Measurements And Experimentation

S\'1.1.ABUS

11 ) /••1, n•,11i, 1rt1l ,r,1t 111 ,, 11111" 1tl1< 1 ,·,11111.,/ .\ I. 111111., 11·i1h , ·on,•(I 11111/10/, 111C i:1I<11 u/ ,t,, , 11,I of 1/111 ,11/,,l,11,1
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pnit1km, t'll L',lllir.:-1" ,111J ,c'fc'\\ g.1ugcl. Srmpk pendulum. t1111c pcnml. lrL·q111.:11q. graph ol knf lh / , , / onh.
,il,pc l'l the gr,1ph. FtirmuL1 / = 2rr , 'I l g (No dctl\ ,Ilion). Onl) :--11npk 11u1111.'.ncal problem,
------ --- - - --

(A) SYSTE~IS OF UNIT AND UNITS IN S.I. SYSTEM

i .. Nr-ED OF U"11T cnR 11,u= ~ C:::LfRl=fJll=I\IT (ii) The 1111111erical value which expn.:~sc),,,. how
many times the above selected unil 1s
Ph) ~ic~. like other branches or science requires
contained in the given quantity.
e\.perimental studies \\ hich im oh e measurements.
For the mea~urernent of a physical quantity. we Thus the magnitude of a physical quantity 1s
t:Lrn~1der a constant quantit) or same n,1tu1-c as a expressed as :
standard and then \\ e compare lhc gi\'cn quantity ~~al q1w11til)-:-= }1~,-,;;;,.;cal -::C,tu;j x (unit) J
\\ Hh the standard quantit) i.e. \vC find the number
<' , > t's (i) If the length of a piece of cloth
\\ hich e\.presses. hO\\ man) ti mes the standard
qu.mtit) t~ contained in the gi\en physical quantity. is IO metre. it means that the length is measured in
Thu~ the unit metre and this unit is contained IO times
in the length of the given piece of cloth.
J-leasurement is the process of comparison of (ii) If the mass of a given qualllity of sugar is
the gfren physical quantity with the known 5 kilogram, it means that the mass is measured in
standard quantity of the same nature. the unit kilogram and this unit is contained 5 times
in the given quantity of sugar.
The standard quantity used to measure and
express the gi\'en physical quantity is called the C, o , e <~f , i
unit. For quantities of different nature, we require Since a unit is lo be used universally, so it
different units. should have validity everywhere at all times. Hence
to measure a physical quantity, the unit chosen
1
Unit is the quantity of a constant magnitude should have the following properties :
. which is used to measure the magnitudes of
other quantities of the same nature. (i) The unit should be of convenient size.
(ii) It should be possible to define the unit withow
The result of measurement of a given physical any ambiguity,
quantity is expressed in terms of the following two (iii) The unit should be reproducible .
parameters :
(iv) The value of unit should not chanRe with
(i) The unit in which the quantity is being space and time. (i.e., it must always remain
measured, and same everywhere).
 The last three conditions (ii), (iii) and (iv) arc
essential for a unit to be accepted internationally.
Ki11ds of tmits
Units are of two kinds :
C.G.S. system (or Fn•nth S,Y'ih•rn) .
(i)
1
system, the unit of length i<i c.:cntimctrc'/ lh,,
mass is gram (g) and o/ time ir, <icc<ind r/nJ, 'if
(ii) F.P.S. system (or Rrifo;h syslcmJ . /
system, the unit or length i<i foot (ft), 0 ; ~ h1•,
1

(i) Fundamental or basic units, and

rn
pound (Jh) and of time b \ccond (<.,J, "\\i·,

(ii) Derived units. (iii) M.K.S. system (or metric system) . 1

• n iti·
(i) Fundamental or basic units system, the unit of length is metre (m), <>I . ,,,
rnd
· i<; second(<., "'
I ograrnme (k g) an d of tJJnc
·rs k'I
A fundamental (or basic) unit is that which is . t
independent of any other uni!] or which can The above mentioned systems arc now ll(J l
. . . . ~~
can be related to any 111 use and arc only of h1stoncal 1mpo1tancc f·
neither be changed nor . . • . • ()r the

other J11ndame11tal unit. sake of uniformity the sc1cnt1fic community h·

Examples : The units of mass, length, time, enlarged and modified version of the metric 1.y&1:~.n
temperature, current and amount of substance are
independent of each other as they are of different Systeme Internationale
nature. They cannot be obtained from the unit of
any other quantity. These are fundamental units.
(ii) Derived units
The units of quantities other than those measured
in fundamental units, can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental units and they are called derived units.
Thus
Derived units are those which depend on the
fundamental uni~ or which can be expressed
i11 terms of the fundamental units.
Examples : (i) For the measurement of area, we
need to measure length and breadth in the unit of
length and then express area in a unit which is
agreed to use the S.I. system or units which i ij\
d'Unites (or S.J. system;
In 1960, the General Conforcncc of Weights and
Measures recommended that in addition to the unit~
of length, mass and time, the units of temperature
luminous intensity, current and the amount of
substance also be taken as fundamental units and
the units of angle and solid angle as complementary
fundamental units. Thus in all, now there are seven
fundamental units and two complementary
fundamental units.
For S.I. system, the following table gives the
fundamental quantities, their units and their standard
symbols.
Fundamental quantities, units and
symbols in S.I. system v / t ,
/,;l'I" IJ
J

