Irll. J. Pm. ves.

& Piping 64 (1995) 101-109

0 1995 Else&r Science Limited
Printed in Northern Ireland. All rights reserved
ELSEVIER 0308-0161(94)00074-3 030X-0161/95/$09.50

Finite element analyses concerning the fatigue

strength of nozzle-to-spherical shell
intersections
Eckart WeiB & Jiirgen Rudolph
University of Dortmund, Department of Chemical Engineering, Working Group Pressure Vessel Design,
Dortmund, Germany

(Received 10 August 1994: accepted24 August 1994)

This paper dealswith the problem of the fatigue strength of nozzle-to-spherical

shell intersections subjected to internal pressure, axial force, bending and
torsional moments.General aspectsof the proof of fatigue strength and stress
analysis are discussedfirst. Finite element analyseshave been done for the
whole range of practically important geometries.The results for flush and
protruded nozzles are given as stressconcentration factors (SCF) representing
the maximum von Mises stress in the intersection region referred to an
appropriate nominal stress.Comparisonsare madewith the curves given in BS
5%0 and with analytical results.-

NOTATION submitted to loadings which have to be

considered as quasistatic or lowly cyclic. Depen-
Outer diameter of the nozzle ding on the classification of loadings the proofs of
Outer diameter of the spherical shell load-carrying capacity and fatigue strength have
Correction factor for macroscopic and to be carried out. Special working conditions may
microscopic effect necessitate further proofs e.g. excess deformation
Axial force or stability. However, these special problems are
Bending moment not considered in the framework of this article.
Torsional moment Modern methods of pressure vessel design
Number of cycles to incipient crack require a precise separation of load-carrying
Number of cycles to failure capacity and fatigue strength. Basically, any
Pressure construction has to be examined concerning its
Stress concentration factor load-carrying capacity. In the case of cyclic loads
Wall thickness of the nozzle the proof of load-carrying capacity is necessary
Wall thickness of the spherical shell but not sufficient. Hence, it has to be carried out
Nondimensional parameter before the proof of fatigue strength. Startup and
Nominal equivalent stress shutdown procedures may already cause cyclic
Maximum equivalent stress loads and thus necessitate a detailed proof of
Equivalent stress range fatigue strength.
Corrected equivalent stress range Determination and evaluation of loads are two
Equivalent mean stress complex problems the design engineer is
Maximum stress within one cycle permanently confronted with. Existing interna-
Minimum stress within one cycle tionally recognized codeslm4furnish the engineer
with references of basic issues but cannot cover
1 INTRODUCTION the whole range of practical problems in a
scheme. Gaps become apparent especially in the
According to their working conditions, pressure treatment of complex assemblies such as
vessels being components of chemical plants are nozzle-to-vessel connections. Considering the
101
102 Eckart WeiJ3, Jiirgen Rudolph
geometrical parameters as well as the complex
spectrum of external loads makes modelling and
analysis more difficult. Furthermore, fatigue
analyses require the inclusion of constructive
details such as weld seams or flanged-out
openings.
The nozzle-to-vessel connections represent
structures consisting of two or even three shells
in which the basic structure can be spherical,
cylindrical, conical or torispherical. External
loads may be functional inner or outer pressure
loads and additional forces and moments
transmitted by the connected pipe. If the loads
are of a quasistatic nature, the Kellog method
and respectively the basically comparable area
replacement method are proved in practice.
However, it is worth mentioning that the
application of the commonly used codes is
restricted to internal and external pressure
loading. Practically, supplementary loads trans-
ferred by pipes may affect the load carrying
capacity of a structure. In the case of cyclically
imposed loads, guidelines concerning the carrying
out of the proof of fatigue strength are given by
the codes but they presume exact information
about the existing state of stress. Even peak
stresses which are caused by constructive details
and geometrical discontinuities and which are
reduced by local yielding in case of quasistatic
loading and presence of a ductile material are of
interest if the loading is cyclic. In the latter case
they may cause the beginning and propagation of
cracks.
In the following sections the fatigue strength of
nozzle-to-spherical shell connections under inter-
nal (external) pressure, axial forces, bending and
torsion moments will especially be treated.
General features of the carrying out of the proof
of fatigue strength will be discussed first.
2 PROOF OF FATIGUE STRENGTH
The proofs of fatigue strength methods currently
used are based on stresses determined by elastic
analyses. However, strain-based elastic-plastic
calculations are desirable for the future. Many
influences on the fatigue strength such as the
material defects, predamaging, surface condi-
tions, anisotropy and media cannot be described
in an exact mathematical way. They are more or
less exactly considered by factors which are
confirmed by practical experience. Further
influences worth mentioning concern the kind of
stresses (multiple directions, superimposition of
several loads, etc.), the size of medium stress and
the sequential order of load imposition. Arbitrary
changes of loads lead to a reduction of fatigue
strength compared with defined stress cycles
(random influence). Other influences not clearly
definable are taken into account by the safety
factor.
The alternating stress intensity 2~7, and the
