10

10
GRADE

Physical Sciences
CAPS

Physical Sciences 3-in-1

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Retha Louw & Debbie Watson

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Retha Louw, et al.

Grade 10 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 CAPS
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This Grade 10 Physical Sciences 3-in-1 study guide uses a methodical, step-by-step approach to simplify the theory, techniques
and basic concepts of a challenging subject. The format is designed to guide you through the essential principles to a point
where you can tackle more complex problems with confidence.

Key features:

• Comprehensive, explanatory notes and worked examples per topic

• Exercises and exam questions per topic

• Detailed answers with explanations and handy hints

The clear, concise notes and graded questions comply with the requirements of the CAPS curriculum and develop
a thorough understanding of each topic.
 10
GRADE

Physical Sciences
Retha Louw & Debbie Watson
CAPS

3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

1 Comprehensive Notes

2 Exercises and Exam Questions

3 Detailed Memos with Explanations

E-book
available

2013 publication | 2018 revised edition | ISBN: 978-1-920297-83-1 120221 | NOVUS

 CONTENTS NOVEMBER EXAM
November Exam..................................................................................................... i

(hours) Level Level Level Level

10%

10%
Weighting of questions
across cognitive levels
Detailed Contents per Term ................................................................................. ii

4
Skills Required for Physical Sciences ................................................................. iv

40%

35%
Physical Constants and Formulae (in the back of the book) ............................... xi

3
The Periodic Table of Elements (in the back of the book) .................................. xii

35%

40%
2
NOTES with QUESTIONS and ANSWERS:

15%

15%
Module 1: Matter and Materials ...................................................... 1.1 - 1.43

1
Questions ................................................................................................ Q1 - Q5

marks Duration
Answers ................................................................................................... A1 - A5

2
Module 2: Waves, Sound and Light ................................................ 2.1 - 2.16

paper
Total

150

150
Questions ................................................................................................ Q6 - Q9

per
Answers ................................................................................................... A6 - A9

Marks

75

40

35

60

20

70
Module 3: Chemical Change............................................................ 3.1 - 3.23
Questions .............................................................................................. Q9 - Q13

Electricity and Magnetism

Answers ............................................................................................... A10 - A16

Waves, Sound and Light

Matter and Materials

Chemical Systems
Chemical Change
Module 4: Electricity and Magnetism ............................................ 4.1 - 4.18

Mechanics
(Module 5)

(Module 2)

(Module 4)

(Module 3)

(Module 6)

(Module 1)
Content
Questions ............................................................................................ Q13 - Q17
Answers ............................................................................................... A16 - A21

Module 5: Mechanics ....................................................................... 5.1 - 5.28

Questions ............................................................................................ Q17 - Q22
Answers ............................................................................................... A21 - A28

Chemistry
Paper 1:

Paper 2:
Physics
Module 6: Chemical Systems ............................................................ 6.1 - 6.5
Paper

focus

focus
Questions ...................................................................................................... Q22
Answers ............................................................................................... A28 - A29

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2
2: WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT
NOTES

We come into contact with waves every day and most of the time we are
unaware of them and unable to see them. TRANSVERSE PULSES IN
There are different types of waves i.e. water waves, sound waves and different A STRING OR SPRING
types of electromagnetic waves, e.g. visible light.
A single disturbance in a medium causes a wave pulse. The particles of the
medium are disturbed and move relative to their resting positions. This results in
a wave pulse that propagates/moves through the medium.

PULSE AND AMPLITUDE

A pulse

 Let a slinky spring rest on a smooth surface such as a table. Attach one end
Waves are not only very useful, but they are also essential to our existence, e.g.:
of the spring to a fixed point and flick the other end quickly to one side and
 Water waves are well known, e.g. the waves on the sea or the then back again. Observe what happens.
ripples on the surface of a dam when a stone is dropped into it.
Water waves are mechanical waves and can be used as an
energy source. A heavy rope can
also be used for this
 Sound waves are produced, for example, by our vocal chords demonstration.
or different musical instruments (e.g. by plucking a guitar
string). Sound waves are also mechanical waves and they
enable us to hear different sounds.
 Your hand moved the first coil at the end of the spring to the side.
 Light waves enable us to observe objects and colours.
 The successive coils of the spring then move to the side, one after another,
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

 Microwaves are used in microwave ovens and cellphones. and the disturbance is propagated to the other end of the spring.
 This disturbance that moves through the spring is called a pulse.
 Radio waves are used in radios, TVs and in other appliances used for
communication.

