards and also low-angle cross-stratified, C) subarkose sandstone, of

909 facies Sp, D) facies Sm, Sp, Sr and Fl with sharp base, E) Facies St facies arranged into trough

910 cross-bedded sets and cosets, F) close up of A, (SB and DA elements and 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th

911 order surface are shown; ES: erosional surface; Q: quartz; F: feldspar).

912 Fig. 8: Horizontally bedded sandstone (Sh): A) Sh facies, yellow arrows showing Fl facies; B)

913 panorama of A, showing the lamination of heavy minerals (arrows); C) microscopic photo of

914 heavy minerals; D) heavy minerals with WDX (red arrow showing rutile); B) intercalation of

915 mica (Z: zircon, Fe: iron oxide, M: muscovite, B: biotite).

916 Fig. 9: Ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr): A) facies Sm resting on facies Sp and passing

917 upward into facies Sr; B) microscopic photo of facies Sr, fine-to medium grained, well sorted

918 sandstone; C) facies Fl containing mudcracks (MC), Sp facies resting on Fl, and also Sr resting

919 on Sp (Q: quartz, VR: volcanic rock fragment).

920 Fig. 10: Parallel laminated mudstone, with siltstone and sandstone layers (Fl), and massive

921 mudstone (Fm): A) Cyclicity of Fl and Sm, and erosional surface at the top of Fl, B) Cyclicity of

42
922 Fl and Sh, yellow arrows showing mudcracks, C, D) Type one, at the lower part interbedded with

923 facies Sh and Fl, but in the upper part changing to facies Sp, mudcrack is the main sedimentary

924 structure; E) Type two, the upper contact is sharp and the lower contact rests on facies Sp (ES:

925 erosional surface) (ES: erosional surface).

926 Fig. 11: Generalised summary of architectural elements recognised in the Lower Sandstone of

927 the Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area.

928 Fig. 12: Summary of the bounding surface hierarchy recorded within the Lower Sandstone of

929 Lalun Formation, in the Shirgesht Area, Central Iran.

930 Fig. 13: Channel fill, showing W/D ratio (ES: erosional surface).

931 Fig. 14: Conceptual depositional model for the fluvial-marine deposits of the Lalun Formation in

932 Shirgesht area, in the Central Iran (see Geological Setting). Large arrow showing the

933 Paleocurrent direction in the Shirgesht section (see Figs, 3, 15). Modified from Lasemi and

934 Amin-Rasouli, 2007, Fig. 12, with changes.

935 Fig. 15: Generalized Early Cambrian paleogeography of Gondwana, showing the distribution of

936 quartz-rich sandstones at the time they were deposited over much of North Africa and Arabia.

937 Correlatable sandstones are shown in South America, South Africa, Pakistan, Iran and Turkey.

938 Mountainous areas and possible river systems are indicated. Areas of deposition of Cambro-

939 Ordovician quartz-rich sandstones shown in spotted gray. Modified from Burke et al., (2003, Fig.

940 8), and Rossetti et al. (2015, Fig. 1). Rose diagram shows paleocurrent direction from

941 measurement of 36 cross-beds and 56 ripple marks in the Shirgesht section; arrow shows vector

942 mean (see Fig. 3A). (AR: Amazon rift; F-B: Foreland Basins, PB: Parana Basin, C: Cape Group).

43
943 Fig. 16: Composition of 28 samples of the Lower Sandstone of the Lalun Formation in the

944 Shirgesht area. A) Q-F-RF diagram (Folk 1980). B) Tectonic classification of Lower Sandstone,

945 based on grain proportions of 28 samples. Diagram format from Dickinson et al. (1983). C) Q–

946 F–L tectonic provenance diagram for the lower sandstones, after Yerino and Maynard (1984).

947 The lower sandstones plot near the TE field. TE: trailing edge (passive margin); SS: strike-slip;

948 CA: continental-margin arc; BA: back arc to island arc; FA: fore arc to island arc. D) The effect

949 of climate on the composition of the lower sandstones (Suttner et al. 1981).

950

951

952 List of Tables:

953 Table 1: Summary of facies characteristics, Lalun Formation in the Shirgesht area. Facies codes

954 are based on Miall (1996).