mean alternating stress intensity a, according to
Fig. 1 are the decisive quantities for the proof of
fatigue strength given by the equations:
2a, = (a - 6)
a”=$(&++)
The shear stress or the von Mises criterion can be
applied as the theory of failure because ductile
materials are considered. Under this condition
the assumption of pulsating loads (e.g. practical
startup and shutdown procedures) result in:
-
uv = him
The alternating stress intensity determined in this
way is corrected by appropriate factors rep-
resenting influences of surface, weld seam,
temperature and mean alternating stress inten-
sity. For example, in Ref. 2, usual welded joints
are classified into three design groups Kl, K2 and
K3 with regard to their notch effects. The
alternating stress intensity is corrected by the
corresponding factors &, , fK2 or fK3 which results
in the equation:
A further correction (influence of mean stress
intensity and temperature) results in an alternat-
ing stress intensity 2a,& which is compared with
u
-5----
Fig. 1. Definitions of stressesfor fatigue analysis.
 Fatigue strength of nozzle-to-spherical
respect of a number of load cycles corresponding
to an incipient crack with an admissible
alternating stress intensity.
The admissible alternating stress intensity is
determined by statistically consolidated strain-
and stress-controlled fatigue tests under respec-
tively tensile and compressive bending loading.
However, strain-controlled tests should be
preferred. The incipient crack and the fracture
are used as failure criteria. The technically
incipient crack is defined as a macroscopic and
visible material discontinuity. Many materials
and structural components can be treated with
the dependence:
N,, = O.Slv,
between the number of load cycles corresponding
to an incipient crack and to fracture. Because of
the complex spectrum of influences on the fatigue
strength of a construction and the connected
scattering values in test results the application of
a tenfold safety factor with respect to the number
of cycles is recommended. This results in a
statistically determined failure probability of
0.01%. Additionally, a stress safety factor of la.5
has to be guaranteed. The safety factor with
respect to the number of cycles is substantial for
low cycle loading whereas the stress safety factor
becomes decisive for high cyclic loading.
Hence, the determination of the state of stress
which should be as exact as possible becomes the
central problem of the proof of fatigue strength.
The requirement of detailed stress analyses for
nozzle-to-vessel connections can be derived from
the facts given above.
3 STRESS ANALYSIS
The necessity of highly precise stress analyses
including local peak stresses excludes the
application of simple methods such as the beam
or membrane theories. The analysis of the
nozzle-to-vessel connections requires the applica-
tion of the bending theory of shells of revolution
and of the finite element method (FEM). Of
course, experimental verification is another
important task.
Both theoretical methods presume the efficient
usage of computer systems. Analyses based on
linear-elastic material properties (Hooke’s law)
correspond with the premises of the proof of
fatigue strength according to codes.
Analytical solutions on the basis of the theory
shell intersections 103
of elasticity admit the application of the
superposition principle and the exact classifica-
tion of stress components (global and local
membrane, bending). The time-consuming task
of gaining an analytical solution is justified by the
variable opportunities of application of the
computer program based on the analytical
solution. However, it should be mentioned that
notch effects cannot be considered. For instance,
it is well known that supplementary notch factors
have to be considered’ while using local stress
analysis of spherical and cylindrical shells.
Another problem arises from the limits of
validity. Many geometries of practical importance
are not covered by the curves provided in Ref. 5.
Notch effects could partially be considered by
the inclusion of toroidal parts for the modelling
of a flanged out connection. However, the
analysis will become very complex in this case
because of the inclusion of a short toroidal shell.
In case of a nozzle on a shallow spherical shell
the analytical solution fails because of the
singularities of the toroidal shell.
Nowadays, another limiting premise of apply-
ing thin shell theory should be symmetry with
respect to geometry and loads. Otherwise,
modelling expenditure would be too large with
regard to the existence of numerical methods.’
The finite elements method has become a
universal instrument of stress analysis. This fact is
closely connected with the development of
computational hardware and software. Formerly,
modelling and computation were very time
consuming and restricted to isolated analyses.
Nowadays, modern FE programs provide tools
for parametric modelling including automatic
processing of results. Results to be presented in
the framework of this article were gained by
using the FE program ANSYS version 5.0.’
It is of major importance with respect to
computing times if a two- or three-dimensional
model has to be chosen. Symmetrical structures
such as spherical shells with radially disposed
nozzles allow two-dimensional modelling the
more so as special harmonic elements are able to
consider nonsymmetrical loads (bending, tor-
sion). The necessity of using a three-dimensional
model for the analysis of spherical shells
subjected to internal pressureX is not quite
comprehensible with regard to computing times
and the modelling of constructive details.
The analyses to be presented in this article
were done by using the axisymmetric element
104 Eckart We@, Jiirgen Rudolph