length x length or (length)2. Quantity Unit Symbol

(ii) Volume is expressed in a unit which is Length metre m
length x length x length or (1ength)3. Mass kilogram kg
(iii) The unit of speed of a moving body is Time second s
obtained by dividing the unit of distance (i.e., length) Temperature kelvin K
by the unit of time i.e., it can be expressed in tem1s Luminous intensity candela cd
of the units of length and time. Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol 1
Thus the units used to measure area, volume, i---------- ----- ------
speed, etc. are derived units. More examples of Angle ;,<. radian rd )C
~
derived units are given ahead in article 1.6. Solid angle steradian st-rd
1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNIT
* It is defilled as amount of substance that contaim as
In mechanics, length, mass and time are three many constitutive entities (i.e. electrons, pho1011s, ions,
fundamental quantities. For the units of these three atoms or molecules) as there flre atoms 111 /2 gm of
12
basic quantities, following systems have been used: carbon - 123 ( C). 1This munber Jias value of appro.rimattly
6·022 x 102 mole- a11d is known as Avogadro consta11t.
2
 /l
l 1~e of prefix with a u 1it Later, in 1960, the metre wa<, rc-ckfined a.,
For expressing large measurements, we use 1,650,763-73 times the wavelength of a <,pccificd
deca, hecto, kilo etc., as prefixes with the units. The orange-red spectral line in the emission <,pectrum
symbol and meaning of each prefix are given below. of Krypton-86. It is also defined as : 'one metre
Some prefixes used for big measurements is 1,553,164-1 times the wavelength of the red line
Prefix Symbol Meaning in the emission spectrum of cadmium' .
deca da 10 1
h
In 1983, the metre was re-defined in terms of
hecto 102
✓ kilo k 103 speed of Light according to which one metre is
✓ mega M 106 I
✓ giga G 109 the distance travelled by light in , .4
299 792 58
of
✓ tera T 1012
peta p JOIS a second in air (or vacuum).
exa E JOl8
zetta z 1021 Sub units of metre
yotta y 1024
For the measurement of small lengths, metre
is considered too big a unit. The most commonly
The various small measurements are expressed
used sub units of metre are (i) centimetre (cm),
by using the prefixes deci, centi, milli, micro, etc.,
(ii) millimetre (mm), (iii) micron (µ) and
with the units. The symbol and meaning of each such
(iv) nanometre (nm).
prefix are given below.
(i) centimetre (cm) One centimetre is one-
Some prefixes used for small measurements
hundredth part of a metre. i.e.,
Prefix Symbol Meaning 1
1 cm = - - m = 10- 2 m
--- 100 -
deci d 10-1
(ii) milJimetre (mm) . One millimetre is one-
✓ centi C 10- 2
10-3 thousandth (l0-3) part of a metre. i.e.,
v milli m
10--0
vmicro µ
10-9
l
1 rrgn =:= 1000 m = 10-3 !!! = 10l cm
✓ nano n
pico p 10-12 (iii) micrometre or micron · It is one-millionth
femto f 10- 15 (10-{i) part of a metre. It is expressed by the symbol
atto a 10- 18 µ. It is also called micrometre (symbol µm).
10-21
11 micron (µ) = !o-6 ~e~__}
zepto z
yoeto y 10-24
= 1Q-4 cm = 10-3 mm.

Example : 2-5 GHz will mean 2-5 x 109 Hz, (iv) nanometer (mn) : It is one billionth (1 o-9)
5-0 pF will mean 5-0 x 10-12 F, 5_-0 M.Q will mean part of a metre. i.e.,'J_l}ffi_= IQ-~ m}
5-0 x 106 n, 2-0 ms will mean 2-0 x 10- 3 sand so on. Multiple units of metre

1.3 UNITS OF LENGTH For the measurement of large lengths (or

S.I. unit of length
The S.I. unit of length is metre (m).
A metre was originally _defj__ned in 1889 as the
distance- between two marks
------- -- - drawn on a
p_l!z_tjf!U!!l.:iridium (an alloy with 90% platinum
and 10% iridium) rod kepLat 0°C in th_e
l_!l!er,iati_orr_afBurealf: of Weights. and Measures
at Sevres near Paris.
distances), metre is considered as too small a unit.
The most commonly used multiple unit of metre
is kilometre.
kilometre (km) : One kilometre is one thousand
times a metre. i.e.,
Q km= lOOQ m_(orJ..03 mi,;
Non-metric units of length
Bigger units : For the measurement of distance
between two heavenly bodies, kilometre is
3
 .
,\'l\Shkt\\l , II · I unit. Thl' commonly
h'lt' sll\.l • used
• unils tnoknil ar sqia1 al ion, r•fc arc now r
• th1:-
1.,1 . Jllllf'()S(
., •·tr<.'.' \ ,n Hsfrononucal nnd (A.CJ.). cxpn·ssl·d 111 11111. 0111 n111 n1~
lmlight ~ l'Ur l I)) ;11\d (iii) pnrSN'. . (ii) krmi (f) : 11
! o mrtr,,
. ,.,,
fl is 10 ti, / 1<111 0 ·
. 1 11111-1 ,, A· ll ·) . ·, Ont•, astro110111rrnl
lj) .\stnmonnca I fl:11111 (f) )() II Ill .,
. /,\. . ( '</11<1I
Ii/I/{ TO Th<' 11/c'clfl d1sla11c, /Jct11•ee11 Ill<'
Tl1c commonly used s111;illcr and higg,
(c/1'111 on.I rhc• sun. i.c'., . . . er Ur)'1
or length are summ,U'1zcd 111 the following
b-A.ll_,- -~-I.:;;; I(~ 11 mc~·c] Smaller ancl h•~~cr unih of lc11~th
t
a6le
1\
·
(in Light )'enr (l)') : ,A /iiht year is the_~listance Smnller Value in ---
nigger ' --V
- -alue in
\. Trardlc•d hy /igltt in vacu11111, i11 OIi<' yem: t.t>., units metre
- -· - - ·- . - units
-- rnetre
1 li•>ht war = s ccd of light x 1i1 c I year cm 2
10 m km
~ . = 3 x 08 ms I x (365 24 x 60 x 60 s) mm 10 I Tl1 A.U.
]QI Ill
1-496 X IQII
=9-46 x 15 m =9-46 10 11 km µ (or µm) 10-<i m ly Ill
9
9-46 X IQISlll
The distance of stars from earth is generally nm 10 111 par~ec 3-08 x I Q1 6
expressed in light years. However, its smaller units A 10-10 m 01

Iicrht minute and light second are also used. r JO ism

-=- I light minute =3x I0 8 ms- 1 x60s= 1·8x 10 10 111
1.4 UNITS OF MASS
and I light second =3 x 108 m s- 1 x l s =3 x 108 111
S.I. unit of mass
Parsec: One parsec* is the distance from where
(iii)
the semi major axis of orbit of earth (I AU.) sub- /The S.I. unit of mass is kilogram (kg)__:,
tends an angle of one second. The mass of l litre (= 1000 ml) of water at
i.e .. I Parsec x I" = I A.U. 4°C is also taken as I kilogram.
arc length
or 1 Parsec = angle in radians In 1889, one kil!Jgram was <!efined _as the
l·496 x l0 11 m
mass of a cylinflrical piece of platinum-iridium
= -----=-::- = 3-08
( l/3600) x ( rr/ 180) X l0 16 ill alloy kept at International Bureau of Weigh~
and Measures at Sevres near Paris.
J08xl0 16
= ly = 3·26 ly (light year)
9-46xl0 15 The latest definition of mass, with effect from
Smaller units : To express the wavelength of 20th May 2019, defines mass in terms of a
light, size and separation between two molecules (or fundamental value called Planck constant
atoms), radius of orbit of electron, etc. a small size (= 6·62607015 x IQ-34 kg m2s-1). The Kibble
unit called the Angstrom (AJ is used, while the size balance which makes use of the Planck's constant,
of the nucleus is expressed by a still smaller unit measures the mass of an object using a precisely
called fermi (f). measured electromagnetic force.
(i) Angstrom (A. ) : It is 1fF10th part of a metre. Sub units of kilogram
It is expressed by the symbol A. i.e.,
For measurement of small masses, kilogram
LAngstrom (A. ) = 10-10 metre
(kg) is a bigger unit of mass. The smaller units
1 micron =
-
= lQ--8 cm= 10-1 run
10,000
--.------
A
of mass in common use are (i) gram (g) au<l
(ii) milligram (mg).
and 1 run = 10 A
(i) gram (g) : One gram is the one-tho11sall dth
Nowadays, Ais outdated and nm is preferred over A. part of a kilogram i.e.,
The wavelength of light, inter-atomic and inter-
* Parsec is constituted from the combination of two words, 1-~ -- _l_ ko - 10-3 k0
1000 o- -"'
parallax (par) and arc-second (sec).
or 1 kg = 1000 g
4
 u11lh:••
(ii i ( 11 1 11 fhu·
7
I
111
1
1111//io// f/, ( /{) ') /Ill/I
)

of ((
11111/igu 1111

/(f/11g1t1111 ' "

I\ 0111 ,
rA defined as 1/86400-th ~art - of
\('COnd i.\
II I ', (>Ill'.
1
111011 ..,,uullh ( 10 ) pail ol ,1 i•IaI11 , <'., a m,,an so/,ar d~y. i.e.,
I 1111• IO
1
' kl' rn I 1111• I (J I I' Is= x one mean sol.ar day
8MOO
Mul1iplc unih of kilo~rnm <)11c '>Olar day
the time taken by the earth to j..,
Thl' h1gi•t·1 co1111non t11111<-, ol 1n;,..,.., tl\(:d in daily complete one rotation on it<i own axi<i.
lik illl' (i) ,1uintal and (ii) mdrk tomw.
I ·or Im111y years, the above definition of <iecond
( i ) , 11111 11;11 . It i.., ont· lun1d1 cd l1I11cs a ktlo1•1:i1r1 , 1c111a111ccl in ll'>e. Since mean <,olar day varie<, over
i.<'., I q11111t.il 10() lq• tlH; year\, therefore in 1956, <,cienti-;ts agreed to
(ii ) uwlrir tonnt . It ,.., Olll lh<Hl\:t11d liin(·<, a con<iidcr one ycl.lr 1900 and 12 hours a<, the
kilor1a111. i.1', cphc1neri<i 11111c and one year 1900 to be equal to
I n1ct11r 101111c I()()() k~•
165-21\22 day<,. 'I hu<i,
I() qui111al.
I year 1900 =- 165-24 22 day<,
Non-nwtrit unit of mass
= 365-24 22 X 86400 S
Thl' 111a"" of a10111ic., particles <iuch a<i proton,
neutron and L'kctron is cx prcsscd in a unit cal led = 315569 26-08 '>
the atomic ma1,s unit (sy,nbol a.rn.u) or lhc unified
Hence one second i'i defined a<,
atomic mass unit hymbo l u). It is defined H'> below: 315569 26. 08 th
part of the year 1900. i.e.,

[ / / " "'·" ("' ") ; , I'2 ti, "'" ,., of "'" '", ,,,:,,. I 2 '"""'· l I ., =
I
31 ,556,926 · 08
th part of the year 1900.

Thl' ma<,s ol (i-02 x I0 2<, atom<, or carbon -12 is In 1964, a second was defined in terms of
12 kg . energy change in cesium atom a~ follows :
12 -- ----- - -- - - - -- - - - - - - - ,
a.m.u (or u) =
12 x 6-02 x 1026 kg One second i.\ the time interv al of
9, J 92,63 J,770 vibrat ions of radiat ion
I = I ·66 x IO 27 kg
corre\p onding to the transit ion betwee n two
The mass of large heaven ly bodies is measured unperturbed ground state hyperfi ne levels of the
in terms of solar mass where I solar mass is the cesium - J33 atom.
mass of the sun, i.e.,
Smaller units of time
I solar mass = 2 x I 030 kg
The comm on smalle r units of time are
The commo nly used smaller and bigger units
millise cond (ms), microsecond (µs), shake and
of mass are summarized in the followi ng table.
nanosecond (ns) where
Smaller and bigger unit<; of ma1,s
I ms= 10-3 s; l µs = 10-0 s;
Smaller
--
Value in Bigger Value in l shake = 10-8 sand 1 ns = 10-9 s.
units
7 g
kg unil'> kg
-· Bigger units of time
10 1 kg quinLal 100kg
mg 10 6 kg metric Lonne
Sometimes second is a smaller unit of time and
1000 kg
u (or a.m.u.) 1-66
so we use other units of time such as (i) minute,
X 10 27 kg solar mass 2xl030 kg
(ii) hour, (iii) day, (iv) lunar month, (v) month,
1.5 UNITS OF TIME ( vi) year, ( vii) leap year, ( viii) decad e,
S.I. unit of time (ix) century and (x) millennium. They are defined
as below.
The S.I. unit of time is second (s).
(i) minute (min) One minute is the duratio n of
• J\voRodm \ m1111her N = 6-02 x /0 11
pe1 R a/0111 60 second . i.e., 1 min= 60 s
5
+(ii) is the duration of
Every fourth year (, e
· ·· the
~ ~
hour (h) : One hour 4) has one day extra in th e rnYear d1v1\ L
60 minutes. i.e., (i.e., February then ha~ 29 °nth of "ilt
I day \) anct~~lu,.
I h = 60 min th e eap year. For exa
= 60 X 60 S = 3600 S
1904, 1908, . . .. ... , ,ooorn Ple, the ,, \() 1,·
... ) d v . ""he time taken bv the earth to rotate - 20 4 ;e<t
(m a~ . " . 0 d . 2016 were leap years an~ o . 20o~ r, 11,
once on its own axis is called a day. ne ay is ·11 I b Years 2 · 2r
. . ..... , wt a so e leap Years. ~ 020, 2rJ11
divided in 24 how-s. Thus, 1s : 1
fle e J._,
Xeep
l day = 24 h . 111
= 24 x 60 rn:in = 1440 min The century years U.e. 1
=24 X 60 X 60 S =86400 S though divisible by 4 , ar~ n!~O, 19oo
(iY) lunar month : The western or G_regorian e.g. the year 2100 will not b the leap e1l
. h e a le \ p.
Calendar is based on the period of revolution of the th e years w h 1c are divisibl ap Yea·"
leap years. e.g. the year 200~ by 40o. 1\\8
earth around the sun, but our Hindu (Vikram and and the year 2400 will also b was a leap',"
Shak) and Muslim (Hizri) Calendars are based on ea lea .'t..

