materials
Article
Triboelectric Energy-Harvesting Floor Tile
Panu Thainiramit 1 , Subhawat Jayasvasti 2 , Phonexai Yingyong 1 , Songmoung Nandrakwang 1
and Don Isarakorn 1, *
Citation: Thainiramit, P.; Jayasvasti,
S.; Yingyong, P.; Nandrakwang, S.;
Isarakorn, D. Triboelectric
Energy-Harvesting Floor Tile.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma15248853
Academic Editor: Ting Tan
Received: 24 October 2022
Accepted: 1 December 2022
Published: 12 December 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 8853. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248853
1 Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, School of Engineering, King Mongkut’s Institute of
Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
2 Department of Industrial Education in Engineering Education, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology
Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
* Correspondence: don.is@kmitl.ac.th
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the real-world electrical parameters that strongly
affected the performance of a triboelectric energy-harvesting floor tile design: triboelectric material
thickness, cover plate displacement distance or gap width, and cover plate pressing frequency, so
that real-world specifications of the harvesting floor tile can be accurately specified. The structure of
the designed triboelectric energy harvester, with readily available polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
film and aluminum foil, was simple and hence easy to fabricate, and the material cost was low.
A square wave was used to simulate the pressing frequency on the test bench’s cover plate. The
results showed that the voltage and current were proportional to the gap width, and the thinner
the triboelectric layer thickness, the higher the output voltage and current. A test bench with a
0.2 mm thick PTFE triboelectric layer generated the highest energy output. In a later experiment, a
triboelectric energy-harvesting floor tile (TEHFT) prototype was constructed with 0.1 and 0.2 mm
thick PTFE layers. We found that at 2 Hz stepping frequency and 0.1 mm PTFE thickness, the optimal
load and cumulative energy of the TEHFT were 0.8 MΩ and 3.81 mJ, respectively, while with 0.2 mm
PTFE thickness, these two parameters were 1.1 MΩ and 7.69 mJ, respectively. The TEHFT with
0.2 mm thick PTFE layer was able to illuminate a series of 100 to 150 LEDs, sufficient power to drive
small electronics and sensor nodes. This discovery provides important data on the structure, material,
and contact surface area of a TEHFT that can be adjusted to suit specific requirements of a special
function triboelectric energy harvester.
Keywords: triboelectric energy harvesting; triboelectric material thickness; energy harvesting floor
tile; impact force; human footsteps
1. Introduction
Kinetic energy from the ambient environment can be an energy source that provides
high-power density to power small electronic devices as a substitute to a battery, economiz-
ing energy usage and reducing heavy-metal pollution. Human footsteps are an important
and sustainable energy source to investigate because of the high-power density of the ever-
growing population and places to walk along. The favored methods for converting impact
force from footsteps to electrical energy were piezoelectric [1], electromagnetic [2], and
triboelectric [3], installed in the insole of shoes and fabricated floor tile [4,5]. As previously
shown in [6,7], a piezoelectric test bench and a piezoelectric energy harvesting floor tile for
real-world application were constructed. Panthongsy et al. [8] developed a test bench for
harvesting energy from a mechanical vibration source, using a piezoelectric cantilever to
convert mechanical vibration energy into electrical energy. The test bench was based on fre-
quency up-conversion for high performance, which was then constructed into a prototype of
energy harvesting floor tile. Later, Yingyong et al. [9] investigated the electrical performance
of an energy-harvesting floor tile based on double-stage frequency up-conversion under
a laboratory test and a field test. The human walking parameters were investigated for
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 2 of 16

the field test, including the pedestrian weight, human pace (walking and running), and
pedestrian density. The results showed that the impact force from human weight and the
pedestrian density did not affect the electrical output so much, but the impact force from
human walking and running influenced the electrical energy of this harvester significantly.
Regardless, all investigations showed that the harvester prototype was able to provide
sufficient energy for real-world application. However, even though the piezoelectric energy
harvester could generate high output energy, the electrical output density per the cost of
energy harvesting material was a little high for commercial application. Therefore, other
harvesting methods with cheaper material and good power performance were considered.
Triboelectric energy harvester was conceptualized because it has a simple structure hence
easy to fabricate, and the cost of material is low. A triboelectric energy harvester converts ki-
netic energy to electrical energy by contacting or sliding two different triboelectric materials
against each other. The conversion is based on two mechanisms: contact electrification and
electrostatic induction. Triboelectric energy harvester (TEH) is classified into four modes:
vertical contact-separation (CS), lateral-sliding (LS), single-electrode (SE), and freestanding
triboelectric-layer (FT) [10–12]. Of the four modes, vertical contact-separation was the most
interesting and appropriate to investigate as a waste energy harvester from human motion
such as human footsteps. A research work [13] investigated a piezoelectric and a triboelec-
tric energy harvester by constructing test benches. The cover plate of each was repeatedly
pressed and released to activate. Then, the power density and energy density of those two
different test benches were compared. The results showed that piezoelectric energy harvester
(PEH) test bench was able to generate higher output power density and energy density than
triboelectric energy harvester (TEH) test bench, but the cost of the piezoelectric material was
way higher than that of the triboelectric material. TEH has gained much attention in many
applications and is an increasing trend for publication [14–17]. Niu and Wang [18] summa-
rized the basic theory of triboelectric energy harvester, including the working principle of
triboelectric energy harvester, the relationship equation between three parameters: output
voltage, transfer charge, and mechanical displacement. Several parameters influenced the
electrical performance of TEH, e.g., the air gap between two different triboelectric materials,
the material properties, and the environmental condition. Zhang et al. [19] investigated the
influence of applied force and dielectric thickness on the output performance of a TEH,
and they fabricated a dielectric-to-dielectric contact-separation mode triboelectric energy
harvester) to harvest energy from impact force. The results showed that the thickness of
the triboelectric Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sheet affected the electrical output of the
TEH significantly; an optimal PTFE layer thickness was able to generate high output signal
and transferred charge. Gomes et al. [20] investigated the effect of triboelectric material
thickness and contact surface area on the performance of a TEH. The results showed that
the output voltage decreased when the dielectric thickness increased, but the output current
increased. When calculated for output power, it would reach the maximum power at an
optimal thickness. The basic theory and several papers mentioned above did not conclude
about the effective thickness; therefore, we could not choose a proper thickness of dielectric
material for fabricating a high performance TEHFT for this study. Hence, this work aimed
to investigate the effect of PTFE thickness on the electrical performance of a TEH test bench
(TEHTB). Moreover, in the TEHTB fabrication, the gap between the cover plate and the base
was designed not to be too far apart for people to step on comfortably. Even though the
farther the gap width, the higher the cover plate acceleration and the higher the output
voltage, if the gap width was too wide for comfortable stepping, it would not be practical.
In addition, we aimed to investigate another important parameter for practical energy
harvesting from human footsteps: human stepping frequency. Several other studies have
investigated the pressing frequency of an external force (e.g., footstep) on the cover plate of
a TEH test bench. However, the experimental results varied; some studies found that the
pressing frequency affected the amplitude of the TEH test bench’s electrical signal signif-
icantly, while others did not. For example, Oh et al. [21] developed a porous non-woven
thermoplastic polyurethane/polypropylene triboelectric nanogenerator to harvest human
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 3 of 16

walking energy. The triboelectric nanogenerator was fabricated in the insole of footwear.
It operated in contact-separation mode. The results from applying a fixed external force
with varying frequencies (from 0.5 to 8 Hz) showed that the open-circuit voltage and short
circuit current tended to increase with increasing pressing frequency, which corresponded
well with the results of a study by Xia et al. [22]. As another example, Saadatnia et al. [23]
developed a contact-separation TEHTB with porous polyimide aerogel film as a triboelectric
material. The effect of excitation frequency (from 5 to 8 Hz) on the open-circuit voltage
of the TEHTB was investigated. The results showed that the output voltage amplitudes
at any tested excitation frequencies were almost the same. Palaniappan et al. [24] investi-
gated triboelectric nanogenerators using the contact-separation mode, using two different
triboelectric materials. The negative triboelectric layer was Kapton, while the positive
triboelectric layer was Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). They investigated its electrical charac-
teristics and applied an external force at the frequency from 5 Hz to 40 Hz; the generated
open circuit voltage was stable at 4 VP-P . Most research works mentioned above investigated
high pressing frequency, contact-separation mode TEH, but the normal human walking
frequency was about 2 Hz [25,26]. Walking frequency over an area varies with pedestrian
density and demography. Stepping frequency on a floor tile might vary, and it would affect
the electrical output of the TEHFT significantly. Therefore, to construct a high-performance
TEHFT that truly suited to human footsteps, it is necessary to obtain more information on
the electrical behavior of the TEHTB. This work aimed to investigate the effect of triboelectric
material thickness and contact displacement (gap width) on the electrical characteristics
of a TEHTB. The triboelectric materials that were used followed the trend of triboelectric
series [11]. In the triboelectric series, there are lists of two different materials’ properties:
positively charged material and negatively charged material. The longer the separation
in the list between two triboelectric materials in a triboelectric series, the greater surface
charge density during the contact electrification process. Negatively charged substances,
such as PTFE, PDMS, and fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), were commonly employed.
Other materials, including Kapton, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and silicone, were also
exploited, but their lower charge affinities make them less commonly used than those listed
above. Zhang et al. [27] summarized the triboelectric material choices from 100 random
articles. PTFE was used as a triboelectric layer for about 34% with 14 different electron
acceptor materials. Aluminum (Al) was used as a positive triboelectric layer and electrode
for about 26% with 20 different electron donor materials. Due to the trend and common use
of triboelectric material in several research studies, PTFE film and Al were the choices for the
dielectric-to-conductor TEHTB in this work. In addition, we also investigated the influence
of excitation frequency on the electrical output of the TEHTB since this parameter was
crucial for predicting the cumulative energy created by a TEHFT in practical applications. In
addition, when the appropriate thickness of triboelectric material in the TEHTB was known,
it was used for the fabrication of the TEHFT prototype. The electrical characteristics and
practical application of TEHFT were also investigated. We believe that the outcomes of this
study will benefit actual applications and provide more crucial information for the future
development of high-performance TEHFTs.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 describes the verification of a
TEHTB mechanism’s design feasibility, including the prototype of the TEHTB, verification
method, and results; Section 3 presents an evaluation of the TEHFT prototype, including
its structural components and electrical characteristics, with a proper triboelectric material
thickness, and discussion of the practical application of the TEHFT prototype; lastly, a
summarization of the study is presented in Section 4.