plane82 (eight nodes, two degrees of freedom per

node) of the ANSYS elements library in the case
of axisymmetric loads (internal pressure, axial
force) and the corresponding harmonic element
plane83 in the case of nonaxisymmetric loads
(bending, torsion). These elements dispose of
midside nodes and thus provide a higher accuracy
of results compared with lower order versions of
axisymmetric elements (four nodes) if the degree
of discretization is identical.
In fatigue analysis special attention should be
paid to detailed modelling of the transition area
of both shells. According to their practical
importance, flush and protruded nozzles are
modelled including welds (Figs 2 and 3). Usually,
pressure vessel components are butt-welded.
Thus, the welded joint is entirely integrated in
the model of the structure and the application of
contact elements is not necessary. Flanged-out
connections were separately analysed with the 1
result that stresses can be diminished by using I
large radii. For practically relevant radii the Fig. 3. Finite element model of the intersection region
analyses of butt-welded flush nozzles yield (protruded nozzle).
slightly conservative results in comparison with
the flanged-out structure. Welds of flanged-out
nozzle-to-shell connections are situated outside load does not show these effects because of the
the highly stressed zone. Hence, supplementary special loading direction. Hydrodynamically un-
notch effects need not be considered. The model favourable effects of this constructional variant
chosen considers an unfavourable shape of weld are not discussed further here.
and yields conservative results.
Protruded nozzles lead to lower stresses (Fig.
4) and reinforce the structure. Only torsional 4 EVALUATION OF RESULTS

The maximum stress in the intersection region is

required for the proof of fatigue strength. Thus,
it is recommended to refer the maximum
equivalent stress uVmax to a reasonable nominal
stress oVN according to the load case considered.
This method corresponds with the definition of
stress concentration factors (SCF) in the form

According to the ductile materials considered,

Fig. 2. Finite element model of the intersection
nozzle).
the von Mises yield criterion is used for the
calculation of equivalent stresses. This has
proved to be correct in many experimental
investigations.”
The evaluation of results in terms of stress
concentration factors is advantageous because
generally valid values can be obtained for a
region (flush special geometric configuration. This fact is
derived from the linear-elastic analyses and the
 Fatigue strength of nozzle-to-spherical shell intersections 105