Light waves, microwaves and radio waves are three of the seven types of A pulse is a single disturbance that is propagated
electromagnetic radiation (see p. 2.13). In this module we will investigate the from one point to another in a medium.
properties of waves, types of waves and the effects and applications of waves. A medium is the substance, e.g. a spring or rope,
through which the disturbance travels.
Propagate is the process by which a disturbance
travels (is transferred) through a medium.

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A transverse pulse In a transverse pulse the particles of the medium move 2
perpendicularly (z) to the direction of propagation of the pulse.

NOTES
Consider a particle of the medium (spring or rope) that is 4 cm from the reference OR
point at times t0, t1, t2 and t3. In a transverse pulse, the direction of disturbance is
perpendicular (z) to the direction of propagation of the pulse.
x = distance along the spring from a reference point (zero point)
y = position/perpendicular displacement of particles of the
medium from rest position
Amplitude and other terms
 
y (cm)

y (cm)
2 2 t1  The particles in the spring (or rope) vibrate from their rest positions to a
1 1
t0 maximum displacement and then back to the rest position.
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
x (cm) x (cm)  The maximum displacement of the particles is known as the amplitude.
At t0 : y = 0 cm At t1 : y = 1,5 cm (increasing)

  A pulse has only an amplitude and pulse length,

y (cm)

y (cm)
2 2
t2 t3 but no frequency, because it only occurs once.
1 1

0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
x (cm) x (cm)
At t2 : y = 2 cm At t3 : y = 1 cm (decreasing)
(maximum displacement)
displacement of a
particle of the medium
As the particles of the medium follow one another, the perpendicular amplitude
displacement of each particle at a specific time point is a little more/less than

y

y
that of the previous particle. This causes the wave motion along the spring. equilibrium position

wavelength Time (s)

 In the above demonstration, we see that the pulse travels forwards through
the spring, but that the coils move sideways.
 Energy is transferred to the particles in the spring from one point to another

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

by means of a disturbance (sideways flick).  Equilibrium position: Rest position of the medium when there is
 The particles in the spring (medium) do not move forward with the pulse, no disturbance.
but move perpendicularly (at right angles) to the direction of propagation of
the pulse.  Position (y) or displacement (
y) of particles of the medium: How far a
 Such a pulse is called a transverse pulse. particle has moved from its equilibrium position.

 Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium

Movement of

the medium
particles of

NB: The pulse travels through the spring (rest) position.

(medium), but the particles in the
spring only move up and down  Pulse length: The width of the pulse, i.e. the maximum distance from
relative to the equilibrium (rest) where the pulse starts at the equilibrium position, to where it ends.
Direction of pulse position - think of a 'Mexican wave'.

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2 SUPERPOSITION OF PULSES Superposition of waves is the addition of the
disturbances (amplitudes) of the two pulses
NOTES

Superposition that occupy the same space at the same time.

 If two pulses travel towards each other through the same medium (e.g. spring
or rope), they may meet each other at a given moment at the same point and
overlap precisely. Interference
 This combining or addition of pulses is called superposition. When two or more pulses (or waves) move through the same space at the
same time and they overlap, superposition occurs and the phenomenon of
 The pulses combine to:
interference can be observed.
 form a single pulse with a greater amplitude (if two pulses move along the
same side of the spring and meet). We distinguish between two different types of interference, i.e.:
 Constructive interference takes place when the two pulses amplify each
a+b other to result in a single pulse with a greater amplitude. An area of
b
a maximum disturbance is produced.
+

OR
a + a = 2a
 form a single pulse with a smaller amplitude (if two pulses move along
opposite sides of the spring and meet). a a
+

a
+
 Destructive interference takes place when the two pulses weaken/cancel
-b a + (-b) = a - b each other and results in a single pulse with a smaller amplitude or no pulse.
An area of minimum or no disturbance is produced.

 Once the pulses have overlapped and superposition has taken place,
they separate again into the original pulses and continue to move in their a
+
original directions. a a + (-a) = 0
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

(no disturbance)

a+b
b b +
a + a

superposition
direction of propagation direction of propagation

NB: Take the direction of the pulses into account

when adding amplitudes. For opposite
directions, take positive (+) plus negative (-).

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 A wave tank can be used to demonstrate 2
the formation and properties of pulses
equilibrium position direction of propagation of wave

NOTES
and waves.
destructive movement of particles
A single pulse is formed by dropping interference
a pebble into the water. The ripples
on the water are wave fronts that constructive  A wave consists of a regular succession of disturbances or pulses that
interference
form and they are seen as shadows originate at one point in a medium (spring) and are propagated through the
below the bottom of the tank. medium. During a wave motion, energy is transferred between the particles of
the medium from one point to another.
If two pulses are created from two sides and they overlap with each other,
the phenomenon of constructive and destructive interference of the pulses
can be observed. Regions of constructive interference appear as bright lines
A transverse wave is a succession of transverse pulses.
and regions of destructive interference appear as dark lines.

light  A series of transverse waves are generated when the spring is moved
sideways or up and down repeatedly. It then forms a wave train.
stone flat water tank  Other examples of transverse waves are:

The ripples on the surface of water

transparent bottom  Water waves are a succession of pulses. The
water particles move up and down
and the pulses ripple outwards, i.e.
z to the movement of the particles.

wave patterns on a white paper/screen

 Light waves

TRANSVERSE WAVES

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

TRANSVERSE WAVES IN A SPRING; OTHER EXAMPLES
 If a slinky spring is moved from the equilibrium position to the one side, then
to the other side and back again, one full vibration cycle is complete and one
transverse wave moves through the spring.
 Each particle in the spring oscillates (moves sideways or upwards and
downwards around its equilibrium position) as the wave is propagated through
the spring.
2.4
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AMPLITUDE, PERIOD,
WAVE SPEED
Wave terms; representation of a wave
 Wavelength (): The distance between two successive points that are
exactly in phase*, e.g. between two successive crests
OR between two successive troughs. Unit: metre (m).
 Frequency (ƒ): The number of cycles (complete waves) passing a fixed point
-1
per second. Unit: Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (s ).
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2  Period (T): The length of time (in seconds) that it takes for one complete
cycle (wave) to pass a fixed point. Unit: seconds (s).
Relationship between ƒ and T
NOTES

 Crest: The highest point on the wave. A full wave motion (cycle) is completed when the spring moves from the
equilibrium position to the one side, back through the equilibrium position to the
 Trough: The lowest point on the wave.
other side, and back again to the equilibrium position.

crest direction of propagation (
x) Also consider a swinging pendulum:

The number of cycles per second is the frequency (ƒ).
Displacement of particles

A B -1
Unit: Hz or s .
of the medium (
y)

1 wavelength displacement from

1 equilibrium position
amplitude The time to complete one cycle is the period (T).

y equilibrium position Unit: s.
Time (s)
OR
equilibrium position
1
C D

trough

1 1
frequency = OR period =
period frequency
In phase or out of phase*
1 1
ƒ = OR T =
T ƒ
Two or more points on a wave are in phase if they move at
the same instant at the same speed and in the same direction,
e.g. the points on two crests or two troughs are in phase. The relationship between frequency (ƒ), wavelength ()
and wave speed (v)
A B
In phase: A and B; C and D; P and Q; Wave speed = frequency × wavelength
R and S P Q

Out of phase: A and C OR A and D R S x

v = ƒ OR v =
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

t
B and C OR B and D
C D -1
P and R OR P and S, etc. Unit: m·s

Two waves are in phase when their crests and troughs and all of their in-phase Wave speed is the product of the
points are exactly aligned. If this is not the case then they are out of phase, e.g.: frequency and wavelength of a wave.

A C
B D
Waves A and B are in phase Waves C and D are out of phase
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NB: Velocity is a vector quantity with a certain magnitude and direction,
while speed only has magnitude (see Mechanics p. 5.10). For straight-
line wave motion, the distance travelled and the displacement of the
wave are equal; therefore the wave speed and wave velocity can be
calculated in the same way and both terms can be used here.
2.5
Calculations with the wave equation LONGITUDINAL WAVES 2

NOTES
Wave speed can be calculated in two ways:
LONGITUDINAL WAVES IN A SPRING
 speed (v) = distance covered
time taken  Take the same slinky spring and move the one end in a regular to-and-fro
x (backwards and forwards) movement while the other end is fixed. Clearer
v =
t observations can be made by attaching a piece of string to one coil.
 Suppose the distance of  is covered in time T  = wavelength piece of string fixed point
λ ⎛ λ 1⎞ T = period of the wave
âv = ⎜v = . ⎟
T ⎝ 1 T⎠
⎛1 ⎞
â v = ƒ ⎜ = ƒ⎟ Universal wave equation
⎝T ⎠  The string moves backwards and forwards around its original or rest/
equilibrium position and then comes to rest in that position again.
Example:
 The disturbance at the one end of the equilibrium
Indicate the ƒ, T,  and v for the accompanying wave: position
spring transfers energy to the particles of
2 waves move past a point in 1 s. the medium. In this process energy is
The distance between 2 troughs movement of particles
transferred between the particles. of the medium
is 1,5 m.
Time (s)  The particles of the medium vibrate
â ƒ = 2 Hz and  = 1,5 m 0
0,5 1
backwards and forwards around their rest/
1
âT = = 0,5 s 1,5 m equilibrium positions, parallel to the
ƒ direction of the disturbance. direction of propagation of wave

-1 λ 1,5 -1
v = ƒ = 2 × 1,5 = 3 m·s OR v = = = 3 m·s
T 0,5 In longitudinal waves the direction of the disturbance, i.e.
the direction in which the particles in the medium vibrate, is
Question 1: parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Calculate the speed of a wave if the wavelength is 3 m and the period
of the wave is 0,1 s.
Compressions and rarefactions

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

Answer:  = 3m
-1
v = ƒ = 10 % 3 = 30 m·s OR T = 0,1 s
 The coils of the spring vibrate around their rest positions and
Δx 3m -1 1 1
v = = = 30 m·s ⃠= = = 10 Hz therefore produce:
Δt 0,1 s T 0,1
 Compressions: Parts of the spring where the coils are pressed together.
Question 2:  Rarefactions: Parts of the spring where the coils are stretched out.
-1
Calculate the frequency of waves with a speed of 8 m·s and a compressions rarefactions
wavelength of 200 mm.
-1
Answer: v = 8 m·s
 = 200 mm
v 8 m ⋅ s-1
ƒ = = = 40 Hz = 0,2 m
λ 0,2 m 1 wavelength 1 wavelength

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2  This causes a wave motion along the spring (parallel to the direction of the
disturbance) which transfers energy from the one end to the other end of
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AMPLITUDE, PERIOD,
the spring. WAVE SPEED
NOTES

 More energy results in a greater displacement of the particles. At a certain Wave terms
time point, the displacement of the particles of the medium, from their rest
positions, can be determined and represented graphically.
Term Symbol Unit Description
Consider the following diagram that shows the horizontal displacement of a
single particle, every 0,1 s, during a longitudinal wave motion. rest position
The maximum amplitude
Rest positions of a particle of the medium: displacement of
metre particles of the B A
Amplitude A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 (m) medium from their
A equilibrium (rest)
position. C D

The distance between the centres of two

New positions of a particle of the medium: metre successive compressions or rarefactions (as for
Wavelength 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 (m) transverse waves this is the distance between
B two successive points which are in phase).

The number of compressions (or rarefactions)

Hertz
Frequency ƒ i.e. the number of waves passing a fixed point
(Hz)
in 1 second.

x : Displacement (m)

The time (in seconds) it takes for one complete

x4

x3
from rest position

x5

x2

wave to pass a fixed point.

x6

seconds
Period T 1 1

x7
x8
x9
x 10
x 11
x 12
x 13 (s) ƒ = and T =
Time (s)

x2
x3
x4
x5
x6 T ƒ
0,6 s

x8

1,2 s

x 12

rest position new position

x9

x 11

x 10

Wave speed (v)

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

e.g. at t = 0,3 s: The wave speed indicates the speed at which a rarefaction or compression
moves. The formula used for calculating the wave speed is the same as for
horizontal transverse waves:
displacement

x

rotated vertically
x
rest or equilibrium position of particle
x new position of particle v = ƒ OR v =
t
horizontal displacement

By vertically rotating the arrows (vectors) showing the displacement, a sine

wave pattern, as for transverse waves, is obtained.
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Example:  These vibrations are propagated through the surrounding medium, e.g. air, as
a series of compressions and rarefactions of the particles of the medium
2
Suppose two boys stand 500 m apart and one of them bangs two cymbals
(e.g. air molecules), i.e. as a longitudinal wave.

NOTES
together. The other boy records the time from the moment he sees the cymbals
being hit until he hears the sound. Assume this time is 1,5 seconds.  This results in changes in the pressure of the medium through which the
Therefore, the speed of the sound is: sound waves are propagated, e.g. of the air. Therefore, sound waves are
pressure waves.
Δx 500 -1 The speed of sound in air
v = = = 333,3 m·s -1
Δt 1,5 at ! 20ºC is ! 340 m·s .
NB: Air pressure is slightly higher in compressions and lower in rarefactions.

SOUND
Sound waves are longitudinal waves that are generated by the
To understand how it is possible to hear sound, it is first necessary to look at vibrations of the particles of a medium (a solid, liquid or air) and are
how sound is generated. Consider the following sounds and how they are propagated parallel to their vibrations. They cause a regular
generated: pressure change in the medium through which they are propagated.

 Hold your fingers lightly against your throat and make an 'aah' sound.
 Take tuning forks that are labelled with different frequencies in Hz and tap
them lightly against a table. A vuvuzela is a wind instrument and the
simplest form of a trumpet. It contains a tube
 Connect a loudspeaker to a 6 V alternating-current battery and pour small
(resonator) in which an enclosed air column
polystyrene balls into the cone. starts vibrating when the player blows into
 Take different sized vuvuzelas and blow them. the mouthpiece. This creates air pressure
waves that travel through the resonator.
 Take different flutes and blow them.

SOUND WAVES
Speed of sound
Generation and propagation
 Sound waves need a medium to travel through and they cannot be
 Sound waves are generated by vibrations in a medium, e.g.:
propagated through a vacuum.

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

 the human vocal cords
 a musical instrument itself, e.g. prongs of a tuning fork, guitar strings,  Sound travels the fastest through a solid medium, slower through liquids and
drums slowest through gases (the more closely the particles are packed, the better/
faster a sound wave is propagated).
 an enclosed air column, e.g. in wind instruments

Indigenous tribes have been using this for a long time by pressing
their ears to the ground to listen to the sound of approaching
herds of animals. The sound of hooves on the ground moves
faster through the solid earth surface than it does through the air.

Ear  The speed of sound waves increases as the temperature of the

Prongs of the tuning fork vibrate medium increases.
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2  The speed of sound waves is higher in a more elastic medium. PITCH, LOUDNESS, QUALITY (TONE)
 The speed of sound waves are calculated from the equation: v = ƒ .  Use a function generator to generate a variety of sounds with different
NOTES

frequencies and amplitudes, and connect it to an oscilloscope.