2. Performance Evaluation of TEHTB

2.1. TEHTB Structure and Working Principle
In this study, the triboelectric energy-harvester test bench (TEHTB) structure works
in contact-separation mode. A dielectric triboelectric material with copper foil electrode
backing is pushed into contact with aluminum foil, as shown in Figure 1.
 2. Performance Evaluation of TEHTB
2.1. TEHTB Structure and Working Principle
In this study, the triboelectric energy-harvester test bench (TEHTB) structure works
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 4 of 16
in contact-separation mode. A dielectric triboelectric material with copper foil electrode
backing is pushed into contact with aluminum foil, as shown in Figure 1.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.TEHTB
TEHTBstructure:
structure: (a) essentialcomponent:
(a) essential component:cover
cover plate,
plate, cover
cover guide,
guide, triboelectric
triboelectric material
material (PTFE
(PTFE film), Aluminum foil (top electrode), and copper foil (bottom electrode); and (b) photograph
film), Aluminum foil (top electrode), and copper foil (bottom electrode); and (b) photograph of TEHTB.
of TEHTB.
The test bench was designed to harvest energy from the impact force of an external energy
The test bench
source. There werewastwodesigned
main parts:to harvest
the coverenergy
plate from thebase.
and the impact Weforce of an external
experimented with
energy source. There were two main parts: the cover plate and the base.
aluminum foil (50 mm × 50 mm × 0.022 mm) as the top electrode, attached to the underside We experimented
with aluminum
of the foil and
cover plate, (50 mm × 50 mm (0.1,
8 thicknesses × 0.022
0.2,mm) as the
0.3, 0.4, 0.5,top
0.8 electrode,
and 1 mm)attached to the
of triboelectric
underside of the cover plate, and 8 thicknesses (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5,
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sheet, attached to a copper foil (50 mm × 50 mm × 0.05 mm)0.8 and 1 mm) of
triboelectric Polytetrafluoroethylene
electrode, both layers mounted on top (PTFE) sheet,
of the base attached
of the test tobench.
a copperThefoil (50 mm
cover plate×was50
mm × 0.05tomm)
attached electrode, both
the pneumatic layers
actuator mounted
with a nut andon bolt.
top ofThetheactuator
base of pushed
the test down
bench.on The
the
cover
coverplate
plate was
with attached
an intended to the pneumatic
impact force and actuator
pulled itwith a nutfrom
up away and the
bolt.
baseThebyactuator
the force
pushed down in
of the spring onthe
theactuator
cover plate
whenwith an deactivated.
it was intended impactIn theforce
TEHFT andprototype,
pulled it upthe away
return
from the base by the force of the spring in the actuator when it was deactivated.
springs were alongside the cover guides. Linear guides were used to restrict the movement In theof
TEHFT prototype,
the cover plate to the returnvertical
a strictly springsdirection.
were alongside cover guides.
When the aluminum foilLinear guides
electrode came were
into
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
used to restrict the with
contact-separation movement of the cover
the triboelectric plate voltage
material, to a strictly vertical
difference wasdirection.
generatedWhenacrossthe
the
aluminum
aluminumfoil foilelectrode
electrode came
and theinto contact-separation
triboelectric PTFE layer, with
as the
showntriboelectric
in Figure material,
2. volt-
age difference was generated across the aluminum foil electrode and the triboelectric
PTFE layer, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure2.
Figure TEHTBworking
2.TEHTB workingoperation:
operation: (a)
(a)standstill
standstillstage:
stage:nonooutput
outputvoltage;
voltage;(b)
(b)pressing
pressingstage:
stage: force
force
direction
direction and
and cover
cover plate
plate displacement
displacement direction;
direction; (c)
(c) releasing
releasing stage; and (d) output voltage graph.

2.2. Experimental Method

This section presents an overview of the experimental setup of TEHTB. The setup
allowed for adjustable mechanical energy input and pressing frequency on the cover
plate. The details of the experiment and procedures are described as follows.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 5 of 16

2.2. Experimental Method

This section presents an overview of the experimental setup of TEHTB. The setup
allowed for adjustable mechanical energy input and pressing frequency on the cover plate.
The details of the experiment and procedures are described as follows.
The experiment was to apply mechanical input from a pneumatic actuator as an impact
force. A pneumatic actuator (CJPB6-15 from SMC Corporation) provided the pushing force
of 13.04 N at the operation pressure of 0.6 MPa controlled by regulator and the pulling force
of 1.42 N by its return spring. The accelerated movement of the cover plate was measured
with an accelerometer (EI-CALC). The pressing frequency of the pneumatic actuator was
controlled by a square wave signal from a function generator (GW INSTEK AFG-2225).
An oscilloscope (Micsig, model STO1104C) with a probe resistance of 1 MΩ measured the
electrical output at room temperature of 25 ◦ C and relative humidity of about 70% in the
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
laboratory, Thailand. A photo of the experiment setup for the TEHTB is shown in6Figure
of 17 3a,
while the schematic of the experiment setup is illustrated in Figure 3b.

(a)

(b) (c)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a)
(a) The
The experiment
experimentsetup
setupfor
forthe
theTEHTB;
TEHTB;(b)(b)
thethe
schematic of the
schematic experimental
of the setup;
experimental and and
setup;
(c) the schematic diagram of the measurement technique.
(c) the schematic diagram of the measurement technique.

On a
On a practical
practical measurement
measurementissue,
issue,the
theTEHTB
TEHTB is is
a high-internal-resistance
a high-internal-resistance energy
energy
harvester, higher than the probe resistance of a typical oscilloscope. Therefore, a
harvester, higher than the probe resistance of a typical oscilloscope. Therefore, a conven- conven-
tional measurement
tional measurement technique
techniquecould
couldnot
notindicate
indicateitsits
maximum
maximum power transfer,
power so we
transfer, so used
we used
a voltage divider to measure the output voltage across the total external resistive
a voltage divider to measure the output voltage across the total external resistive load load and and
Equation (1). Instead of measuring the voltage across the TEHTB, the voltage across an
Equation (1). Instead of measuring the voltage across the TEHTB, the voltage across an
introduced, parallel-connected resistor divider was measured using an oscilloscope, as
introduced, parallel-connected resistor divider was measured using an oscilloscope, as
shown in Figure 3c. For more details about this technique, see reference [28]. The re-
shown in Figure 3c. For more details about this technique, see reference [28]. The resistance
sistance ratio between the resistor divider and probe resistance was 1:10 as recommended
ratio between the resistor divider and probe resistance was 1:10 as recommended in the
in the reference, and the resistor divider in this study was fixed at 0.1 MΩ. Figure 3c
reference, and the resistor divider in this study was fixed at 0.1 MΩ. Figure 3c showed the
showed the schematic diagram of the measurement technique for the high internal re-
schematic diagram of the measurement technique for the high internal resistance of the
sistance of the TEHTB, where 𝑉 was the source voltage; 𝑅 was the internal resistive
load of the TEH; 𝑅 was the variable resistive load; 𝑅 was the voltage divider resis-
tive load; 𝑅 was the probe resistance of the measuring device; 𝑉 was the actual
voltage measured by the oscilloscope; and 𝑉 represented the theoretical voltage pro-
duced by the TEHTB across the load resistor, 𝑅 , 𝑅 = 𝑅 (𝑅 //𝑅 ), where
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 6 of 16