44
 Facies and Codes / Facies Description
% succession
Erosinal Scours Sandstone with mudclasts up to 4 cm in diameter. Units 2
(mudclast-bearing to 5 cm thick. Rest on erosional surfaces cut into muddy
sandstone) (Se) beds, typically overlain by Sm.
(1.3%)
Scour-fill sandstone Poorly sorted, with subangular to rounded pebbles of vein
(Ss) (2.2%) quartz, sandstone and metamorphic lithics up to 0.5 cm in
diameter and locally imbricated. Commonly rest on
erosional surfaces, with normal and inverse grading, and
grades up into Sm. Units 2 to 10 cm thick.
Massive sandstone Structureless beds of medium to coarse grained and rarely
(Sm) (39.6%) gravelly sandstone, in lenticular units that are erosively
based in places. Medium to thick beds locally show
millimeter-scale mudstone laminae, normal grading and
cross-stratification. Coarser grains are quartz, K-feldspar
and rarely rock fragments. Commonly overlain by Sp. Units
0.4 to 2.1 m thick.
Planar cross-bedded Beds of fine to medium-grained sandstone with lenticular,
sandstone (Sp) tabular or wedge-shaped cross-sets (0.2-1 m thick) that
(24.2%) downlap onto planar and locally erosional surfaces. Cross-
beds steeply dipping or lower angle. Units show caps of Sr
facies (ripple cross-laminated sandstone), commonly grade
upward or are interbedded with very fine- to fine-grained
facies. Units 0.2 to 1.3 m thick, laterally persistent for 7
to12 m.
Trough cross- Fine- to medium-grained sandstone with cosets of trough-
bedded sandstone based cross-beds up to 0.3 m thick and 2.2 m wide.
(St) (10.2%) Lenticular and wedge-shaped units commonly rest
erosionally on facies Fm and are overlain by Sp and Sh with
abrupt, planar surfaces. Local intercalation with Fl units.
Process Interpretation
Mudclasts represent erosion of muddy channel fills or
overbank areas, laid down under upper flow-regime
conditions in association with traction carpets.
Hyperconcentrated fluvial flow and density flows,
locally as tractional carpets, under upper flow-regime
conditions. Laid down on channel floors and other
erosion surfaces. Rapid deposition probable.
Traction carpets migrating under upper flow-regime in
the lower parts of channels, rapid deposition under
waning flow common. Cross-strata and muddy laminae
indicate depositional breaks and conditions of lower flow
power.
Migration of bars or straight crested dunes under lower
flow-regime conditions within channels. Rippled and
fine-grained caps indicate waning-flow conditions on bar
tops.
Migration of sinuous-crested dunes under lower flow-
regime conditions. Some units may represent linguoid or
transverse bars, locally on bar lee faces.
Horizontally bedded Very fine- to medium-grained, laminated sandstone, in
sandstone (Sh) tabular to lensoid bodies that fine-upward. Stratification
(14.2%) predominantly low-angle (< 8°) to horizontal, with primary
current lineation on some beds. Lower and upper contacts of
this facies are gradational with Fl and Sr, respectively. Units
0.2 to 2.6 m thick.
Ripple cross- Fine- to medium-grained beds of ripple cross-lamination
laminated sandstone with asymmetrical ripples on bed surfaces, commonly
(Sr) (5%) overlying facies Sm and in places associated with Sh. Units
locally contain siltstone and claystone horizons with
desiccation crack. Units up to 15 cm thick.
Laminated mudstone Flat-lying laminated units of mudstone, with minor siltstone
(Fl) (2.6%) and sandstone laminae, as extensive sheet-like bodies. Rest
on Sm and Sh. Small-scale cross-laminae in coarser layers,
desiccation cracks prominent. Units 0.2 to 0.5 m thick.
Massive mudstone Structureless, fine-grained units in two settings: 1) low in
(Fm) (0.7%) channel-fill successions, interbedded with Sh and Fl and
overlain by Sp, up to 1 m thick and containing desiccation
cracks; 2) high in channel-fill successions with thin (3 cm)
siltstone interbeds, resting on Sp, and cut by an erosional
surface, up to 3 m thick.
Plane beds laid down under upper flow-regime
conditions; occurrences that grade upward into mudstone
may represent lower regime waning flow. Deposition as
in-channel deposits and bar-top sand sheets during flood
events, some of which may have spilled into partly
abandoned channels or other low-energy sites.
Migration of asymmetrical ripples under lower flow-
regime and locally waning-flow conditions within
channels and on bar-tops. Desiccation cracks indicate
periodic exposure.
Low-energy, suspension sediments that accumulated in
abandoned overbank areas or channels following flow
events. Cross-laminae indicate minor movement of
bedload. Desiccation cracks indicate periodic exposure.
Suspension deposition in periodically active channels
(type 1), abandoned channels or overbank areas (type 2).
Desiccation cracks indicate periodic exposure.
A B

Qt

Measured
Tabas
Zaigun fm.
section

Єz
Top Єd
Quartzite
3 km
Єl
(Lalun fm.)
Osh

Єk
Ds Dp (Kalshaneh fm.)
Sn
C L E G E N D
Quat.