/’
A
+- 1.2
I !
I III I
I I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 (D2/ 4 6 8 10 20
Q = d /D sqrt (2 T))
Fig. 4. Stress concentration factors for internal pressure loading on flush and protruded nozzles (T/D = 0402).

linear relation between loads and stresses.
Nowadays, the application of stress concentration
factors is widespread.’ However, attention has to
be paid to the unequivocal definition of nominal
stresses. Usually, physically reasonable basic
stress models like elementary membrane or
bending stress states of the vessel or the nozzle
are applied as reference stresses. In the case of
internal pressure load it is advisable to use the
circumferential membrane stress of the vessel as
the nominal stress which is in accordance with
the relevant special literature:’ spherical shell
subjected to internal pressure
D-T
UVN =P 4T
In the case of supplementary loads on the nozzle
there are many possibilities of nominal stress
definition. For the analyses made, the nominal
stresses were based on the shear stress in a
fictitious cross-section at the intersection of the
nozzle (outer diameter) and the vessel. Thus, a
stress value at the intersection area of both shells
is used which results in the following definitions:
axial force F: (TvN = ti
4W3
bending moment M,,: uvN = v?=
torsional moment M,: uVN = A!?-----
nd’t
The factor fi is the result of the application of
the von Mises yield criterion.
In order to get generally valid results it is
indispensable to vary all the geometric sizes
influencing the stress state. This concerns the
various constructive details (Fig. 7) and the
modification of the diameter and wall thickness
ratios according to the laws of geometric
similarity:
($): if) and (i)
The diagrams of Ref. 1 are based on analytical
solutions, show a difference between flush and
protruded nozzles and consider different dia-
meter ratios by the shell parameter:
d D
‘=6 & 2T
The different wall thickness ratios t/T result in
systems of graphs within one diagram. Neverthe-
less, the ratio T/D is not considered indepen-
dently. The consideration of this relation will be
of special importance in the case of thin nozzles
(Fig. 5). Other publishing? neglect this ratio in
the same way. Hence, the FE-analyses to be
F presented here contain besides two constructive
- variants the variation of all three geometric
xdt ratios.
A vessel diameter D = 5000 mm was chosen
for the analyses. The geometric parameters were
varied in the following limits:
3%
d/D = 0.02. . . O-7
t/T = 0.2 . * . 1.2
T/D = 0.002 . . .0.007
106 Eckart We@, Jiirgen Rudolph

80

01 I IILl I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 sq:t Th 6 8 10 20
Q= d / D (D / (2
Fig. 5. Influence of the T/D ratio on stressconcentration factors for axial force loading on flush nozzles.

Of course, results will always be conservative for
thicker vessel walls. One load case for one
constructive variant was covered by 2880 analyses
taking advantage of the application of the
ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL).
The graphical depiction of the calculated stress
concentration factors (Figs 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10)
clearly confirm the functional dependencies
shown above. Characteristic graphs are gained
for the different load cases (internal pressure,
axial force, bending and torsional moment). The
tendencies of the curves in Ref. 1 are confirmed
by the FE-results (Fig. 6). The comparison of
FE-results (modelling with seam) with an
analytical solution for a shallow spherical shell
with a cylindrical nozzle subjected to internal
pressure and/or axial force (program
SHALLOW) proves nearly identical results (Fig.
6) if the wall thickness of vessel and nozzle are
not too different.
Both the analytical solution and the curves in
Ref. 1 seem to fail if the ratio t/T becomes very
small. Probably, this is due to a clamping effect
which cannot be reflected adequately by the
analytical model. In this case stress concentration
factors resulting from the FE-analyses are
significantly higher (Fig. 8). Attention should be
paid to a possible underestimation of stresses.

8 - FE

LL:
ci 6-
ti

0' I 1,I.I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 6 8 10 20
g=d/Dsq rt CD / (2 T;)

Fig. 6. Comparison of analytical and FEM results for internal pressureloading on flush nozzles with T/D = 0402 and
t/T = 1.0.
 Fatigue strength of nozzle-to-spherical shell intersections 107

60

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 sq:i T;) 6 a IO 20
Q= d / D CD / (2
Fig. 7. Influence of details of the intersection region on stress concentration factors for axial force loading on flush nozzles
(T/D = 0.002).

Different T/D ratios are considered by different
diagrams. Of course, stresses become lower if the
vessel wall becomes thicker.
5 SUMMARY
With respect to fatigue problems of nozzle-to-
vessel connections, parametric investigations
using the finite element method (FEM) were
performed for cylindrical nozzles radially dis-
posed on spherical vessels. The results of the
linear analyses are depicted in terms of stress
concentration factors (SCF) for the different
loads (internal pressure, axial force, bending and
torsional moments). The geometric parameters of
influence were modified with the aim of gaining
generally valid results covering the practically
interesting range of geometries. The diagrams
based on the FE results easily provide stress
concentration factors for a concrete load case and
a concrete geometry to be used in a fatigue
analysis. A difference is made between the
constructive variants of a flush and a protruded
nozzle.
In the case of approximately equal wall
thickness of nozzle and vessel the influence of
the ratio T/D on the maximum equivalent stress
is only small. The macroscopic notch effect is
less important as is shown (Fig. 6) in the

25

L
cj 20
cn
6
15

IO

I
0
0.2 0.4 00.6 0.8 1 6 a 10 20
r~ = d / D sq:t CD / (2 T;)

Fig. 8. Comparisondf analytical and FEM resultsfor internal pressureloading on flush nozzles with t/T = 0.2.
108 Eckart Wei@, Jiirgen Rudolph

80

60

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 sq;t T‘h 6 a IO 20
Q= d / D CD / (2
Fig. 9. Stress concentration factors for bending moment on flush nozzles (T/D = O-002).

comparison with the corresponding curves in Ref.
1 and the analytical solution (program
SHALLOW). This may be taken as a recommen-
dation for design. The application of the
analytical solution outside the usual limits of
validity for shallow spherical shells has been
verified by comparison with an analytical solution
for hollow spherical shells with cylindrical nozzles
under internal pressure and axial force.
High peak stresses can be expected for thin
nozzles and the ratio T/D becomes significant
when nozzle diameters becomes larger (Fig. 8).
In this case the seam as well as the inside nozzle
is highly stressed.
The effects of microstructural notches (weld
imperfections, microscopically small cracks, in-
homogeneities in the material) which cannot be
10
reflected by the FE model should be considered
by factors according to the international codes.
Of course, the method presented in the
framework of this article can similarly be applied
in the case of nozzles on cylindrical, conical or
torispherical shells. In these cases the modelling
has to be three dimensional which requires a
reasonable compromise between computer capa-
city and computing time on the one hand and the
number of analyses on the other hand. The
experiences gained for the nozzle-to-spherical
shell connection can be very useful in the
planning of the 3D analyses mentioned.
Thus, the problem of low cycle fatigue for
nozzle-to-vessel intersections under the func-
tional load pressure and supplementary loads can
be treated in a better way.

a
7
c \ IIT=0.2
6

5
‘
4

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 a 10 20
Q = d /D sqrt fD I(2 Tl)
Fig. 10. Stressconcentration factors for torsional moment on flush nozzles (T/D = O-002).
 Fatigue strength of node-to-spherical
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Society of Mechanical Engineers.
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Tolerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrielle, Paris, 1990.
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Local stressesin spherical and cylindrical shellsdue to
external loadings. Weld. Res. Count. Bull. No. 107,
(March 1979Revision).
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1994).
7. ANSYS User’s Manual for Revision 5.0, Volumes I-IV.
SwansonAnalysis Systems,Houston (1994).
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