TEHTB, where Vs was the source voltage; Rint was the internal resistive load of the TEH;
Rvar was the variable resistive load; Rdiv was the voltage divider resistive load; R prb was
the probe resistance of the measuring device; Vread was the actual voltage measured by the
oscilloscope; and VL represented
 the theoretical
 voltage produced by the TEHTB across the
load resistor, R L , R L = Rvar + Rdiv //R prb , where

Vread × R L
VL =   (1)
Rdiv / /R prb

The energy generated by the TEHTB was an essential electrical characteristic for evaluat-
ing its performance and application. Generally, the energy produced by the energy harvester
can be calculated by the voltage across the capacitor. One problem of energy evaluation by
charging a capacitive load is that leakage current will need to be monitored. Low leakage
current is especially important when the energy source delivers low currents that are not
significantly higher than the low leakage current itself. For this reason, we chose to use tran-
sient analysis to calculate the energy generated by the TEHTB. As indicated in the following
equation, the energy produced at the time t N could be determined using Equation (2) [29],
where time tn was the time at sub-step n; VL (tn ) was the voltage across the resistor at the
same sub-step at the time instant tn ; and ∆tn was the duration of each sub-step,

N VL2 (tn )
E(t N ) = ∑ n =0 RL
∆tn For N > 0. (2)

The procedural steps in the experiment were as follows:

(1) Twenty repeatedly measured voltages were obtained for the evaluation; current and
power were derived from the obtained voltage.
(2) Various thicknesses of the PTFE sheet inside the test bench were electrically tested;
the displacement (gap width) between the cover plate and the base was varied to be 2,
4, 6, 8, and 10 mm.
(3) The effect of pressing frequency on the electrical output of the TEHTB was examined
by varying the pressing frequency on the cover plate from 0.5 to 3 Hz.
(4) The electrical outputs of the TEHTB with different PTFE thicknesses were compared,
then two optimal thicknesses were selected for fabricating the TEHFT prototype.
It should be noted that all electrical parameters, i.e., voltage, current, and power are
the instantaneous values.

2.3. TEHTB Experimental Results and Discussion

Electrical properties of the TEHTB were investigated in comparing various thicknesses
of the triboelectric PTFE layer, and the optimal thicknesses for TEHFT prototype fabrication
were determined. The pneumatic pressure was kept constant while the displacements at
2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mm, were tested; the root mean square (RMS) acceleration of the cover
plate, at the moment of contact, was 0.41 g, 0.64 g, 0.7 g, 0.8 g, and 1.08 g, respectively when
the fixed external force was applied. These accelerated motion values were within the gait
acceleration (RMS) range reported by Satkunskiené et al. [30] and the gait acceleration
(peak) range reported by Morrow et al. [31]. A heavier person stepping on the TEHFT
prototype would result in greater acceleration than a lighter person, and a person running
would result in greater acceleration than walking [8].
As presented in Figure 4a, the open-circuit voltage of the TEHTB equipped with each
PTFE film thickness varied with the cover plate displacement (gap width) in full agreement
with the open-circuit voltage equation in the triboelectric theory given in [11–13]. The open-
circuit output values were compared (peak to peak voltage). A thinner PTFE layer created
a higher voltage than a thicker layer. Nevertheless, this experiment revealed that a PTFE
film thickness of 0.2 mm was able to develop the highest open-circuit voltage. The highest
voltage was 254.0 V at a displacement of 2 mm and climbed to 333.8 V at a displacement of
Materials 2022,
Materials 15, 15,
2022, 8853x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 717
of 16

10distance,
mm. Thethe highest
thinneroutput voltage
the PTFE when connected
triboelectric to ahigher
layer is, the load was achieved
the output by the
voltage is.0.1
Themm
TEHTB
thick PTFE,demonstrated
but it did notthat this conclusion
provide the highestwasopen-circuit
valid at a displacement
voltage. At 2distance of 2 mm
mm displacement,
and
the 4 mm, andvoltage
open-circuit so we configured
of TEHTBour withTEHFT prototype
a 0.1 mm accordingly.
thin PTFE The
sheet was peakV,voltage
231.8 whereas, of at
10amm
0.1 mm thin film elevated
displacement, from
it was 275.6 V. 44.86
With 1Vmmat 2PTFE
mm displacement
thickness, theto 59.73 V
TEHTB at 4 mm
created the dis-
lowest
placement.
voltage; it produced 96.0 V at 2 mm displacement and 197.0 V at 10 mm displacement.

350 120
Thickness = 0.1 mm
110
Thickness = 0.2 mm
300
100 Thickness = 0.3 mm
Thickness = 0.4 mm
Open Circuit Voltage (VP-P)

90
250 Thickness = 0.5 mm
80

Output Voltage (V)

Thickness = 0.8 mm
200 70 Thickness = 1 mm

60
150 Thickness = 0.1 mm 50
Thickness = 0.2 mm
Thickness = 0.3 mm
40
100
Thickness = 0.4 mm 30
Thickness = 0.5 mm
50 20
Thickness = 0.8 mm
Thickness = 1 mm 10
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(a) (b)
110 180
Thickness = 0.1 mm Thickness = 0.1 mm
100 Thickness = 0.2 mm 160 Thickness = 0.2 mm
90 Thickness = 0.3 mm Thickness = 0.3 mm
Thickness = 0.4 mm 140 Thickness = 0.4 mm
Cumulative Energy (μJ)

80 Thickness = 0.5 mm Thickness = 0.5 mm

Output Current (μA)

Thickness = 0.8 mm 120 Thickness = 0.8 mm

70
Thickness = 1 mm Thickness = 1 mm
60 100

50 80
40
60
30
40
20
10 20

0 0
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
(c) (d)
11
10 Thickness = 0.1 mm
9 Thickness = 0.2 mm
Thickness = 0.3 mm
8
Thickness = 0.4 mm
Peak Power (mW)

7 Thickness = 0.5 mm
6 Thickness = 0.8 mm
Thickness = 1 mm
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 4 6 8 10

Displacement (mm)
(e)
Figure4.4.Electrical
Figure Electricalcharacteristics
characteristics comparison
comparisonofofTEHTB
TEHTBwithwithvarious
variousPTFE sheet
PTFE thicknesses
sheet under
thicknesses under
different displacement (gap width) values: (a) peak-to-peak open-circuit voltage comparison; (b)
different displacement (gap width) values: (a) peak-to-peak open-circuit voltage comparison; (b) peak
peak voltage across an external resistive load of 1 MΩ; (c) peak currents through an external resistive
voltage across an external resistive load of 1 MΩ; (c) peak currents through an external resistive load of
1 MΩ; (d) cumulative energy comparison across a resistive load of 1 MΩ; and (e) peak power comparison.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 8 of 16

For the electrical output comparison of two parameters—PTFE film thickness and
displacement distance (gap width between the cover plate and base)—a resistive load
connected between the two electrodes was fixed at 1 MΩ. Electrical characteristics of the
TEHTB with PTFE films of different thicknesses were measured and compared. For mea-
suring the output voltage of TEHTB configured with different displacement distances (gap
widths), the resistive load was connected to the TEHTB. Figure 4b shows the relationships
between the output voltage, the cover plate displacement distance, and the triboelectric
material thickness. Seven different PTFE thicknesses were employed: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5,
0.8, and 1 mm. According to the triboelectric theory [32], for a fixed value of displacement
distance, the thinner the PTFE triboelectric layer is, the higher the output voltage is. The
TEHTB demonstrated that this conclusion was valid at a displacement distance of 2 mm
and 4 mm, and so we configured our TEHFT prototype accordingly. The peak voltage
of a 0.1 mm thin film elevated from 44.86 V at 2 mm displacement to 59.73 V at 4 mm
displacement.
The TEHTB with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer produced the maximum voltage at a
small cover plate displacement distance between 2 mm and 4 mm, but its output voltage
was lower than that of the TEHTB with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer at any displacement
distance greater than 4 mm. We concluded that a PTFE sheet thickness of 0.1 mm would
be suitable for energy harvesters that need small displacement distance. At 2 mm and
4 mm displacement distances, the TEHTB with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer yielded a lower
peak voltage than that with 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer. However, at 6 mm displacement
distance, the voltage increased dramatically from 44.42 V at 2 mm displacement to 105.88 V
at 10 mm displacement. Based on these test findings, a larger displacement distance can
result in a greater output voltage, and a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer is suitable for use in
energy harvesters with a displacement distance greater than 4 mm.
Output current through resistive load was another important electrical property to
consider. As illustrated in Figure 4c, the current through a resistive load is proportional to
the voltage. The trend of the current comparison graph was identical to that of the voltage
comparison graph. The TEHTB with a thinner PTFE sheet delivered a greater current
than the one with a thicker sheet at 2 mm and 4 mm displacement distances, providing
a maximum current at 40.78 µA and 54.30 µA, respectively. When the displacement was
more than 4 mm, the TEHTB with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer delivered a greater current
than any other thickness.
In addition to voltage and current, cumulative energy was an essential electrical
attribute for developing an energy harvester. Figure 4d shows a comparison between cumu-
lative energies delivered by TEHTB with various PTFE layer thicknesses. The cumulative
energy provided by the TEHTB decreased as the thickness of the PTFE film increased, and
the cumulative energy delivered by TEHTB with any PTFE thickness tended to increase
with increasing displacement distance. Figure 4e also shows a comparison between peak
powers calculated from the output voltages at a resistive load of 1 MΩ. Figure 4 shows
that for a short displacement distance between 2 mm to 4 mm, which was required for
our developed Triboelectric Energy Harvesting Floor Tile (TEHFT) prototype, the 0.1 mm
thick PTFE layer was optimal, while for a longer displacement distance 4 mm to 10 mm,
applicable to other mechanical configurations of a potential triboelectric harvester, a PTFE
layer of 0.2 mm would be more optimal. The TEHTB with a PTFE thickness of 0.2 mm and
0.1 mm provided high energy at any displacement distance. The TEHTB with 0.1 mm thick
PTFE layer generated 46.32 µJ of energy at a displacement distance of 2 mm, and elevated
to 95.43 µJ at 10 mm displacement distance. The TEHTB with a PTFE layer thickness of
0.2 mm at any displacement distance generated the highest cumulative energy, which
was what the TEHFT prototype was designed for, in addition to a high output voltage,
to power small electronic devices. The energy increased dramatically from 49.73 µJ at a
displacement distance of 2 mm to 158.85 µJ at a displacement distance of 10 mm; hence, if
the operational requirement allows a triboelectric energy harvester that can accommodate a
higher displacement distance of up to at least 10 mm between the triboelectric layer and the
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 9 of 16