the phases of the moon as seen from the eaith. In (VJiI) :lco.>c c A decade is of 10 P Year
Years. Thu
these calendars, one month is the time of one lunar l Decade= IO years = 3. J536 X JQ8 S s,
cycle which is nearly 29 .5 days. The period of ("x) Ce•1•11n, A century is of
• IOOye ars In a
12 lunar months thus comes out to be 354-37 days. there will be 24 years each of 366 day · centun
Thus one year of these (lunar) calendars is short each of 365 days. Thus, s arrct 76 ye~
nearly by 10 days of Gregorian calendar. l Century = I 00 years
(\')month: The western or Gregorian Calendar has
= (24 x 366 + 76 x 365) days
January, March, May, July, August, October and
= 36524 days= 3 ·16 x JQ9 s.
December each of 31 days; April, June, September
and November each of 30 days and Febw-ary of 28 (x) J'v"·He""'r·tJ~
. . A millennium is oiflO0O years 11.
days (or 29 days in a leap year). To an approximation, 1 M1llenmum = 3·16 x
10 10 s '·.
a month is considered to be of 30 days and a year of The commonly used bigger units of time
12 months or of 365 days. summarized in the following table. are

(vi) year (yr) : One year is defined as the time in Biggc.- un.,..-, o...1mc '1---
which the earth completes one revolution around the ----,c-----
sun. The period of revolution* of earth around the Bigger Value in T Bigger I
Value in
units second I units I second
sun is nearly 365-256 days. To an approximation, - - --·-+----- --t- - - -t - --
min 60s year 3- 1536xl0;,
l yr = 365 days 1

= 365 X 86400 S = 3·1536 X 7

10 S h 3600 s Decade II 3. I536 x i~\
I3-1 6 x 10°1
~--
day 86400 s Century
(vii) Leap year: A leap year is the year in which the
month of February is of 29 days, i.e., .____ ____
month ..,__2·592 Millennium I 3-16 x 10'
6
x 10 s~---·
01

l Leap year = 366 days

1.6 SOME EXAMPP_ES os= ncc1ucr"' UNITS
Since the exact period of revolution of the . 1(
We have read that apart from the se .·
earth around the sun is 365·2422 days **, therefore
fundamental quantities used in SJ. system such1•'
to compensate for the excess of 0·2422 days in a · inten) ~
year, the Gregorian calendar has been modified as 1ength, mass, time, temperature, lurrunous .. :.
h umt~'
follows: current and the amount of substance. t e rn;•
. .. . d in re
. d"
all other physical quant1t1es are •obtrunebtalile
* Thif period come1 when celestial stars are comidered 0 ,
0111 O
o f the fundamental units. The umts so 01. dert'c
,J,

rc.fere,,ce point for pos11io11 of eortlt and ts called sidereol war

*"' ··
called derived units. Some examples
. IIHere
d su,1 .is lllke11 a., reference
. /'.JOillt for ,.
noe ., 1·1,·c,n:.. ·I r ,.,
ca e n J,·op,ca/ year and i., f/M'd os a year 1l'or Gr ' .· units are listed ahead.
c alcmdw. ' t go, tan

6
 lh·rind uni I,; of solil(' i,hy.">i< ~•I q11a111ili1.,
...---- -Qunntif)'
... --- IMinitiou
kngth x hrL'1Hl!h
I )l•rlv,•d uuil Ahhrcvi11ti1m/-.ymlu,I

\,-
v l. /\rl'n llldlt' X Jlldll'

, Volume
V .-:~ -- -
kngth x breadth x height llll'III ' X llidl!' X llll'lll' 1
mass kilopra111
, 3. Dl•nsity ~ /'. Ill I
\_ vol11111e (llll'lfl') l

distance metrc
4. Spcctl or velocity l)J ', j
time S('l'Olld

, 5. Acceleration -velocity
--·- 111etre/scco11d
Ill ', /.
V Ii llll' Sl'COlld
..._. ----- ·- --- - -- -
lllClf'C
6. Force mass x accekr:11ion kilogralll x o, ncwloJI kg m '> 2 <1r N
( M'.l'Olld) J
--------- --
lltdrc .
7. Work or energy rorcc X displacl'll\Cll kilogrnm x - - - 1
x 111ctn: <H Joule kg iri2 •, 2 <1r J
(second) ·

metre 1 cir N ~
8. Momentum mass x vdoeity kilogram x ----
- - or newton x <;ccond kg rn i..
second
-l
. metre m2 s 2
9. Moment of Corce
or torque
force x distance kilogram x
or
(second)
newton-metre
2 x metre
or Nm
kg
II
- ·- ·- -
kilogram (metre)2 /
IO. Power -work
- --- second kg m 2 s 3
✓ time (second) 2
or joule/second or wall or J s I or W
1--------- - - i - - - - - - - • - · - - - -- --- - --- --·--
force
v 11. Pressure kilogram x metre / (metre) 2 kg m I s-2
2
area (second) ·
or newton / (metre)2 or pascal or Nm 2 or Pa

12. Frequency or second I or hertz s- 1 or Hz

time period second
~---------+--- - ----· - - - - -- - -
13. Electric charge current x time ampere x second or coulomb As orC
------ ---+---------- ---- - --- ---
2
work kilogramx melre /
1-t.. Electric potential ampere x second kg m2 A- 1 s-3
charge second 2
or electromotive or joule/coulomb or volt or J c-1 or V
force (e.m.f.)
2
potential kilogramx metrc /
15 . Electrical am ere kg m2 A-2 s-3
current ampcrcx second 3 P
resistance
volt
or or ohm or V A- 1 or Q
ampere
----------1------- ------ - ··-- ---- -- ---· ·• - ··- ------t-·--·- -------1

I6. Electrical power potential x current volt x ampere or watt VAorW

'---------~--- -------~------ -----------
From the above list, it can be noted that some derived units are complex when they are expressed in terms o.f fun.damen
units. Such derived units have been given special names after the name o.f the scientist who has contributed in t
field. For example, Newton for force, Joule .for work (or energy), Watt for power, Pascal .for pressure, Hertz for freque
Coulomb for electric charge, Volt .for electric potential (or e.m.f) and Ohm for electrical resistance. Full name of s
a unit is alll'ays written 11·ith a small first letter, while its symbol is written with its first letter in capital.
7
 ,\!11mc ri( lf ., :

,,[ , •,; ,, . .
ame the physical quantities related
to rhe following l. Th e wavelength r,f /1,1 ht
,; ••,_ ~ : ,. :· •. •
.!8. N 5800 A. Exprc ~"> 11 m (;,; n;;ir ,,1-
( ) 1·oule \n r;,; ',;%', r;, ' ·,, .
units : 2 (b) newton c /
. .,
(a ) km
(d) pressure (c) power of a bac.:reriil i·, l µ f-i, ,_
(d) pascal (e) watt 2_ Th e \iz c
\ns. (a) area (b) force (c) ene
rgy bacteria in I m length
1 ,m !: t ,✓,.~. "r
l\luHiplt' dw ke type : 3 The dic;;tance of a gala>: Y Ir ; / ·
,,, -:,,_ •:
As~uming the <,peed <,/ 11;{1-11
L The
fundamental unit is : 1ra •, ': • •
find the time taken by iigr, 1 l'J
(a) newton (b) pascal
\n'> (d) second f_; J' 1..d ,,, '..-'; .. :; '; :;.:

(c) hertz (d) second . [Hint : Tim e taken = ·.pe;-;,:

t is not a fundamental
2. Which of the following uni
unit: 5~~ ; -; 'i. _
(b) litre
4 The wavelength of light J\
(a) metre An, (b) litre wavelength in A '! \ • ;,,. }
(c) second (d) kilogram . t ~:.:.:-. h •,r; -·= r ,.
5. The distance of the neare~
. Exr,-'=·.. : ·_'
J. The unit of time is : from the Earth is 4-0 >' J rJ : i'.r:,
• ~ : .. .
(a) light year (b) parsec .1 '
year.
m. A,1~. (c) leap year rei:.::. :;·_-· .. : · :--
(c) leap year (d) angstro It takes time 8 min for Jjgh t t0
~- !:gh: -, ~, •.• : .·
1 A is equal to : the earth surface. If speed of
.i, ce f; -:i:: :::~--_-. _:
3 x 108 m s- . find the di stan
1
0-1 run (b) 10-10 cm
(a) .-,. : ~, , -: _
J04 µ. A"" (a) 0·1 run / ear thi nk m.
(c) J0-8 m

~- ly is the unit of:

(d)
I
7 'The distance of a star
from L.½e ea:-.:. :~ '. : : :·
minutes.' What do you mean
D) :::: , i:~:::: :/
length . .\,: : ~,, : _ _
(a) time (b)
Express the distance in metre
gth
(c) mass (d) none of these. Ans. (b) len I

NGTH
(B) MEASUREMENT OF LE
tre ru:e :s ::: · :...:
OF A ME AS UR IN G example, the least count of a me
1.8 LEA ST CO UN T enth of 2. .:-e:=:::::
INSTRUMENT
of its one division which is one-t
of a sro; " .:.:~.: ..
quantity (such (or I mm). The lea st co un t
The measurement of a physical ns ber;:·ee: ~ ~:
etc.), requires an 0-5 second if there are IO diYisio
as length, mass, time, current, an ~e :e ~ ~=-··-=i
tre rule (or vernier 5 s marks. The least count of
instrument. For example, a me Oand I A.. :~ ~ : _!_
beam balance for 5 divisions between the marks
callipers) is used for length, a insrr., 11 :c·,·: · ·i
mass, a watch for time, a
thermometer for Smaller the least cowzr of an
for current. Each de b_r us:' 1:5- :·
temperature and an ammeter precise is the measurement ma
it for accuracy of
instrument has a definite lim ~ .9 MEASU~EMENT OF
LENGTH
in terms of its least
measurement which is expressed zero ::.:.:.:i _: ::.:
Generally a metre rule haYir1£ its
count. ;th er end :s ::.st~ :
end and I 00 cm mark at the
least cou nt of an instrume nt is the smallest measure the length of an object. Ir hJ.S 1L1 ~:J~,:.:-:-::·-
{the
en accurately in each one centimetre length.
so the u:~c ,:/ ::.•: :
measurement that can be tak
cm 1• Tn:;~ .: :-::~
with itJ ✓ small division is I mm (;r 0-1
:: ,~r~: .,;
pro vid ed wi th a rule can be used to measure lernrth LL-irrc. "''
A measuring instrument is ce- of J. ce;:sn::-•
nt I mm i.e., one decim al pla
and the least cou
graduated scale for measurement Fo r can not me asure lenoth with still mcre ::?~-.:~r.:.:~
divisio n on its scale. e
is the value of one smallest
IO
up w second _decimal place ~f a ~entimetre. The Hence from eqn. ( Ll ),
reason is that 1f one end of obJect hes between two
(11 -1 )x x
1all di,,isions on metre rule. the mark nearer the L.C. =x- - 1 1 - = n
sn . d d
d of the object is rea an thus its length correct
en d . al . Value of one main scale division (x)
up to the second ecim pomt ~an not be measured. l.e.,
LC· · = Total numter ofd 1.v1s10ns
. . on vermer . r)
,n
HoweYer it becomes possible with the help of vemier
callipers and screw gauge. They are more accurate ... ( 1.2)
as they use two scales and have a least count smaller
Thus, the least count of a vernier is obtained
than O·l cm. simply by dividing the value of one division of
i.1 o PRINCIPLE oc VEq"J 1ER main scale by the total number of divisions on
Pierre Vernier devised a method by which length vernier scale.
up to 2nd decimal place of a cm i.e.,correct up to Example : Fig. I. I shows a main scale graduated to
O·l mm (or 0-01 cm) can be measured. In this read up to 1 mm and a vernier scale on which the
technique. two scales are used. One scale, called the length of 10 divisions is equal to the length of
main scale, is fixed. while the other scale, called the 9 divisions on main scale. Let us calculate its least
vernier scale. slides along the main scale. count.
The main scale is graduated with value of one 1 2 3 4 cm
division on it equal to 1 mm. The graduations on the I,,,, I,
MAIN SCALE
I I I I, ,
' I'
I I
' J
I''
I 'r
I I
1
I,,11 I I
I I I I I I, I I, I
vernier scale are such that the length of n divisions (FIXED) !O
1
9
on vernier scale is equal to the length of (n - 1) VERNIER SCALE (MOVABLE)
divisions of the main scale. Generally, a vernier scale Fig I.I To fi11d the leasr count of !he vernier
has 10 divisions and the total length of these
In Fig. 1.1,
10 divisions is equal to the length of 10 - 1 = 9
divisions of the main scale i.e., equal to 9 mm. Thus Value of 1 division of main scale (x) = l mm.
each division of the vernier scale is of length Total number of divisions on vernier (n) = 10
:. From eqn. (1.2),
0·9 mm(i.e., smaller in size by 1
~ mm than a division
on the main scale). This difference is utilised as L.C. = ~ = l~m = O·l mm= 0·01 cm.
least count for the measurement.
Use of vernier scale
Least count of vernier or vernier consta,nt Fig. 1.2 illustrates the use of a vernier scale. The
The lem 1 count oj , emier is equal to the two scales (main scale and vernier scale) are so
difference /Jet, een 1he mlues of one 111an1 scale made that when the movable vernier scale touches
di1·i~ion and one ,·er,1ier scale division. It is also the fixed end, its zero mark coincides with the zero
called the vernier constant. Thus, mark of the main scale. The rod whose length is to
be measured, is placed along the main scale and
: Vernier constant or least count of vernier,
I
vernier scale is moved so as to hold the rod between
1 L.C. = value of 1 main scale division
the fixed end and the movable vernier scale. In this
II - value of 1 vernier scale division. position, the zero mark of the vernier scale is ahead
... 0 .1)
VERNIER SCALE (MOVABLE)
Let n divisions on vernier be of length equal
to that of (n - l) divisions on main scale and the
value of 1 main scale division be x. Then
g~~',:;::":7~t.;i, ., l. ,,I,'t' , , ,
~ rI I,, , I/
U::: 1 :; 2 cm)
Value of n divisions on vernier= (n - l)x aiib MAIN SCALE (FIXED)
Value of 1 division on vernier = (n - I Jx
Fig. 1.2 Measurement with 1er111er scale 1
n
11
 · S JE ~;..:JS
I 1 hu 1he ac1ual
<1! 1·2 !.TT• m;,rk on marn ¼:a c.Jcnr•·h fib (1. ,, , 1h.
fcll'rtli
f.
pf tJ,c h
('J<f ::: J ·2 cm + ! C
1.
/cngtl, hcJ\~ccn rhr- I 2 c.m ,nar... "" mam
l"l

fJ in rl im u:rn1u M.:Jlc J. The lcni;th (lh canno be

,
.e
1,Calc an<l

mca urc<I t,~ (11c. Ill.Jin ¼.ale ;,: ti "iluc re. lt'><i 1han 2~
JI· 'l1111
one dt\J w,; r,' I m111J ,n.irh:<l rm the main ,cale. :;,, - __., \

. mc;~Jthe h npll, oh. f1r-.t we find the lc.:a')l

U/1.:
;: ' u
03JEC.T
/EP! HER SCALE

10 '":) /ABL:: JA :t
<> 1 n ::JJ rJI c.m 'Jh~n .;I
I I 1
,01m1 ofth \crnrrr '>C c.:. I\ ,o (..r
I : )2
0.J-s cE .;:..,vs
"t: note llwt ,,1' Ji\ j.,H,n ,,t \crn1er c,c.alc .,,, h1c.h
I 1;. I 1 l.tn11e1 wllipf'r,,1
wrnudC\ (nr v.h1c..h ,s ,n 1inc1 w!lh ;iny d1\1c,1r,n (Jf
the main ¼.ale The pnidul.1 of 1h1'> numhcr r,f \em1cr ,tnp iilso has a ~cale . graduated
. 1,1,ith 10 di\•.
is1on·
dni JO/I fl '.\lt.h ihC Jca1il c,,unt g1\C<. tile 1£.'ngth oh. JI lhe length of ,~h1ch 1<, equal 9 mm. It is cal]~,;· t?
·nll', I called the ,,•n11cr r/'llr/lJI;!. Thur,
J c ,er reading = P / lea'>i wur.t
, d fotal readme = main ,cale reading. r
__, \emier \tole. for more precise measurem

on it and the total length

f d' \effiler
of . .
"',
, emier scale can ha' e 20. 25 or 50 divisions
di,isions \\illf
'1k,
:t ~:
~-vcmie~~awng-1 equal to the length o _one 1,1s1on le<,s (i.e.. 19, 24 ;~
JL , 49 di\isiom re~pect1_•,el 1 J on the m_ain scaJe. 1\
3 \ ernier scale wruch slides o\·er the mam scale. c· ~·
fixed at any position on the main scale \\.ith the~:~
In J ,g J 2, the main <,cale reading i'> 1·2 cm and
of a screw S. Both jaws are parallel to each other;:
4th cJ1\Jc,1<1n of vernier <,cale VJincide'> with a main
are projected on either side . of the main scale to h0,,.:
<cal~ ri . !'·J<>n and ·,r1 the length ah f()r vernier read-
the gi ,en object. The lower Jav,:s are called the outsui,
rngJ ,~ ~ / fJ•(1J cm= (;,()4 cm.
jmi .s and they are used to measure the length of ar~
Hence the Jcnr!t.h r1( md I'> 1·2-,. (J•()4 = 1·24 cm.
C diameter of a sphere or external diameter of acylinder
The upper jaws are called the inside }mis which are
1.11 VERNIER CALLIPERS
used to measure the internal diameter of a hollo~
A vernier c;a/Jipcr'> i'> lll'>r, caJJed 1/ide callipers.
ft i~ U'>Cd tr, measure the length of a FJd, the c1tinder (or pipe;.
diameter of a '>phcre, the internal and external A verruer caWpers is also provided with a Ihm
diameter'> rif a h<JJlow cylinder. the depth of a '>mall and long strip T attached at the back of the vemiei
hear.er (Qr b<,Hlc). etc. scale strip. It slides with the vernier scale at the back
of the main scale strip. When jaws 11 and 12 are in
(a) /)e\criptum contact, the end of the strip T touches the end at the
A vernier Clllliper'> i'> c,hown in Fig. J.3. It consists back of the main scale strip. The strip Tis used to
()fa Jong and thin <,t.eel '>trip provided with a jaw 11 at measure the depth of a small beaker (or bottle).
rme end. ()n rhc <,trip, a c,cale j<, graduated with the
The table below gives the main parts of a
vt11ur.; <l r>nc divi">i<m equal t<J J mm. This i<, the main
vernier callipers with their functions.
scale. An<,ther '>mall '>t.eel '>trip pr<>vidcd with a jaw 12
at it~ end, can <,Jidc ()ve;r the main scale strip. This ,/Yernier caIJipers - main parts and their functions
Part Function
If p ,1iv1·,11,n 1,/ crr.1•.r v . '1,,r·. <l<; ,1 n ,1r,/ ,,, , 1,n of m:i1r.
•• I lhCO I. Outside jaws To measure the length of a rod.
1 1
1Jh + lt;r, 1th ,,/ I' rJi 11 ,,,r,· ·,o ·1.m er (, diameter of a sphere, external
lt.1,gl~, ·,f p J1v 11,'1', 1 ,n rnam c.alc.
1

lt,,,,.fi 11/J - lcngrb ,,f p di.-, .,r,n. ·,n r ;,,, · ~k:

diameter of a hollow cylinder. .
. ter ol
lr.n;,th ,,f p d1\1\1 1m <,n vemiGr !,(.ale d
To measure the internal tame
2. Inside jaws
p / flu.;:u 1,/ 1 <l,v, ,,,,, 1 ,11 maIr1 ¼al<: a hollow cylinder or pipe.
b1t'11 ,,t J di /JW,fl rm vem•u <,c;~lt.J
p/U
12
 T,1 me.1sure the depth l1f a beaker or is said to be positive. Fig. 1.4 shows the two scales
:l N.>ttk. of a vernier callipers with positive ;:ero error. The
.! ~ {.Utl ~J.k
1 To me.1sure length COITt',t up lo 1 positive zero error is equal to the distance between
mm. the zero mark of the vernier scale from the zero mark
.::: \ emier Helps to measure length correct up
s.,:.1k of the ma.in scale.
to 0-1 mm.
COINCIDING DIVISION
MAIN SCALE
(b) Least count of render callipers cm
0
, The least count of vernier callipers is equal to
ctie difference between the Yalues of one main scale 012345678910
di'\ision and one vernier scale division. It is VERNIER SCALE
J, J Positive zero error
calculated by using the eqn. ( 1.2). i.e.. 2