 Although sound waves are longitudinal waves, an oscilloscope can process
Reflection of sound waves
the information and each sound wave can be represented by a transverse
wave pattern. In this way, the different properties of the sound waves, such
 When a sound wave collides with an object, e.g. a wall, it is reflected.
as the frequency and amplitude of each, can be indicated.
 In a small room with several objects in it, various reflections of sound occur.
These reflections overlap with the original sound and are not heard.

 In a big hall with a lot of empty space, the reflected sound is sometimes
heard a bit later. This is known as an echo.
Oscilloscope with different sound waves

The reflection of sounds can be used to detect

objects. Bats use the reflection of sound to
determine the position of objects around them.
 If a transmitted sound wave hits an object and is reflected back to the
sound source, the distance between the sound source and the object can
be determined. See the question below:
 The distance between two wave crests indicates the wavelength of the wave,
and the number of waves per second indicates the frequency and thus the
pitch of the sound. The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
indicates the amplitude of the wave and thus the loudness of the sound.
Pitch

 The pitch of sound refers to how high or low a sound is, e.g. a female
soprano voice has a high pitch and a male baritone voice has a low pitch.
Question:
A learner would like to use the reflection of sound or echo to determine  The pitch is dependent on the frequency of the sound, i.e. the higher the
the distance that he is from a cliff. He hits a drum and at the same time frequency, the higher the sound/pitch.
starts a stopwatch. He quickly stops the stopwatch again when he hears
the echo of the drum. Assume that he hears the echo after
5 seconds. Calculate how far he is from the cliff. Take the speed of
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

-1
sound in air as 340 m·s .
Higher frequency and pitch Lower frequency and pitch
Answer:
Option 1: Work with the time to the cliff and back, i.e.
t = 5 s  The human ear hears sounds with frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

x = v
t = 340 × 5 = 1 700 m (20 kHz). Sound with frequencies higher than 20 kHz is known as ultrasound
The sound travels a distance of 1 700 m to the cliff and back. and can only be heard by some animals (see p. 2.10).
The distance to the cliff is therefore 1 700 + 2 = 850 m.
Option 2: Take the time to the cliff, i.e.
t = 2,5 s A vuvuzela produces a monotone (single tone) of a certain frequency,
e.g. 233 Hz. A flute consists of a tube with a few small holes. By

x = v
t = 340 × 2,5 = 850 m opening and closing the holes, the length of the air column changes and
sound with different frequencies (pitches) are produced.

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Loudness ULTRASOUND 2
 Ultrasound refers to sound with a frequency of 20 - 150 kHz and it falls

NOTES
 The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the sound. outside of the range of the human ear.
The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
 Ultrasound waves therefore have very high frequencies and very short
 The amplitude is an indication of the amount of energy that is transferred 1
wavelengths (from the relationship v = ƒ it follows that ƒ } , because the
by the wave and the pressure change caused by the vibrating particles in λ
the medium. speed of sound (v) through a particular medium remains constant).

In animals

Many animals such as dogs, dolphins and bats can hear sounds in the ultrasound
Softer sound Louder sound range that humans cannot hear.
 Bats send out ultrasound waves (high-frequency squeaking
Loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB). The human sounds), which are reflected by objects. Their big ears
ear experiences pain and is damaged by sounds of 120 dB catch the reflected sound and in this way they detect the
and higher. A vuvuzela can produce sounds up to 127 dB. position of objects.
 Dolphins use ultrasound in a similar way to bats. By sending out
 The loudness of a sound also depends on the sensitivity of the human ear to
certain frequencies. A high, shrill sound seems louder than a deep, lower higher frequency sounds, they can detect objects that are
sound of the same amplitude. further away.
0 10 100 1 000 10 000 100 000
 The sensitivity for sounds of certain frequencies also varies from person to Human
20 - 20 000 Hz
person and changes with an increase in age.
Elephant
5 - 12 000 Hz
Dog
Sound quality 50 - 45 000 Hz
Cat
 Two sounds may have the same pitch and amplitude and still sound different. 45 - 65 000 Hz
Mouse
1 000 - 100 000 Hz
 A tuning fork produces a sound of a single frequency

WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT

(the fundamental frequency) and therefore a single pitch, Bats
2 000 - 120 000 Hz
e.g. middle C. Therefore, it is a very monotonous sound. Beluga whale
1 000 - 120 000 Hz
 Most other musical instruments produce sounds consisting of Dolphin
a mixture of frequencies (the fundamental frequency and 75 - 150 000 Hz
overtones) and are therefore much richer and more interesting
to hear. These frequencies are related to each other.
General applications
 Sound that consists of a large number of unrelated, different frequencies is
a noise.
Ultrasound has very short wavelengths and can be reflected off very small objects.
This enables us to detect these small objects. (Waves with longer wavelengths will
simply move over small objects and will not be reflected.)
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2  Weak spots in metal objects, such as invisible cracks in the wings of aircraft,
can be detected in this way.
NOTES
 The thickness of metals or plastics can be determined in this way.
 Ultrasound is used to clean the delicate mechanisms of old-fashioned watches.
Medical applications
Ultrasound has various medical applications, i.e.:
 It does not damage the soft tissue of human organs and is sometimes
preferred to X-rays during medical examinations.
 When ultrasound is sent through the human body and it reaches the boundary
between two different mediums, e.g. muscle and fat or bone and muscle, part
of the wave is transmitted through the next medium and another part is
reflected. The reflected waves are detected and electronically combined to
form an image of the region (e.g. the organs).
 Ultrasound has many applications, e.g.:
 to take a sonar image of an unborn baby
 to determine the rate of blood flow to see if there are any blockages in veins
 to break kidney stones or gallstones down into smaller pieces
 by dentists to clean teeth
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT
Sonar of an unborn baby
Sonar is a technique that uses the propagation and
reflection of sound waves for the detection and studying
of objects that are, e.g., underwater or within the human
body and therefore cannot normally be seen.
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Did you know?
Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis and even tornadoes and
cyclones cause very loud infrasound, i.e. sound with frequencies lower than
20 Hz (! 0,001 - 20 Hz), which also fall outside the range of the human ear.
It seems that an animal's ability to hear infrasound enables it to detect
underground pressure waves when an earthquake or natural disaster is on its
way. Strange behaviour of animals before an earthquake has been noticed
and could be used as a warning system. Here follows an article about the
behaviour of animals before the 2004 tsunami hit Japan.
Wed Dec 29, 4:41 AM ET Science - Reuters
COLOMBO (Reuters) - Sri Lankan wildlife officials are stunned - the worst
tsunami in memory has killed around 22 000 people along the Indian Ocean
island's coast, but they cannot find any dead animals.
Giant waves washed floodwaters up to 2 miles inland at Yala National Park in
the ravaged southeast, Sri Lanka's biggest wildlife reserve and home to
hundreds of wild elephants and several leopards. "The strange thing is we
haven't recorded any dead animals," H.D. Ratnayake, deputy director of the
national Wildlife Department, told Reuters on Wednesday. "No elephants are
dead, not even a dead hare or rabbit," he added. "I think animals can sense
disaster. They have a sixth sense. They know when things are happening."
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) RADIATION
Previously we saw that energy can be transferred from one point to another in
a medium by means of transverse or longitudinal waves. Both of these types of
waves involve the disturbance of particles of the medium through which the
wave travels.
There are, however, also other types of radiation whereby energy is transferred
without requiring a medium. This type of radiation is known as electromagnetic
radiation. Radio waves, microwaves, visible light and X-rays are examples of
such electromagnetic radiation. They can all be transmitted through empty space.
Did you know?
The universe consists of planets, comets, giant gas and dust
clouds, galaxies and solar systems. These bodies radiate
electromagnetic waves with different wavelengths.
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