positive electrode will certainly provide a higher cumulative energy. Regarding the TEHFT
prototype, it was constructed with both 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer because the
former provided the highest voltage output, and the latter provided the highest cumulative
energy. We wanted to check out which one was the most suitable as an energy harvesting
floor tile. An explanation of why 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer provided higher output voltage
and current but lower cumulative energy is illustrated in Figure 5. It should be noted that
the cumulative energy was calculated from Equation (2). The electrical characteristics of
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
our TEHTB followed the same trend as those of a triboelectric harvester introduced by
Gomes et al. [20], but the exact triboelectric layer thickness and displacement distance were
different. Similarly, the electrical characteristics of our TEHTB follow the same output volt-
age trend aslayer
triboelectric the energy harvester, with nylon-PTFE
in contact-separation triboelectric
mode, introduced layer in
by Zhang et contact-separation
al. [19], but ours
mode, introduced
provides by Zhang
higher output et al. [19], but ours provides higher output voltage.
voltage.

50 50
3.0 50 50 3.0
Voltage

45 45 Voltage 2.8 45
45

40
2.8
40
2.6 40
35 2.6
40 35 30
2.4

Voltage (V)
2.4 35 25
35 30
Voltage (V)

2.2

Cumulative Energy (μJ)

2.2
20
Cumulative Energy (μJ)
25

30 t = 2.3 ms 30 15

2.0
2.0
20
10
t = 3 ms
25
15

1.8
25 5
10% of Voltage
1.8
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)

10 0

20
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

20 5
10% of Voltage
1.6 Time (ms) 1.6
15
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 1.4 15 1.4
Time (ms)
10 1.2 10 1.2
1.0 5 1.0
5
0.8 0.8
0 0
0.6 0.6
–-5 Voltage –-5 Voltage 0.4
0.4
Cumulative Energy –-10 Cumulative Energy
–-10 0.2 0.2
–-15 0.0 –-15 0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5.Output
Outputvoltage
voltageand
andenergy
energycurve
curveofofTEHTB:
TEHTB:(a)
(a)0.1
0.1mm
mmthick
thickPTFE
PTFElayer;
layer;(b)
(b)0.2
0.2mm
mmthick
thick
PTFE layer.
PTFE layer.

Another
Anotherimportant
importantparameter
parameterfor forharvesting
harvestingenergy energyfrom fromhumanhumanfootsteps
footstepswas wastheir
their
pressing or stepping frequency. It could affect the amplitude
pressing or stepping frequency. It could affect the amplitude of the output voltage of the output voltage of the
of
TEHTB. We realized that the stepping behavior on a floor tile
the TEHTB. We realized that the stepping behavior on a floor tile was a stepping on and was a stepping on and step-
ping off action.
stepping Therefore,
off action. the effect
Therefore, of stepping
the effect of stepping frequency
frequencyon theon output voltage
the output was sim-
voltage was
ulated by using
simulated by usinga square
a square wave signal
wave to control
signal to control thethepressing
pressing frequency
frequencyononthe theTEHTB.
TEHTB.
Figure
Figure6a 6adisplayed
displayedthe open-circuit
the open-circuit voltage
voltage curve forfor
curve thethepressing
pressing frequency
frequency range of 0.5
range of
Hz
0.5toHz3 Hz;
to 3 the
Hz;voltage
the voltagewas steady
was steadyat allatpressing frequencies
all pressing frequenciesand followed
and followed the same pat-
the same
pattern
tern for displacement
for all all displacement distances,
distances, as can
as can be be seenseen
in in Figure
Figure 6b.6b.TheThe voltagewas
voltage wassteady,
steady,
andonly
and onlythethenumber
numberofofvoltage
voltagecycles
cyclesincreased
increasedproportionally
proportionallytotothe thepressing
pressingfrequency,
frequency,
causingcumulative
causing cumulativeenergy energytotoincrease
increase asasthe the pressing
pressing frequency
frequency varied.
varied. TheThe amplitude
amplitude of
of output
output voltage
voltage spikes
spikes of of
thethe TEHB
TEHB with
with differentPTFE
different PTFEthicknesses
thicknessesfollowedfollowedthe thesame
same
trendregardless
trend regardlessof ofpressing
pressingfrequency.
frequency.The Thefindings
findingsfrom fromthis thisinvestigation
investigationcorresponded
corresponded
with those of Zang et al. [19]; they applied a force at multiple
with those of Zang et al. [19]; they applied a force at multiple frequencies ranging frequencies rangingfrom from
0.5 to 3 Hz, and the output voltages were practically constant
0.5 to 3 Hz, and the output voltages were practically constant at all tested frequencies. at all tested frequencies.
Similarly, Palaniappan
Similarly, Palaniappan et et al.
al. [24]
[24] created
created aa TEHTEHutilizing
utilizingPDMSPDMSand andKapton
Kaptonasastriboelectric
triboelec-
materials.
tric materials.TheyTheyincreased
increased thethe
pressing
pressingfrequency
frequency on ontheir TEH
their TEHfrom from5 to5 40 HzHz
to 40 with 5 Hz
with 5
increments,
Hz increments, and thethe
and open-circuit
open-circuit voltage
voltage remained
remained steady
steady at at
4V 4V because
because the
thetotal
totalnumber
num-
of charges
ber of charges transferred
transferred between
betweenthe thetriboelectric
triboelectriclayerslayersat at any given time
any given time waswasconstant,
constant,
the open-circuit voltage remained consistent and stable as
the open-circuit voltage remained consistent and stable as the frequency increased. In con-the frequency increased. In
contrast, if the pressing frequency was simulated as a sine
trast, if the pressing frequency was simulated as a sine wave, the varying pressing fre- wave, the varying pressing
frequency
quency wouldwouldaffectaffect
thethe amplitude
amplitude of the
of the output
output voltage,
voltage, asas a studybybyYang
a study Yangetetal.al.[33]
[33]
demonstrated; they investigated the effect of the moving speed
demonstrated; they investigated the effect of the moving speed of the top electrode on the of the top electrode on
the output
output performance
performance of a triboelectric
of a triboelectric energy energy harvester
harvester of which of which the impact
the impact forcecon-
force was was
controlled by a continuous dynamic sinusoidal waveform
trolled by a continuous dynamic sinusoidal waveform from a Keyboard Life Tester (ZX- from a Keyboard Life Tester
A03), with varying frequency from 0.5 to 2.5 Hz, and the results showed that the output
voltage increased with increasing frequency. Another example that showed that the out-
put voltage was dependent on pressing frequency is a study by Tronco Jurado et al. [34];
they investigated the dielectric-to-conductor contact-separation TEH for harvesting en-
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 10 of 16

(ZX-A03), with varying frequency from 0.5 to 2.5 Hz, and the results showed that the
output voltage increased with increasing frequency. Another example that showed that the
output voltage was dependent on pressing frequency is a study by Tronco Jurado et al. [34];
they investigated the dielectric-to-conductor contact-separation TEH for harvesting energy
from the ocean wave impact, sine wave generated by a function generator was used to
control a mechanical shaker to simulate ocean wave impact with oscillating frequencies
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
ranging from 25 and 300 Hz, and found that the peak output voltage fluctuated from 5 V
to 20 V. This aspect shows that our energy harvesting floor tile is a good design for its
purpose because no matter how frequent it has been stepped on, the output voltage does
even though
not vary, anditso maythebe stepped
floor on provide
tile will infrequently. In conclusion,
sufficient voltage tothis study
power exploreddevice
electronic three
crucial factorsit (triboelectric
even though may be stepped material thickness, cover
on infrequently. plate displacement
In conclusion, distance,three
this study explored and
cover
crucialplate pressing
factors frequency)
(triboelectric for thickness,
material an energy cover
harvesting floor tile and distance,
plate displacement found that
andthe op-
cover
timal triboelectric
plate pressing materialfor
frequency) thickness
an energywasharvesting
0.1 and 0.2floor
mm tile
for aand
displacement
found that distance be-
the optimal
tween 2 to 4 mm, and cover plate pressing frequency presented no issue with
triboelectric material thickness was 0.1 and 0.2 mm for a displacement distance between 2 the output
voltage.
to 4 mm,A TEHFT
and cover prototype wasfrequency
plate pressing then constructed
presented with thesewith
no issue parameters in considera-
the output voltage. A
tion.
TEHFT prototype was then constructed with these parameters in consideration.