Qt Quaternary Deposits

Ds Sibzar fm. (dol.)

Dev.

Dp Padeha fm. (ss, dol.)

Ord. Sil.

Sn Niur fm. (carb., sh)

Shirgesht fm.
Osh
(carb., sh.)

Єd Derenjal fm. (carb, sh)

CAMBRIAN

Єk Kalshaneh
(carb. dia. sh.)
Top Quartzite
Єl (Limestone, diabas, sa
Lalun fm. (ss., sh., reef)
Єz Zaigun fm. (ss, silt, sh)
A B

E
C

Fig. 10
 Facies, Architectural Elements and Bounding Surfaces
Facies Elemen Geometry Bounding Description Interpretation
Association ts Surfaces

Sm CH 5th order Laterally extensive, major erosional Deposition in channels,

Sp (Figs. 6A, surfaces, their erosional surfaces marking a renewal of
Sr 13, 15) with underlying FF elements. channel activity
Ss

St DA 4th order Irrigular planar to concave-up, This indicates the margin

Sp (Figs. 9A, erosional, boundaries between of a macroform or
Sh 13) sandy facies and muddy facies thinner units of channel
Sr bodies

Sp LS 4th order Laterally extensive, flat-lying Downstream accretion

Sr (Figs. 10A, erosional surface that bounds complexes
Sh 13) individual macroforms, the
boundaries between sandy facies
and muddy facies

Sr SB 3rd order Exhibit planar and trough cross-beds Dune complexes,

Sh (Figs. 7, with a planar, slightly erosional to transitional simple bar
Sp 10B, 13) non-erosional contact dune complexes, or simple
bars, major flooding

Fl FF 1st – 2nd order Simple lamination surfaces, coset Distal to the main channel,
Fm (Figs. 10A, and cross-set boundaries, very fine to floodplain
13) fine-grained sandstone and laminated
siltstone facies

Fig. 11
 Sp B
A

SB
Fl 1st -2nd rd
3
DA
4th
Sp
CH

1st -2nd
Fl 5th

LS
th
4

5th CH

Fig. 12
 W>20 m

D=0.6 m

E.S

Top

Fig. 13
 Paleoflow
~ N95°

Fluvial plain Estuary Shallow Marine

Reef Complexes

Lower sandstone Middle shale Upper sandstone

(associated with (Top Quartzite)
stromatolite dominated
microbial buildups)

Fig. 14
 N
180

active convergent margin 90 270

European fragments 0

N. Gondwana (no: 92)

Angles
fragments Turkey
Proto-Tethys
Ocean
Arabia Iran

Afghanistan
N. India
Orogen
West India
n
Gondwana AFRICA
Amazon East Australia
AR
Gondwana
F-B PB
C Antarctica
ACCRETIONARY PRISM

Proto-Pacific Ocean

Fig. 15
A B

C D

Fig. 16
 PROTO-PALEOTETHYS OCEAN
Alaska
North China
Australia
Kazakhstan South China
LAURENTIA

Mexico Siberia India

Arabia

Baltica Florida GONDWANA

Africa

Fig. 2
A LEGEND

Lalun Formation
(Early Cambrian)

N
180

90 270
Cross bed
(no: 36)
0
180
Angles

90 270
Ripple mark
(no: 56)
0
Angles

B
Frequency

Facies

Fig. 3
 Kalshaneh fm.
NE

Zaigun fm. Upper Ss (TQ)

(~150m)
? Lower Ss. (~418m) Middle sh. (~331m) Carbonate (~80m)

L A L U N fm.

Fig. 4
A

B C

Fig. 5
A B
W
mud
Sm

5th mud

C D

Ss

ES
100 µm

E Ch3 F Q
Q

Ch2
M

Ch1 Q
100 µm
F

Fig. 6
A E

Fig. 7
A B

Sh

5 cm
Sh

C D
Z
Fe
Fining upward

Fl

100 µm 100 µm

M
100 µm

Fig. 8
A Top

ES
Palaeocurrent
Channel Body Sr direction
(Sm)

B Q

VR
VR Q
C 100 µm

MC

Fl

Sr
Sp

Fig. 9
Highlights:
1. The lowers sandstone unit is dominated by sand-rich braided river deposits.
2. Lalun deposited along the northeast margin of Arabian shield.
3. The sediment derived mostly from craton interior and transitional continental.
Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests: