COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

NATURE OF POLITICS
According to Shively (1987), most scholars of politics accept that politics has two basic
characteristics:
1. It involves making common decisions for a group or groups of people; and
2. Some individuals in the group exercise power (ranging from influence to coercion)
among other members in order to make those decisions.
David Easton’s (1965) classic definition of politics as the authoritative allocation of values is
matched by the statement of Harold Lasswell (1936) on politics as that which concerns “who
gets what, when, and how in society.” in Easton’s definition, the term “values” does not refer to
ethic moral ideas, but rather to the benefits and\or opportunities which people value or desire.
Jackson’s (1998) definition of politics is a combination of Eastonian and Lasswellian
definitions: “politics embraces all activity which impinges upon the making of binding decisions
on who gets what, when and how.
Government
The word “government” is derived from the Latin gubernaculum, which means “rudder”
and gubernare, which means “to steer, direct, or control.”
From this etymological root, the term has evolved to mean “that institution or aggregate
of institutions by which an independent society makes and carries out those rules of action which
are necessary to enable them to live in a social state…” (Aruego and Torres, 1981).
Power
Power comes from the Latin word potere, which means “to be able.” It is defined as the
ability to cause others to do what one desires, using means ranging from influence to coercion
(Jackson and Jackson, 1998).
In the power continuum, the mildest exercise is seen in influence, while the strongest
takes the form of coercion.
Influence
Influence is the ability of one person or group to make others accept objectives or
behavior in a manner demonstrated or determined by that one person or group. It is a component
of all political interaction. It is a mild use of power because it does not employ force or coercion
and is free of threats and physical restraints. It is based on persuasion, and the choices that
people make as a result of influence are voluntary and based on personal motives (Dahl, 1970).
Coercion
 The concept is the opposite of influence. Where influence involves persuasion and
convincing, coercion involves control by force, where compliance is achieved through
punishments and threats (Jackson and Jackson, 1998).
While it is true that governments control the coercive agents in society, such as the armed
forces, police, prisons, and courts, there are still some states that resort to coercion in order to
implement policies that the people may not accept through persuasion.
Authority and Legitimacy
Authority enables governments to make decisions for their citizens without resorting to
coercion or the use of force. Authority by definition is the power of government to make binding
decisions and issue obligatory commands (Maclver, 1964).
Legitimacy denotes a general belief that the state’s powers to make and enforce rules are
just and proper. According to Max Weber (1947), there are three sources of authority:
1. Traditional authority, which is a type derived from customs and traditions;
2. Charismatic authority, which is based on popular admiration of the personal ‘heroic’
qualities of the individual in whom is vested, and;
3. Rational-legal or bureaucratic authority, which is a type vested in the offices held by
individuals and mechanisms which placed them there.
Legitimacy denotes the degree of subjective authority vested in the government by public
opinion. In this sense, it is not the same as “legality” which is a concept that relates to
constitutional or legal propriety.

Meaning of State, Nation and Sovereignty

State defined. “The state, as a concept of political science and constitutional law,” says
an American authority, “is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing an
organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.”
According to this definition, there are four requisites for state existence; namely, people,
territory, government and independence or sovereignty.
A state differs from a nation that the state is a legal or political concept, while the nation
is a racial or ethnical concept. According to Pradier-Fodere, a nation is “the union of a
society of inhabitants of the same country, speaking the same language, governed by the
same laws, connected by identity of origin, physical characteristics, and moral dispositions,
by community of interests and sentiments and by a fusion of existences acquired by the lapse
of centuries.” Burgess defines it as a population having a common language and literature, a
common tradition and history, common customs, and common consciousness of rights and
wrongs, inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity. In its perfect form, thus it appears that in
order that there can be nation, there must be a group of people having a common racial
origin, speaking the same language, having a common civilization, common customs and
traits of character, a common literature, and common traditions. All of these traits need not to
be present, however, in order that there can be a nation as it is conceived today. A society of
men is said to constitute a nation when they feel conscious of a common racial or cultural or
sentimental solidarity among themselves. “A nation,” as Renan says, “is, then, a great
solidarity constituted by the sentiment of the sacrifices that have been made, and by those
which the people are disposed to make. It supposes past; it is, however, summed in the
present by a tangible fact: the consent, the clearly expressed desire of continuing the common
life.” In brief, a nation exists where it component atoms believe it to be a nation. Thus,
notwithstanding the fact that the Filipinos do not have a common religion or a common
language, in reality there exists a Filipino nation.