200 360
1 Hz 1.5 Hz 2 Hz 2.5 Hz 3 Hz
180 0.5 Hz 340
160 320
140 300
120
280
Open circuit voltage (V)

100
Open-Circuit Voltage (V)

80 260
60 240
40 220
20
0 40
–-20 30 Displacement = 2 mm
–-40 Displacement = 4 mm
–-60 20 Displacement = 6 mm
–-80 Displacement = 8 mm
10
–-100 Displacement = 10 mm
–-120 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time (s) Pressing Frequency (Hz)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 6.6. Effect
Effect of
of pressing
pressing frequency
frequency onon the
the open-circuit
open-circuit voltage
voltage of
of TEHTB
TEHTB with
with 0.2
0.2 mm
mm thick
thick PTFE
PTFE
layer:
layer: (a)
(a)the
theopen-circuit
open-circuitvoltage at at
voltage a displacement distance
a displacement of 2of
distance mm; (b) peak-to-peak
2 mm; voltage
(b) peak-to-peak com-
voltage
parison while varying displacement distances at different pressing frequencies.
comparison while varying displacement distances at different pressing frequencies.

3. Performance Evaluation of the Triboelectric Energy Harvesting

Triboelectric Energy Harvesting Floor
Floor Tile
Tile Prototype
Prototype
3.1. Triboelectric Energy Harvesting
Harvesting Floor
Floor Tile
Tile (TEHFT)
(TEHFT)
Figure 7 shows the structure of the TEHFT prototype constructed with an aluminum
cover plateand
cover plate andaabase.
base.TheThe dimensions
dimensions of the
of the cover
cover plate
plate and and the base
the base werewere
450 mm450×mm450
× 450 mm × 95 mm. The cover plate displacement was 5 mm to
mm × 95 mm. The cover plate displacement was 5 mm to get a high harvested cumulative get a high harvested
cumulative
energy energy
but still but still comfortable
comfortable enough to stepenoughon. to
Thestep on. The
contact contact
surface areasurface area
for the for the
triboelec-
triboelectric layer was 300 mm ×
tric layer was 300 mm × 300 mm, as large as could be fitted to the base area that also that
300 mm, as large as could be fitted to the base area had
also
to had to
house thehouse
springstheand
springs and
linear linear guides.
guides.
The top
The top triboelectric material and
triboelectric material and electrode
electrode (Aluminum
(Aluminum foil) foil) was
was attached
attached toto an
an
acrylic plate and mounted under the cover plate for easy fabrication and
acrylic plate and mounted under the cover plate for easy fabrication and replacement. The replacement. The
triboelectric PTFE
triboelectric PTFE film
film and
and bottom
bottom electrode
electrode (copper
(copper foil)
foil) were
were also
also attached
attached to to an
an acrylic
acrylic
plate and mounted on the base. The top and bottom electrodes had
plate and mounted on the base. The top and bottom electrodes had the same thickness the same thickness
(0.022 mm and
(0.022 mm and0.05
0.05mm,
mm,respectively)
respectively)asas those
those constructed
constructed in the
in the TEHTB.
TEHTB. Separating
Separating the
the cover plate from the floor tile base required four springs with a spring
cover plate from the floor tile base required four springs with a spring constant of 29.4 constant of
29.4 N/mm. When the surfaces of the two different triboelectric layers were pressed into
N/mm. When the surfaces of the two different triboelectric layers were pressed into per-
perfect contact, the TEHFT would operate at the highest performance. That was the reason
fect contact, the TEHFT would operate at the highest performance. That was the reason
for including the linear vertical guides in the design. Even though it was a prototype, the
for including the linear vertical guides in the design. Even though it was a prototype, the
floor tile design was already intended to be robust, withstanding a high-impact load when
humans stepped on it.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 11 of 16

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

floortile design was already intended to be robust, withstanding a high-impact load12when
of 17
humans stepped on it.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Structural components of TEHFT prototype: (a) cross-section; (b) photo.

3.2. Performance Evaluation Method and Experimental Setup

For performance evaluation, the mechanical input was an impact force from footsteps
of a 60-kg heavy human stepping on the floor tile’s cover plate. The output voltage was
measured using the same approach as described in the section on TEHTB. The experi-
mental setup is shown in Figure 8a, while a schematic of the experimental setup is de-
(a) (b)
picted in Figure 8b.
The
Figure
Figure 7. experimental
7. Structural
Structural procedure
components
components of is as follows.
of TEHFT
TEHFT prototype:
prototype: (a)
(a) cross-section;
cross-section; (b)
(b) photo.
photo.
(1) Measuring the output voltage of the TEHFT equipped with 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick
3.2. Performance
3.2. Performance Evaluation
Evaluation Method
Method and
and Experimental
Experimental Setup
Setup
PTFE layer.
(2) ForFor performance
performance
Connecting evaluation,
evaluation,
an optimal the mechanical
the
resistive mechanical input
load to the input
TEHFT was
was an measuring
an
and impact force
impact force from
from
the footsteps
footsteps
output volt-
of aa 60-kg
of 60-kg heavy
heavy human
human stepping
stepping on
on the
the floor
floor tile’s
tile’s cover
cover plate.
plate. The
The output
output
age, then deriving the accumulative energy at different stepping or pressing frequen- voltage
voltage was
was
measured
measured using
cies ofusing the
0.5, 1,the same
1.5,same approach
and 2approach
Hz. as described in the section on TEHTB. The experimental
as described in the section on TEHTB. The experi-
setupEvaluating
mental
(3) issetup
shown is in Figure
shown
the in 8a, while
Figure
real-world 8a,a while
schematic
performance of ofthe
theTEHFT
a schematic experimental
of thewith setup is setup
experimental depicted
light-emitting in
is de-
diodes
Figure
picted 8b.
in Figure
(LEDs). The8b.schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 8c.
The experimental procedure is as follows.
(1) Measuring the output voltage of the TEHFT equipped with 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick
PTFE layer.
(2) Connecting an optimal resistive load to the TEHFT and measuring the output volt-
age, then deriving the accumulative energy at different stepping or pressing frequen-
cies of 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 Hz.
(3) Evaluating the real-world performance of the TEHFT with light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). The schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 8c.

(a)

(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 8. Experiment setup for the TEHFT: (a) Laboratory measurement setup; (b) the schematic of
the experimental setup; and (c) schematic of the series LED load connected to the TEHFT.