Value of one main scale division (x) Fig. 1.4 Positive zero error
LC.= Total number of di,isions on Yernier (11) To find this e1Tor, we note that division of the
Toe least count of a vernier callipers can be vernier scale which coincides with any division of
decreased by {i) increasing the number of divisions
the main scale. The number of this vernier division
of the vernier,
on the \·emier scale and {ii) decreasing the value of when multiplied by the least count
one diYision on main scale. gives the zero eITor.
For example, for the scales shown in Fig. 1.4,
(c) Zero error in vernier callipers
the least count is 0-01 cm and the 6 th division of
On bringing the movable jaw 1 2 in contact vernier scale coincides with a main scale division.
\,ith the fixed jaw 1 1• the zero mark of the vernier :. Zero en-or=+ 6 x L.C. = + 6 x 0·0l cm
scale should coincide with the zero mark of the main
scale. In tbis position. the tenth division of the =+ 0·06 cm.
\·emier scale coincides with the ninth division of (ii) Negative zero error : On bringing the two
the main scale. If it is so, the vernier is said to be jaws together, if zero mark of the vernier scale is
free from ::,ero error. In this condition, the end of to the left of zero mark of the main scale, the
strip T also touches the end of the main scale strip. zero e1Tor is said to be negative. Fig. 1.5 shows
with negative
But sometimes there is a mechanical error in the two scales of a vernier callipers
The negative zero e1Tor is equal to the
vernier callipers due to which the zero mark of the zero en-or.
the zero mark of the vernier scale
vernier scale does not coincide with the zero mark length between
scale.
of the main scale when the two jaws 1 1 and 12 are from the zero mark of the main
in contact. It is then said to have zero error. In such MAIN SCALE
COINCIDING DIVISION
a case. the zero error is equal to the length between
0 cm
the zero mark of the main scale and the zero mark
of the vernier scale. It is necessary to account for 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
th.is error for a correct (or true) measurement from VERNIER SCALE
this instrument. J Negative zero error
2
Kinds of zero error : The zero error is of the Fig. 1.5 Negative zero error
following nvo kinds :
To find this error, we note that division of the
(i) Positive zero error, and
vernier scale which coincides with any division of
(ii) Negative zero error. the main scale. The number of this vernier division
(i) Positive zero error: On bringing the two jaws is subtracted from the total number of divisions on
together, if zero mark of the vernier scale is on the the vernier scale and then the difference is
right of zero mark of the main scale, the zero error"f- multiplied by the least count. 'J,--
13
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -~ V'a~Iue of one division on

I F I 5 the least coun t is 0-01 cm and

. cides withthea x = ················
x cm lna1~ \.

,;xthnd;v;s;on
ig. . of, the vernier
. scale comtotal num ber
ale The Least count (L.C.) == -,1 == ...: ......······· ,.
· · · f the mam sc · r .,,
certain
of div1s10n
divisions ° _ .
on vernier aie 10. Zero erro = •··············· cm scr
its
Zero error= - ( IO - 6) x L.C.
__ 0•04 cm. s. Main scale Ve rnier di vsion in
__ 4 x 0·0 I cm - No. reading coinciding
- .
ero error i.e., correct
.
a (in cm) fJ
(d) Correction due to z . callipers having
measurement with a vernier l.
a zero error . r with 2.
ct·
To get the correct rea mg, the zero e, ro the
d +rom 3.
.
its proper sign . a l way s subtracte
LS J'
Mean observed
observed reading. i.e., 1ength ,,

Zero error From the mean observed length b

Correct reading= Observed reading .h.its proper sign
. ta 'Utract
8
error, if any, wit abtaui th It-
(with sign)
measurement of the length of the given ab· e~
.. (1.4) _ ~ec1.1n,
Observed length = main scale reading +
. . zero error gets SUbtracted from
Thus the positive · ·d·mg wz"th any d.ivision on th(ven1 ie,
division p coincz
e ~ ' bI
the observed reading, while the negative zero error l
scale) x east coun.t
gets added to the observed reading. True length = observed length - zero error (i,. tll
1 1
II Is,~ I
(e) Measurement of length of an object with a E
L_x_a_m_p_l_e_:_F-ig-.-1-.6--il-l_u_~_a_t_e_s_h_o_w_~-r-~a , ~
vernier callipers
callipers.
Procedure:
5 6 7 8
(i) Find the least count and then the zero error of
the vernier callipers if any. I I I I Ii JI~'' ' ,, I, II,',~' I'''' I,'" I· ~ I
I

OBJECT .....--:--=-:=-=-:~ - 1
(ii) Move the jaw 12 away from the jaw 1 and VERNIER SCALE
1
place the object to be measured, between the Fig. 1.6 To read a vernier callipers (
jaws 1 1 and 12 . Move the ja':" 12 t~wards the
jaw l till it touches the obJect. Tighten the
J • . ••
In Fig. 1.6,
]
i
screw S to fix the vernier scale m its pos1t1on. The least count of vernier callipers = 0-01 CTI:
(iii) Note the main scale reading. Main scale reading = 5 ·3 cm
(iv) Note that division p on vernier scale th
1
which 6 division of vernier scale coincides 11i1t.
coincides or is in line with any division of the division on main scale i.e., p = 6
main scale. Multiply this vernier division p with
the least count. This is the vernier scale reading :. Vernier scale reading= 6 x 0·01 =0-06Lm
i.e., Vernier scale reading= p x L.C. Hence observed reading= main scale reading .
(v) Add the vernier scale reading to the main scale + vernier scale readmg
reading. This gives the observed length. = 5.3 cm+ 0·06 cm
(vi) Repeat it three times and record the observations = 5-36 cm .
as below. If the Vernier callipers is free from zero enor. 1'~
Observations : true length = 5 •36 cm.

Total number of divisions on vernier scale 1.12 PRINCIPLE OF A SCREW

n = ............... . An ordinary screw has threads on 11· aI,.all''
d{
distance along its length. On rotating th~hcJ
14
-:1..·t\'\\, ti (I\IH\'S h 1l\\,lld Ill 11:11 I,,, ;11d lt111 :11 1, ,tl11111• J, · •t111pl• ,
11:- · ' " '· !'ht' 11111',\I d1:,..\;llh ' 1' \\ 111, II 1111• ,,, II\\ 11\11\ (" ,
I
I I II !I '•' II I'-' 11111 /1 ·: 1,, I 111111 11, •r11 1 11,1 .1111,11 .,r,,\
111 i•llt' t'l'llll'kll' IIHll\d 111 th h1'.11I , I'. i•q11.1I tn 1111
11 1111 IIHl ,11 ,, , , 11111 ' fill ,1 'llf 1,I If I ,,1, 11,, ,,
d1,t:llll'l' llt'l\\t'l'II Ill\· I\\ 11 I 1111•,1·1·1111, I' tltll·:td•. Pl\ ti
\Ill• Ii 111 Iii, '·' II "I I 111111 1111d I• 11,1 'lrllfil ,,j tf1 1
l'l11s d1:-1.1111'l' 1:,.. i•;llkd 1111· ,,,1c/1 "' Ill\ ., 1," 11111, I 111111
l 11 \ \1 ( I ( I I I II I 11 ( ) f ,, ) I I I fl
I I It I
/'ltl' 1,;td, 1\( 11 .w, nr ,, the ''"''"' 1•,· 111 " 1•1 ,/ I 1 1 II ,I 111 W 111,, ,,, I, ,; I 111111 Ill I 111, 11 ,t-,11,,11 ,,,,1
alf11f,~ if,'\ 11\"I.\' f,,, f/,1• \('I (')I' Pl 11,t(' l'l ►/11[1/,•fi· 11 · I II• 11l.11 ,, .d, 1111 • ,, I ,1, JI II ,11 •, 11,, II i,111 11, ,{ 11,,
nit,rti<,11 ,!f' fr11· 11«·0,I. I
:,, 11 \ 1' , 111111 (111 (I l 11,1,11 .,11111111 1, .i,I, ,,,11,l