State and nation Distinguished

First, a state is primarily a juristic or political concept; while a nation is primarily a racial
or ethnic one.
Second, there can be a nation without being a state; but where there is a state, there is at
least one nation.
Third, a state may be made up of one or more nations, as is the case with the United
States; and a nation may occupy two or more states, like the American Nation, the German
Nation, or the Jewish Nation. Where a state is composed of several nations, it is called a
“poly-national state”; where there is only one nation therein, it is called a “mono-national
state.”
Fourth, a state presupposes a government and a definite territory; while these are not
necessary to the existence of a nation.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is defined as the supreme and final legal authority of the state to enforce its
will on its members by coercive sanctions, if necessary, which must not be subject to any like
power. Coercive sanction presupposes legitimate force which is the very essence of the
state’s existence, or any political system for that matter. Legitimate force runs through the
action of the political system that gives it a special quality and importance.

Internal sovereignty
Internal sovereignty is the supreme or absolute power of a state to enforce its will on the
people within its territory. It implies therefore, that the government must possess adequate
powers to control and regulate the conduct and affairs of the people within the borders of the
state.
 External sovereignty
External sovereignty means independence of a state from control by any other state.
External sovereignty of a state should be recognized and respected by the nation-states,
otherwise this attribute would only be a misnomer or a figment of the imagination.

Characteristics of sovereignty. Sovereignty is absolute, comprehensive, permanent and

indivisible.
1. Absolute. The exercise by the state of it sovereign power is absolute in the sense that the
state is not subject to restrictions by any other power.
2. Comprehensive. The sovereignty of a nation-state is comprehensive for its supreme legal
authority extends to all- the citizens, aliens, associations, or organizations within its
boundaries.
3. Permanent. Sovereignty is perpetual in the sense that as long as the state exist,
sovereignty also exists. This is so because sovereignty is an inherit attribute of the state.
4. Indivisible. As a characteristic of sovereignty, indivisibility has caused misunderstanding
among political theories. Sovereignty should reside in an absolute authority.

Types of State Sovereignty. Sovereignty may also be classified as legal sovereignty,

political sovereignty, popular sovereignty, de facto sovereignty, and de jure sovereignty.
1. Legal sovereignty. Legal sovereignty is defined as supreme authority of the state
expressed by the law and the constitution.
2. Political sovereignty. Political sovereignty is the supreme will of the state expressed by
the electorate. Political sovereignty is also called electoral sovereignty in the sense that
this supreme authority of the state is exercised by the electorate in the choice of public
officers at least during election time.
3. Popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty is supreme authority of the state which resides
in the people. This authority means that the people are the ultimate source of power and
so they possess coercive power to control government through which they allow
themselves to be governed.
4. De facto sovereignty. This type of sovereignty, called de facto, is vested on a person or a
group of persons who have succeeded in displacing the legitimate sovereign.
5. De jure sovereignty. A state is de jure from the viewpoint of recognizing state. Its
sovereignty is de jure. The theory of de jure sovereignty is that the supreme legal
authority of the state is based on the supremacy of law.

ELEMENTS OF THE STATE

A state must possess certain elements, requisites or attributes. The majority viewpoint listed
4 while the minority opinion listed at least six.
 Majority School of Thought:
1. A group of people;
2. Definite territory;
3. Government;
4. Independence.
Minority view: In addition to the four enumerated by Majority, the Minority view insists
on two more:
5. Possession of a sufficient degree of civilization;
6. Recognition by the Family of Nations.

THE ELEMENTS OR ATTRIBUTES OF A STATE

1. People. They are human beings, male and female, who live together for a common end,
notwithstanding differences in race, color, religion, or culture. They must be sufficiently
numerous to assure continued existence as a collective body otherwise the ends of the
union may be frustrated.
2. Definite territory. The space on earth occupied by the State must be more or less fixed to
settle eventual disputes on jurisdiction.
3. Government. The machinery or the instrument by which the power in a State expresses its
will and exercises its functions; it is the framework of political institutions, departments,
and offices, by means of which the executive, judicial, legislative, and administrative
business of the state is carried on.
4. Independence. Freedom from external control in the conduct of one’s external and
internal affairs: thus, territory possessed and controlled by a State cannot be deemed a
State by itself.

The Minority viewpoint, as has already been intimated, adds two (2) more requisites herein
below discussed:
1. Possession of a Sufficient Degree of Civilization
According to this requisite, unless a so-called “State” has attained a degree of civilization
compatible with its expected duties in the international order, it cannot in the meantime be
considered a State. Statehood is then postulated on the ability of a territory to respect universally
accepted principles of international law.
2. Recognition by the Family of Nations
To be a member of a small social group, an individual, no matter how presentable, has to be
accepted, or else he becomes an intruder. Thus, to be a member of the international community,
it is argued, a “State” must be “recognized” by the “Family of Nations.”
Inherent Powers of the State
1. Police Power- The power to enact and enforce the law for regulation of public order and
welfare. It considered the most pervasive, the least limitable, and the most demanding
power of the state.
2. Eminent Domain- The power to take private property for public use. Such property
however may be taken with just compensation.
3. Power of Taxation- The power to impose and collect revenues for the operation of the
government for the people. The purpose of taxation is to raise funds to support the
government and the services for the public. It is derived from the unavoidable obligation
of the government to protect the people and extend benefits. BIR is responsible of
collecting, assessing and imposing taxes to be used for public operations of the
government.

Basic Principles of Philippine Government

Guiding Principles and Policies in Government
Government power shall be exercised in accordance with the following basic principles
and policies:
1. The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides in the
people and all government authority emanates from them.
2. The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full respect for
human rights.
3. Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme over the military.
4. The State shall ensure the autonomy of local governments.
5. The territorial and political subdivisions of the Republic of the Philippines are the
provinces, cities, municipalities, and barangays. There shall be autonomous regions,
in accordance with the Constitution, in Muslim Mindanao and the Cordilleras as may
be provided by law.
6. The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable.
7. The right of the people and their organizations to effective and reasonable
participation at all levels of social, political, and economic decision-making shall not
be abridged. The state shall, by law, facilitate the establishment of adequate
consultation mechanisms.
8. The powers expressly vested in any branch of the Government shall not be exercised
by, nor delegated to, any other branch of the Government, except to the extent
authorized by the Constitution.
 Lesson 2
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Monarchy. Monarchy is a form of government where the ruler is a monarch who comes
from a royal family. His royal title may be king, queen, emperor, empress, tsar, tsarina, or
any royal title of a monarch ruling in the State. Monarchy is classified into absolute
monarchy and limited (or constitutional) monarchy.

Absolute Monarchy. In this type of monarchial government, the monarch

exercises absolute powers. He wields executive, legislative, and judicial powers. With
absolute and tremendous powers, he rules with an iron hand. He holds the throne by
hereditary right, and most especially according to King James I of England, 1603-1625,
by divine right, King James declared “that kings are not only God’s lieutenants on Earth,”
but they looked at by God as divine.

Limited Monarchy. In limited monarchy, the monarch is willing to part with some
of his powers and delegates them to some government agencies. For example, the
legislative power is exercised by the legislative body, the judicial power by the courts,
and the executive power by the king himself. Eh rules in accordance with law, especially
the constitution.
Limited monarchy, or enlightened monarchy, is rated the best form of
government. It worked most effectively because the monarch under constitutional rule
guaranteed the policies needed to maximize political, social, and economic stability were
implemented.

2. Dictatorship. Dictatorship is a form of government ruled by a person who comes from

military or civilian class. During the period of stress or emergency in the past, people
sometimes vested tremendous emergency powers in a military commander, to be
withdrawn after the emergency vanished. But the ambitious dictator with many
pretentions would insist that the emergency still existed. Consequently, he would have his
own way to remain in the office and maintain his powers. His power and control over
government became entrenched by a clique of fanatical followers.
The dictator usually proclaims himself as the champion and protector of the poor
people. Hitler proclaimed to the world that he was the champion of the “little men.”
Modern dictators call themselves their people’s messiah.
Dictatorship maybe totalitarian when the dictator controls everything – all the
means of communication, homes, schools, and churches, the nation’s economy and even
the people’s lives, their minds and souls. The modern dictator can exercise vast powers
 because he has at his command the most modern technological and psychological
weapons of controlling the people.

3. Totalitarianism. Relative to the above statement, it is imperative to know what

totalitarianism is about. Totalitarianism, according to some scholars of the mid-twentieth
century, is the most extreme type of dictatorship.
Totalitarianism maybe further understood by knowing its characteristics. These
are:
First, as a form of government the totalitarian dictatorship is built on an
ideological foundation. The government utilizes ideology to captivate the people’s belief
in and loyalty to the leader dictator. Ideology is an official doctrine which the people
believe in or adhere to, and which is covers all aspects of human life.
Second, totalitarianism is characterized by the totalitarian leader who wields
absolute powers. In the totalitarian regime there is a hierarchy of the elite led by the
leader dictator who is closely identified with his followers. To maintain power, he has to
cultivate the loyalty and obedience of the people. Totalitarian dictatorship is
differentiated from monarchy in that the King, although aloof from his subjects, need not
to cultivate the loyalty and obedience of his subjects, which are inherent in the ruler-
people relationship.
Third, totalitarian dictatorship use terrorism to control the people. Terrorism
trough coercion or intimidation is usually accompanied by brutality and violence brought
about by force, which is a monopoly of the totalitarian government. To maximize the
effectiveness of terror as means of mass control, the government also controls all means
of communication and propaganda. This can easily be done because the dictatorship has
at its disposal an arsenal of modern technological weapons to “brainwash” the minds of
the people and make them fanatical followers of the dictator. For instance, in the Soviet
Union which collapsed recently, especially during the Stalin’s reign of terror, there was
thorough penetration of the cultural, social, economic, religious and political life of the
people by the totalitarian regime.
Fourth, totalitarianism is also centralized control by the government of the
nation’s economy. No one can engage in business without the sanction totalitarian
leadership. Every business enterprise is regulated, coordinated and directly by the
existing regime. All decisions pertaining to economic policies are made by a clique or a
group of elite persons in the dictatorship, or more probably by the dictator himself,
usually for political ends.
This totalitarian control of the nation’s economy is in contrast with that of
government regulation in a free enterprise system. Although there are government
regulations for business, trade and industry, a person is free to undertake any legitimate
activity as a means of achieving economic security and wellbeing. He is free to lead a life
worthy of human decency and dignity.
Finally, totalitarian dictatorship is against non-conformists, those who do not
emerge themselves with the system. The masses are regimented to understand and
embrace the ideology.
4. Aristocracy. Aristocracy is defined from the Greek etymology, aristo which means best
and kratia or kratos, rule. In essence, therefore, aristocracy is a government by the “best”
members of the community. This implies that the aristocrats are presumably men of the
highest intelligence and integrity. They belong to the elite in the society. Their social
status, wealth and political power are inherited. These qualities correspond to that of
Plato’s philosophy – king Plato, in his republic, viewed the ideal state as governed by
wise and devoted rulers.

5. Oligarchy. Oligarchy is also a government by the wealthy few but they do not come
from the nobility like the aristocrats. The wealthy few in the government, or the
oligarchs, believe that the most important requisites to claim of power are wealth, good
social position, and education. If these requisites be made the basis for the exercise of
governmental powers, it is unlikely that oligarchy could serve the best interests of the
masses, since the tendency of the very wealthy few would be to use government to
protect and promote even more their wealth to the extent of resorting to brutality and
aggressiveness. That is why oligarchy is a despicable type of government. Aristotle called
this form of government the extreme oligarchy.
The oligarchs are the enemies of the poor. That is why the poor have reason to
rebel against an oligarchic government that tries to entrench itself in power. The oligarchs
have no qualms of charity for the poor. For they are in government to control it for their
own personal benefit. They use government to build economic empires for themselves
and their families. There are oligarchs in the democracy. Since they form the politico-
economic elite they manage to be the power holders of the body politic.
Oligarchy and Aristocracy are also authoritarian, just as monarchy and
dictatorship are, since there are no elections and no referendums in which the citizens
participate. In fact, the majority of the people do not participate in police making. They
have no chosen representatives. This is also true in plutocracies (rule by the rich). These
authoritarian governments do not allow people to organize political parties and interest
groups.

6. Democracy. Democracy is derived from the Greek term demos, which means people, and
kratia or kratos, rule. In other words, democracy means people’s rule, or in other words
of a great American President, “a government by the people, of the people and for the
people.” This is an ideal democracy which people everywhere are striving to attain.
Democratic government must be a living and working instrumentality to
institutionalize democracy ideals in order to make them more effective and more
meaningful. What we mean by this statement is that a government composed of public
officers so chosen or selected by people must act responsively in accordance with the will
 of people. In this way, a responsive society prevails in with the people follow government
as it does its best for them. A democratic government, therefore, is identified by two
essential features: (1) majority rule, which means that a majority of the citizens has the
mandate to choose the men and women who have the authority to govern and make
public policies, and (2) minority rights, which exists so long as the minority of citizens
openly attempt to win majority support for leaders and policies without loss of individual
rights just as these rights are enjoyed by the majority.
What are the means by which democracy is made to work? Some of them are: the
citizenry, suffrage, the electoral process, political parties, and interest or pressure groups.
a. The Citizen. The citizenry plays and important role in making democracy
effective. A militant and responsible citizenry is needed to prevent government
from committing abuses short of tyranny. Moreover, such a citizen can effectively
act as a lever to maintain the balance between power and authority of government
leaders.
b. Suffrage and the Electoral Process. Suffrage is a right conferred by law upon a
qualified group of citizens to choose their public officials and to participate in the
determination of proposed policies whenever these policies are submitted to them
for approval.
c. Political Parties. It has been said that political parties are intertwined with
democratic government. Many political scientists consider them as the driving
forces of democracy. Without them government becomes despotic in as much as
there is no oppositions to the abuse of government officials. The political party or
parties in the government will try to transform their platform into progressive
policies for the benefit of the nation and not of the few.
d. Interest and Pressure Groups. Interest and pressure groups are also effective
means of mobilizing government to function in accordance with the principle that
government exists for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people in
society. the basis of government, according to Jeremy Bentham, father of English
utilitarianism” is not contract but need and the satisfaction of human need is its
sole justification.”

7. A Unitary Government. A unitary government concentrates governmental powers in

one organ, the central or national government to which the constituent or local
government units owe their existence and from which they derive their powers and
functions. The following are the advantages:
1.Simple in structure;
2. There is no duplication of offices and services with those of the central and
national government, thus insuring greater economy in governmental
expenditures;
3. There is uniformity of laws and public policy and administration of government.
In other words, since the national government is the center of governmental
power, it is in the best position to determine the laws that should be adopted and
implemented uniformly throughout the land;
4. There is no conflict of jurisdiction between the national government and its local
government units, it sees to it that the local officials are a part of the whole
governmental machinery; and
5. It is easy to pinpoint responsibility for any misdeed or anomaly committed by
government officials, or for any inefficiency of government. It is not proper to
blame national officials for any irregularity committed by local officials.

Disadvantages:
1. Over-centralized administrative control over local affairs overburdens the central
government with numerous local problems, thus dissipating national energy to the
detriment of the whole nation;
2. In a unitary state, the national officials are responsible for determining policies to
regulate the conduct of local affairs. They may not be able to formulate effective
policies that are suitable to a certain locality because they lack adequate
knowledge of the local conditions prevailing in that area;
3. A unitary government restrains local initiative and interest in managing the affairs
of the local government. This is true in countries where there is less autonomy of
local governments. Local officials shall administer local affairs only within the
limits of certain power delegated to them by the national government. Even if
they want to undertake a project for the urgent needs of their community they
cannot do so unless approved by the central government.
4. A unitary government hastens the creation of a large centralized bureaucracy.
Centralized administration retards rather than generates national progress. Thus,
in a centralized bureaucracy there is much red tape in the solution of people’s
problems;
5. A unitary government is generally not suited to a large country with culturally
heterogeneous population. Local problems require appropriate measures for the
solution of these problems.

6. Federal Government. A federal government is one in which government powers

are divided between the central government and its local government units as
specified in the constitution of the state.
Advantages:
 1. Since governmental powers and functions are divided between the central or
federal government and its constituent units, each government is independent
in its sphere of jurisdiction within its scope of authority – the federal
government dealing with national and international matters, and the local
government, with problems that are local or regional in nature.
2. A federal government also provides uniformity when it is needed in terms of
federal laws, policies and administration, and allows wide diversity of local
policies to be determined and promulgated by local officers in their respective
localities.
3. Interest of the people in their local government is enhanced. With the
knowledge that officials enjoy local autonomy, the people will be more
cooperative with them in maintenance of peace and order, in the promotion of
health and sanitation and in the attainment of other desirable goals for the
common weal.
4. It relieves the national government of time-consuming efforts in solving local
problems.
5. Federalism provides great opportunities for local government to experiment
on new legislative and administrative methods of solving people’s problems.
Such an experiment if it becomes successful may be adopted by other local
governments.
Disadvantages:
1. In a federal government state structure and organization of the political
machinery is complex.
2. There is duplication of officers and personnel, and maintaining the operation
of the governmental system would cause a heavy financial burden to the
government.
3. Overlapping of functions may occur in many areas of government activity to
the consternation of both central and local governments. Moreover, whenever
governmental problems arise on the boundary line of authority as prescribed
by the constitution, both federal and local governments may be hesitant to act
on these problems causing unnecessary delay in solving them.
4. Lack of uniform legislation on many matters makes the problems of
administration more difficult.

7. Presidential System. Students of political systems should be familiar with the

presidential form of government as compared to the parliamentary system (also
known as cabinet government). In the presidential form of government, the
executive power is exercised by a single president elected by popular vote. He
holds office for a specific period of time as fixed by the constitution of the state.
He appoints the members of his Cabinet who are his alter egos and responsible to
him only. The Cabinet members serve at the pleasure and mercy of the President.
 An essential element of the presidential system is the separation of powers of the
executive, legislative and judicial branches which is made more effective by checks and
balances of the three branches. This is the form of government of the United States and
the Philippines. Governments of South American countries are patterned after the
American presidential type, but many of them are suffering from authoritarian rule.
Under this system the executive holds the executive power, the legislature makes the
laws, and judicial interprets the laws.

8. The Parliamentary System. Under this form of government, the executive power
belongs to the Prime Minister and his Cabinet. They are the leaders of the
majority party in the Parliament and they remain in office as long as they have the
confidence and support of the parliamentary majority. They participate in
parliamentary debates and defend their policies and bills, and see to it that they
are approved for the nation’s welfare and for their respective constituents, since
they are also elected as members of Parliament.
They are responsible to Parliament for their acts and decisions as members of the
cabinet. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet are removable by Parliament by means of
parliamentary censure on the members of the cabinet and a non-confidence vote against
the Prime Minister. In such a case, the Prime Minister and his Cabinet may resign en
masse, or the Prime Minister may dissolve Parliament and call for a general election.
However, dissolution may not take place at all as in the case of the British system
because the parties are disciplined – the majority party members in Parliament support
their leaders: The Prime Minister and the Cabinet. In turn, the Prime Minister and the
Cabinet lend their electoral support to the members during elections.
Most outstanding among other features of the parliamentary system are: (1)
collective ministerial responsibility; (2) fusion of executive and legislative powers; (3)
Cabinet responsibility to Parliament; (4) party discipline.