(b)

(c)
 Figure 8. Experiment setup for the TEHFT: (a) Laboratory measurement setup; (b) the schematic of
the experimental setup; and (c) schematic of the series LED load connected to the TEHFT.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 12 of 16
3.3. Experimental Results and Discussion
3.3.1. Electrical Characteristics of TEHFT with 0.1 mm Thick PTFE Layer
A
The60 experimental
kg human stepped on the
procedure is TEHFT producing the cover plate’s RMS acceleration
as follows.
movement
(1) Measuring of 0.4 the
g. Twenty peak voltages
output voltage across aequipped
of the TEHFT resistive with
load 0.1
weremm measured
and 0.2 mmto calcu-
thick
late the peak current
PTFE layer. and power output. Figure 9a illustrates the TEHFT’s electrical char-
acteristics.
(2) Connecting Variableanresistive loads ranging
optimal resistive load tofrom 0.1 MΩ and
the TEHFT to 10measuring
MΩ were used to determine
the output voltage,
the optimal harvester load. The optimal load was determined to be
then deriving the accumulative energy at different stepping or pressing frequencies 0.8 MΩ with peak of
voltage,0.5,current, and2 power
1, 1.5, and Hz. of 79.28 V, 99.10 µA, and 7.86 mW, respectively.
(3) AEvaluating
60 kg subject thewalked and stepped
real-world on the of
performance TEHFT at four with
the TEHFT different stepping frequen-
light-emitting diodes
cies of(LEDs).
0.5, 1, 1.5,
Theand 2 Hz. The
schematic stepping
of the on andsetup
experimental off was performed
is shown for 148c.
in Figure s to fit all data
displayed on the oscilloscope screen. Table 1 listed the cumulative energies for those step-
3.3. Experimental
ping frequencies as Results
1.01, and
1.91,Discussion
2.89, and 3.81 mJ, respectively, and the energy per footstep
generated by the TEHFT with aof0.1
3.3.1. Electrical Characteristics TEHFT withPTFE
mm thick 0.1 mm Thick
layer wasPTFE
0.14 Layer
mJ/step. The accumu-
lated A energy
60 kgwas
humandirectly proportional
stepped to theproducing
on the TEHFT number ofthe times thatplate’s
cover the stepping frequency
RMS acceleration
increased.
movement Figure
of 0.4 g.9b showspeak
Twenty the voltages
voltage across
and cumulative curve
a resistive load at ameasured
were 2 Hz stepping fre-
to calculate
quency. The positive voltage was very stable, whereas the negative voltage
the peak current and power output. Figure 9a illustrates the TEHFT’s electrical characteris- was not as
stable because the stepping-off action was not as consistent as the
tics. Variable resistive loads ranging from 0.1 MΩ to 10 MΩ were used to determine thestepping-on action: the
quicker
optimalthe stepping-off
harvester action,
load. The the larger
optimal the output
load was voltage
determined to amplitude.
be 0.8 MΩ with Nevertheless, the
peak voltage,
peak-to-peak voltageofprovided
current, and power by the
79.28 V, 99.10 steps
µA, andwas7.86quite
mW,stable at 116.76 ± 1.31 V.
respectively.

260 180 9 90 4.0

240 80 3.8
160 8 70 3.6
220 3.4
60 3.2
200 140 7
50 3.0

Cumulative Energy (mJ)

Output Current (μA)

180 2.8
Output Power (mW)

40
Output Voltage (V)

120 6
Output Voltage (V)

160 30 2.6
2.4
140 100 5 20 2.2
120 10 2.0
Output voltage (V) 80 4 0 1.8
100 –-10 1.6
Output Current (μA) 60 1.4
80 3
Output Power (mW) –-20 1.2
60 40 2 –-30 1.0
–-40 0.8
40 0.6
20 1 –-50
20 0.4
–-60 0.2
0 0 0 –-70 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Resistance (MΩ)
Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure9.9.Electrical
Electricalcharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofTEHFT
TEHFTwith
withthe
the0.1
0.1mm
mmPTFE
PTFEfilm
filmthickness:
thickness:(a)
(a)output
outputvoltage,
voltage,
current,
current, and power across resistive loads; and (b) graph of output voltage and accumulatedenergy
and power across resistive loads; and (b) graph of output voltage and accumulated energy
across the optimal load.
across the optimal load.

3.3.2. A
Electrical Characteristics
60 kg subject walked and of TEHFT
stepped withon0.2
themm ThickatPTFE
TEHFT four Layer
different stepping fre-
quencies
Figure of 10a
0.5, shows
1, 1.5, and 2 Hz. Thecharacteristics
the electrical stepping on and offTEHFT
of the was performed for 14 sloads
across resistive to fit
all data
from 0.1 displayed
MΩ to 10 MΩ.on the oscilloscope
The optimal load screen. Table
for the TEHFT1 listed
wasthe1.1 cumulative
MΩ with peak energies for
voltage,
those stepping frequencies as 1.01, 1.91, 2.89, and 3.81
current, and power of 120.78 V, 109.80 µA, and 13.26 mW, respectively.mJ, respectively, and the energy per
footstep generated
An optimal by of
load the1.1
TEHFT
MΩ was withconnected
a 0.1 mm to thick
the PTFE layer was 0.14
two electrodes mJ/step.
of the TEHFT The for
accumulated
energy energy
generation was directly
calculation. proportional
As with the test intothe
theabove
number of times
section, thethat
floorthe stepping
tile’s cover
frequency
plate increased.
was stepped on Figure
at four 9b shows frequencies
different the voltage and cumulative
of 0.5, 1, 1.5, andcurve
2 Hz.atTable
a 2 Hz stepping
1 listed the
frequency.
total energyThe for positive voltage was
these frequencies very3.64,
as 1.87, stable, whereas
5.41, and 7.69 themJ,
negative voltageThe
respectively. wasenergy
not as
stable
per because
footstep the stepping-off
generated action was
by the TEHFT was 0.27not as consistent
mJ/step. Theas the stepping-on
accumulated energy action: the
was di-
quicker the stepping-off action, the larger the output voltage amplitude.
rectly proportional to the number of times that the stepping frequency increased. Figure Nevertheless, the
peak-to-peak voltage provided by the steps was quite stable at 116.76
10b displays the voltage and cumulative energy curve provided by 2 Hz stepping fre- ± 1.31 V.
quency, where the peak-to-peak voltage across all steps was higher than that produced
by the TEHFT with 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer, at 200.64 ± 2.66 V.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 13 of 16

Table 1. Output voltage, peak power, and cumulative energy across an optimal load for the TEHFT
with 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick PTFE film at different pressing frequencies.

0.1 mm Thickness 0.2 mm Thickness

Stepping
Frequency (Hz) Peak Power Peak Power
Voltage (VP-P ) Energy (J) Voltage (VP-P ) Energy (J)
(mW) (mW)
0.5 115.20 ± 2.65 7.36 ± 0.37 1.01 × 10−3 199.73 ± 4.10 14.42 ± 0.84 1.87 × 10−3
1 113.03 ± 1.07 6.96 ± 0.10 1.91 × 10−3 200.59 ± 2.76 14.08 ± 0.13 3.64 × 10−3
1.5 113.76 ± 1.24 7.19 ± 0.14 2.89 × 10−3 198.83 ± 2.03 13.90 ± 0.18 5.41 × 10−3
2 116.76 ± 1.31 7.03 ± 0.19 3.81 × 10−3 200.64 ± 2.66 13.96 ± 0.23 7.69 × 10−3

3.3.2. Electrical Characteristics of TEHFT with 0.2 mm Thick PTFE Layer

Figure 10a shows the electrical characteristics of the TEHFT across resistive loads from
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
0.1 MΩ to 10 MΩ. The optimal load for the TEHFT was 1.1 MΩ with peak voltage, current,
and power of 120.78 V, 109.80 µA, and 13.26 mW, respectively.

300 200 14 140 8.0

280 13 120 7.5
180 7.0
260 12 100
240 160 6.5
11 80
220 6.0

Cumulative Energy (mJ)

10
Output Current (μA)

140
Output Power (mW)

60
Output Voltage (V)

200 5.5
Output Voltage (V)

9 40 5.0
180 120
8 4.5
160 20
100 7 4.0
140 0
120 Output voltage (V) 80 6 3.5
Output Current (μA) 5 –-20 3.0
100
Output Power (mW) 60 4 –-40 2.5
80
60 40 3 –-60 2.0
40 2 1.5
20 –-80
20 1.0
1 –-100 0.5
0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 –-120 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Resistance (MΩ)
Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Electrical
Figure 10. Electrical characteristics
characteristicsof
ofTEHFT
TEHFTwith
withthe
the0.2
0.2mm
mm PTFE
PTFE film
film thickness:
thickness: (a)(a) output
output volt-
voltage,
age, current, and power across resistive loads; and (b) graph of output voltage and accumulated
current, and power across resistive loads; and (b) graph of output voltage and accumulated energy
energy across
across the the optimal
optimal load. load.

The TEHFT with

An optimal load aof0.1 1.1mmMΩ thick
wasPTFE layer had
connected a lower
to the optimal load
two electrodes of 0.8
of the MΩ than
TEHFT for
the 1.1 MΩ of the TEHFT with a 0.2 mm PTFE layer. This
energy generation calculation. As with the test in the above section, the floor tile’s result fully agreed with the
cover
findings
plate wasfrom Nui et
stepped onal. at[10],
fourwho also discovered
different frequenciesthat as the
of 0.5, effective
1, 1.5, and 2dielectric
Hz. Table thickness
1 listed
or
thecover plate gap
total energy forwidth
these increased,
frequenciesthe as optimal
1.87, 3.64, resistance
5.41, and increased. Nevertheless, The
7.69 mJ, respectively. the
optimal
energy per power in their
footstep study was
generated by the found
TEHFT to bewasconstant, while our
0.27 mJ/step. The finding was that
accumulated the
energy
optimal
was power
directly increased with
proportional to the increasing
number of triboelectric
times that layer thicknessfrequency
the stepping and increasing op-
increased.
timal
Figureload.
10b The TEHFT
displays thewith
voltagea 0.2and
mmcumulative
thick PTFEenergy layer produced a higher
curve provided byoutput voltage,
2 Hz stepping
current,
frequency, power,
whereand energy than the
the peak-to-peak one across
voltage with aall 0.1steps
mmwas thick PTFEthan
higher layer.
thatThe results
produced
matched
by the TEHFTthosewith
of the0.1 TEHTB
mm thick investigation.
PTFE layer,Both TEHFT
at 200.64 ± 2.66
withV. a 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick
PTFEThe layer offered
TEHFT with sufficiently
a 0.1 mm thickhigh PTFE
powerlayer and had
energy output
a lower for powering
optimal load of 0.8small
MΩ elec-
than
the 1.1devices
tronic MΩ of listed
the TEHFT in Table with2. Aa 0.2
fewmm PTFE layer.
footsteps wouldThis result fully
be needed agreedsufficient
to generate with the
findingstofrom
energy Nui an
supply et al.
MCU [10],+whoBLEalsoanddiscovered that as the
humidity sensor, effective
while other dielectric thickness
devices such as tem- or
cover plate gap width increased, the optimal resistance increased.
perature sensor, light sensor, and vibration sensor would require fewer steps. To observe Nevertheless, the optimal
power
energy in their study
generation was found
in action, to be constant,
light-emitting diodeswhile
(LEDs) our finding
were was that
connected the optimal
to TEHFT with
power
both PTFEincreased with increasing
film thicknesses of 0.1triboelectric
mm and 0.2 layer
mm,thickness
and the and increasing
number optimalLEDs
of connected load.
The
was TEHFT
varied. Thewithphotos
a 0.2 mm thick
of this PTFE
setup arelayer
shown produced
in Figure a higher
11. Foroutput
TEHFTvoltage,
with a current,
0.1 mm
power, and layer,
thick PTFE energythe than
peak thevoltage
one with a 0.1the
across mm thickwas
LEDs PTFE layer.211
around TheV,results
whichmatched those
was sufficient
of the TEHTB investigation. Both TEHFT with a 0.1
for lighting up 100 LEDs brightly, but they were dimmed when their number was mm and 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer
in-
offered sufficiently high power and energy output for powering
creased to 110 and 120 and could not illuminate 150 LEDs at all. For TEHFT with a 0.2 mm small electronic devices
listed PTFE
thick in Table 2. Athe
layer, few footstepswas
harvester wouldablebe toneeded
power up to generate
to 150 LEDs sufficient
at fullenergy to supply
brightness with
an output voltage of 344 V. Although the generated voltage of TEHFT was much higher
than the requirements of small electronic devices, the required current would need to be
 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 –-120 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Resistance (MΩ)
Time (s)
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Electrical characteristics of TEHFT with the 0.2 mm PTFE film thickness: (a) output volt-
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 age, current, and power across resistive loads; and (b) graph of output voltage and accumulated
14 of 16
energy across the optimal load.

The TEHFT with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer had a lower optimal load of 0.8 MΩ than
an MCU + BLE and humidity sensor, while other devices such as temperature sensor, light
the 1.1 MΩ of the TEHFT with a 0.2 mm PTFE layer. This result fully agreed with the
sensor, and vibration sensor would require fewer steps. To observe energy generation
findings from Nui et al. [10], who also discovered that as the effective dielectric thickness
in action, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were connected to TEHFT with both PTFE film
or cover plate gap width increased, the optimal resistance increased. Nevertheless, the
thicknesses of 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm, and the number of connected LEDs was varied. The
optimal power in their study was found to be constant, while our finding was that the
photos of this setup are shown in Figure 11. For TEHFT with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer,
optimal power increased with increasing triboelectric layer thickness and increasing op-
the peak voltage across the LEDs was around 211 V, which was sufficient for lighting up
timal load. The TEHFT with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer produced a higher output voltage,
100 LEDs brightly, but they were dimmed when their number was increased to 110 and 120
current, power, and energy than the one with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE layer. The results
and could not illuminate 150 LEDs at all. For TEHFT with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE layer, the
matched those of the TEHTB investigation. Both TEHFT with a 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick
harvester was able to power up to 150 LEDs at full brightness with an output voltage of
PTFE
344 V. layer offered
Although thesufficiently high power
generated voltage and energy
of TEHFT was muchoutput for than
higher powering small elec-
the requirements
tronic
of small electronic devices, the required current would need to be managed by sufficient
devices listed in Table 2. A few footsteps would be needed to generate a storage
energy
device. to supply an
Designing MCU +energy
a proper BLE and humidity sensor,
management system while
will beother devices
our future such as tem-
work.
perature sensor, light sensor, and vibration sensor would require fewer steps. To observe
energy
Table 2. generation
List of smallin action, light-emitting
electronic diodes
devices that could (LEDs)bywere
be powered connected
the energy to TEHFT
generated with
by TEHFT.
both PTFE film thicknesses of 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm, and the number of connected LEDs
Device was varied.
Rated The photos
Voltage (V) of this setupRated
are shown
Power in (W)Figure 11. For TEHFT with
Consumption a 0.1(J)mm
Energy
MCU + BLE [35] thick PTFE layer,
n/a the peak voltage across the LEDs
68 × 10 − 5 was around 211 V, which
6.8 × 10 sufficient
was
− 3

Humidity sensor [36] for lighting up 3.3100 LEDs brightly, but they
99 × 10were
− 5 dimmed when their79 ×number
10−5 was in-
Temperature sensor [36] creased to 1103.3 and 120 and could not illuminate −
26 × 10 150 LEDs at all. For TEHFT
6 10−9 a 0.2 mm
5.28 × with
− 6 10−9
Light sensor [36] thick PTFE layer,3.3 the harvester was able99 to×power
10 up to 150 LEDs at 19.8full ×brightness with
Vibration sensor [36] 3.3 1.98 × 10 −3 39.6 × 10 −6
an output voltage of 344 V. Although the generated voltage of TEHFT was much higher
than
Note: the requirements
n/a means of small electronic devices, the required current would need to be
not available.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. LED load connected to TEHFT: (a) TEHFT with 0.1 mm thick PTFE film; (b) TEHFT with
0.2 mm thick PTFE film.

4. Conclusions
This work investigated a contact-separation triboelectric energy harvester. A test
bench (TEHTB) and then a prototype TEHFT were designed, constructed, and evaluated.
The TEHTB was constructed to validate the design concept and to explore the dependency
on triboelectric material thickness, cover plate displacement distance, and cover plate
pressing frequency. Proper values of those parameters were then used to design the TEHFT
prototype. The excitation frequency of the external force did not affect the output voltage
amplitude. However, the cumulative energy increased proportionally with the excitation
frequency for TEHTB and TEHTFT. Thinner PTFE film in TEHTB generated more electricity
than thicker ones, and 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm thick film performed best in all displacement
distance tests, making them the ideal candidate thickness for TEHFT construction. A
TEHFT with both 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm PTFE film thicknesses generated sufficient output
power and energy for powering small electronic devices and sensor nodes in an automated
system. The TEHFT with a 0.2 mm thick PTFE film delivered greater voltage, current, and
cumulative energy than that with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE film. Only a few footsteps on the
TEHFT, at lower than 2 Hz stepping frequency, of one 60-kg heavy person were needed to
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 15 of 16

generate enough electricity to power 150 LEDs. The contribution of this work to the field of
triboelectric energy harvesting is the discovery of the actual parameter values of three most
important design parameters for constructing a triboelectric energy-harvesting floor tile
that would be applicable to any triboelectric energy harvesting devices.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.T. and D.I.; methodology, S.J., P.Y., S.N. and D.I.; investi-
gation, S.J. and D.I.; resources, S.J.; data curation, S.J. and D.I.; writing—original draft preparation,
S.J., P.T. and P.Y.; writing—review and editing, D.I.; visualization, S.J. and P.T.; supervision, D.I.;
project administration, S.N. and D.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Research
Fund [KREF146410].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest with any parties whatsoever.

References
1. Xie, L.; Cai, M. Increased Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting from Human Footstep Motion by Using an Amplification Mechanism.
Appl. Phys. Lett. 2014, 105, 143901. [CrossRef]
2. Veena, R.M.; Reddy, B.H.; Shyni, S.M. Maximum Energy Harvesting from Electromagnetic Micro Generators by Footsteps
Using Photo Sensor. In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy Information and
Commuincation (ICCPEIC), Bandung, Indonesia, 20–21 April 2016; IEEE: Chennai, India, 2016; pp. 757–761.
3. Yao, M.; Xie, G.; Gong, Q.; Su, Y. Walking Energy Harvesting and Self-Powered Tracking System Based on Triboelectric
Nanogenerators. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2020, 11, 1590–1595. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. He, C.; Zhu, W.; Chen, B.; Xu, L.; Jiang, T.; Han, C.B.; Gu, G.Q.; Li, D.; Wang, Z.L. Smart Floor with Integrated Triboelectric
Nanogenerator As Energy Harvester and Motion Sensor. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 26126–26133. [CrossRef]
5. Islam, E.; Abdullah, A.M.; Chowdhury, A.R.; Tasnim, F.; Martinez, M.; Olivares, C.; Lozano, K.; Uddin, M.J. Electromagnetic-
Triboelectric-Hybrid Energy Tile for Biomechanical Green Energy Harvesting. Nano Energy 2020, 77, 105250. [CrossRef]
6. Sharma, S.; Kiran, R.; Azad, P.; Vaish, R. A Review of Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting Tiles: Available Designs and Future
Perspective. Energy Convers. Manag. 2022, 254, 115272. [CrossRef]
7. Sharpes, N.; Vučković, D.; Priya, S. Floor Tile Energy Harvester for Self-Powered Wireless Occupancy Sensing. Energy Harvest.
Syst. 2016, 3, 43–60. [CrossRef]
8. Panthongsy, P.; Isarakorn, D.; Janphuang, P.; Hamamoto, K. Fabrication and Evaluation of Energy Harvesting Floor Using
Piezoelectric Frequency Up-Converting Mechanism. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2018, 279, 321–330. [CrossRef]
9. Yingyong, P.; Thainiramit, P.; Jayasvasti, S.; Thanach-Issarasak, N.; Isarakorn, D. Evaluation of Harvesting Energy from Pedestrians
Using Piezoelectric Floor Tile Energy Harvester. Sens. Actuators A Phys. 2021, 331, 113035. [CrossRef]
10. Niu, S.; Wang, S.; Lin, L.; Liu, Y.; Zhou, Y.S.; Hu, Y.; Wang, Z.L. Theoretical Study of Contact-Mode Triboelectric Nanogenerators
as an Effective Power Source. Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 6, 3576. [CrossRef]
11. Wang, Z.L. Triboelectric Nanogenerators as New Energy Technology for Self-Powered Systems and as Active Mechanical and
Chemical Sensors. ACS Nano 2013, 7, 9533–9557. [CrossRef]
12. Zhang, H.; Yao, L.; Quan, L.; Zheng, X. Theories for Triboelectric Nanogenerators: A Comprehensive Review. Nanotechnol. Rev.
2020, 9, 610–625. [CrossRef]
13. Thainiramit, P.; Yingyong, P.; Isarakorn, D. Impact-Driven Energy Harvesting: Piezoelectric Versus Triboelectric Energy Harvesters.
Sensors 2020, 20, 5828. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Charanya, S.; Chandrasekhar, A. Biomechanical Energy Harvesting Triboelectric Nanogenerator as a Self Powered Sensor. AIP
Conf. Proc. 2020, 2265, 030652.
15. Bukhari, M.U.; Riaz, K.; Tauqeer, T.; Sajid, M. Simple and Low Cost Triboelectric Nanogenerator (TENG) for Resource Limited
Environment. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation in Industry (ICRAI), Rawalpindi,
Pakistan, 21–22 October 2019; IEEE: Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 2019; pp. 1–4.
16. Pallares, R.M.; Su, X.; Lim, S.H.; Thanh, N.T.K. Fine-Tuning of Gold Nanorod Dimensions and Plasmonic Properties Using the
Hofmeister Effects. J. Mater. Chem. C 2016, 4, 53–61. [CrossRef]
17. Sukumaran, C.; Viswanathan, P.; Munirathinam, P.; Chandrasekhar, A. A Flexible and Wearable Joint Motion Sensor Using
Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Hand Gesture Monitoring. IJNT 2021, 18, 697. [CrossRef]
18. Niu, S.; Wang, Z.L. Theoretical Systems of Triboelectric Nanogenerators. Nano Energy 2015, 14, 161–192. [CrossRef]
19. Zhang, Z.; Sun, X.; Chen, Y.; Debeli, D.K.; Guo, J. Comprehensive Dependence of Triboelectric Nanogenerator on Dielectric
Thickness and External Impact for High Electric Outputs. J. Appl. Phys. 2018, 124, 045106. [CrossRef]
20. Gomes, A.; Rodrigues, C.; Pereira, A.M.; Ventura, J. Influence of Thickness and Contact Area on the Performance of PDMS-Based
Triboelectric Nanogenerators. arXiv 2018, arXiv:1803.10070.
Materials 2022, 15, 8853 16 of 16

21. Oh, H.J.; Bae, J.H.; Park, Y.K.; Song, J.; Kim, D.K.; Lee, W.; Kim, M.; Heo, K.J.; Kim, Y.; Kim, S.H.; et al. A Highly Porous
Nonwoven Thermoplastic Polyurethane/Polypropylene-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Energy Harvesting by Human
Walking. Polymers 2020, 12, 1044. [CrossRef]
22. Xia, K.; Wu, D.; Fu, J.; Hoque, N.A.; Ye, Y.; Xu, Z. A High-Output Triboelectric Nanogenerator Base on Nickel-Copper Bimetallic
Hydroxide Nanowrinkles for Self-Powered Wearable Electronics. J. Mater. Chem. A 2020, 8, 25995–26003. [CrossRef]
23. Saadatnia, Z.; Mosanenzadeh, S.G.; Esmailzadeh, E.; Naguib, H.E. A High Performance Triboelectric Nanogenerator Using
Porous Polyimide Aerogel Film. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 1370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Palaniappan, V.; Bazuin, B.J.; Atashbar, M.Z.; Masihi, S.; Zhang, X.; Emamian, S.; Bose, A.K.; Maddipatla, D.; Hajian, S.; Panahi,
M.; et al. A Flexible Triboelectric Nanogenerator Fabricated Using Laser-Assisted Patterning Process. In Proceedings of the 2019
IEEE SENSORS, Montreal, QC, Canada, 27–30 October 2019; IEEE: Montreal, QC, Canada, 2019; pp. 1–4.
25. Heinemann, P.; Kasperski, M. Damping Induced by Walking and Running. Procedia Eng. 2017, 199, 2826–2831. [CrossRef]
26. Song, S.; Geyer, H. Regulating Speed and Generating Large Speed Transitions in a Neuromuscular Human Walking Model. In
Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, St Paul, MN, USA, 14–18 May 2012; IEEE: St
Paul, MN, USA, 2012; pp. 511–516.
27. Zhang, R.; Olin, H. Material Choices for Triboelectric Nanogenerators: A Critical Review. EcoMat 2020, 2, e12062. [CrossRef]
28. Jayasvasti, S.; Thainiramit, P.; Yingyong, P.; Isarakorn, D. Technique for Measuring Power across High Resistive Load of
Triboelectric Energy Harvester. Micromachines 2021, 12, 766. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Janphuang, P.; Lockhart, R.A.; Isarakorn, D.; Henein, S.; Briand, D.; de Rooij, N.F. Harvesting Energy From a Rotating Gear
Using an AFM-Like MEMS Piezoelectric Frequency Up-Converting Energy Harvester. J. Microelectromech. Syst. 2015, 24, 742–754.
[CrossRef]
30. Satkunskienė, D.; Grigas, V.; Eidukynas, V.; Domeika, A. Acceleration Based Evaluation of the Human Walking and Running
Parameters. J. Vibroeng. 2009, 11, 506–510.
31. Morrow, M.M.B.; Hurd, W.J.; Fortune, E.; Lugade, V.; Kaufman, K.R. Accelerations of the Waist and Lower Extremities Over
a Range of Gait Velocities to Aid in Activity Monitor Selection for Field-Based Studies. J. Appl. Biomech. 2014, 30, 581–585.
[CrossRef]
32. Wang, Z.L.; Lin, L.; Chen, J.; Niu, S.; Zi, Y. Triboelectric Nanogenerators; Green Energy and Technology; Springer International
Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; ISBN 978-3-319-40038-9.
33. Yang, B.; Zeng, W.; Peng, Z.; Lui, S.-R.; Chen, K.; Tao, X. A Fully Verified Theoretical Analysis of Contact-Mode Triboelectric
Nanogenerators as a Wearable Power Source. Adv. Energy Mater. 2016, 6, 1600505. [CrossRef]
34. Tronco Jurado, U.; Pu, S.H.; White, N.M. Dielectric-Metal Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Ocean Wave Impact Self-Powered
Applications. IEEE Sens. J. 2019, 19, 6778–6785. [CrossRef]
35. Grosse-Puppendahl, T.; Hodges, S.; Chen, N.; Helmes, J.; Taylor, S.; Scott, J.; Fromm, J.; Sweeney, D. Exploring the Design
Space for Energy-Harvesting Situated Displays. In Proceedings of the 29th Annual Symposium on User Interface Software and
Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 16–19 October 2016; ACM: Tokyo Japan, 2016; pp. 41–48.
36. Mathúna, C.Ó.; O’Donnell, T.; Martinez-Catala, R.V.; Rohan, J.; O’Flynn, B. Energy Scavenging for Long-Term Deployable
Wireless Sensor Networks. Talanta 2008, 75, 613–623. [CrossRef]
Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction
prohibited without permission.