lii·rn·r:llh. tlw 11 1t1 Ii 111 ,1:-111·" 1·, 1 111111 111 ll ,, II , I 11 I l 1

11111 111111 r, 1,111, ,,,
, ,f)
111lll.
( \) II ;1 ,I It w 1111, 11 . 1,, 111111 Ill I//!, ,,,1.t11 1 ,11 , ,,11 1 1
ii' l 11, 111.11 '•' ,d, li , 1 ,( )() ,t, /I ,11 ,11·., 11,, It 1,,1, I,, ,1
I
llll' ·., II \VI. I 111111 (1,1 1, ', 11111,, 11 111\ 111• 1, ,I ,I
I ii 1\1 l f) , , I Ill fl
, 1111111 111 tlw •., 11 w 11 • ,·1p1,d 1,,
',f)(J

111111 ( l(l f, Ill f)I I jl)

T'ht' l1tll',tr 111 ,l\tal t11\W1·111c111 111 ,I :-1·11·\\ 1· . 111
t,c ll:O:L'd 1,, 111c,1:,;urc srn:lll k11r,ths . h11 tlns 111 11 p 11 , , · I . I.I ',Clll w CiAlJ(AI
tli~· h1..·.1d 11 f till' snt'\\ is 111.11k l.11 r,· .111d 11 1:, \ :,n n, 1·.:1111~(· wo1 k : 011 lht p, 111npk i.l" ,i
fradtt:llL'd .1h111g its t·in:111nk1c111·1·. N111m.tllv II h:, ~. :,t'U '" II 1~, 11•:n l !11 1111 ,1•,1111 1111 d1,11111 I• 1 ,,t :, w11(.

50 ,,r lt)l) cqu,il di, isi1111s 1,11 it. l'llis 1s 1·.dkd tk 111 fli11 l, 11r•,:. ,it :1p:ipr,.111 . 11 ·. 11:tll; 11p l1i :111
circular ,w !read scaf<> [hi!. I . /t,1)j :1r\·111.1t·y ul 1li11tl dt·1 i111:il ph, 1 ol :11 111 (1 ,, , 1,11"' I
11p l11 () Oil I < 111) l l11w1 · v1·r. llw lr· ;1•. 1 , , 111111 1,j ;1
Least count of a SlT'-'"
tllll' l(lllH'l\'l '.,( 1\'W )',llll!'.I' 1:, I "(111 () ()()()1 , 111)
lf pitch nr a Sl'rl'\\ IS I l\\111 . a11d it has
(a) f Jt',\ 'ffi/1/,011
10() di\ isi1~11s 1.)11 its head. 1h1'11 u11 rnt:1li1H1 111"
t\ :,l · 1n1v 1•.:111)'1· i:-; :.how11 111 Pq•, I /!11) !1 h:1 1
• ;,
100 di,·isinns t)f its circular SL';1k. th1.· pu111lL'd rnd
\ I sh:1p1'd lr:111H· with :1 ll ;1l 1'11<1 ;\ 1 ;tl\t'.d llw 1,hul at
0f the sen.?\\ mon·s b) a distann.' l'qu.11 1,, I 11u11.
\llll' 1: 11d a11d ;1 1111/ N w1lh ;1 < ylr11d11< ;ii •,l1:cv1 at
Hence Lhc di:-;tancc moYcd by tlw Sl't"L'W along its
llw otht'r 1'nd . /Jut/, ti/I' 1111/ (llu/ Ill<' .\lt'<'I'<' rm' JhrNulnl
axis. on rotatinn or I division nr thL' cirrnlar scak .fi11111 i11sid1•. I\ srn·w with ils <Hw Ilal r11d H I an h1:
Imm
\\ill be -)-
1(0
= 0·01 mm = 0-001 l'lll . This is tlw llH>wd i11sitk the 11111 N by 1olali11g ,,._ ln:,1d which
is in form or ;1 hollow 1· yli11dn (01 thimf7/r 1 )

least di$tance \\ hich can be measurL'd by th1.:

providrd al llll' nlhl't 1-ml ol llw ~new. /\ 1(,kn.:.nc<~
mm ement or screw ~md is therefore called its ll'ast
li11r t1r l>as,· !iii<' 1•.rnduall'd in 111111 is drnwn 011 1\it~
count. Thus.
cylindriral skrw, parallel lo thL: axis ol the scH~W.
The least count of a scrl'w is 111,, di.1tla11c,, This forms thr lll(ti11 sect!<'. The hollow <..;y\it1clc1 (01
moved along the axis by it in rotating ti,,, MAIN \1C/\I ~ c1ncu1 AH t,c/\l 1
circular scale by one dfrishm. i-; 1un scrn w NLnl1111 1v,
----------------- - - .mmmm,m, N N,~l ;•:
The least count of a screw can he obtained by
dividing the pitch of the screw by the total m1mher
\ . - \
RASf I IOI I OW HAICIILI
of divisions on its circular scale. i.C'., l lNL CYI INUI I\
(l'hlrnblo)
Pitch ,f scn·11· --~
LC. == .. (1.5)
Total 11uml>t1r ~f'di,·isi()IIS 011 cirrnlar scu/t' U H~AMI.:
Vig. 1.7 (h) St'rcw ~,w~,,
15
 -( ';J
(Cl l\ilEASllREMENT OF TIME AND SIMPLE P E N n u ~~

1.14 MEASUREMENT OF TfME For cxarnpk in a ..,implc n 1

.
F 1g. J . I,.\1. l I1c rc~t ( or r11can - 'en<Julu
. . 111 ,i,
{n nffices and home, we commonly u~c a · · 1 f)<J,1t•o '
\>.ii

p1,11dulum d,•d ro note time which is based on thL' while its extreme po,11 1n,1' 0 .' .n 1)f ;__ I t
11 1C1l . •~ "
e,1
pt'rit,dic oscillations of a pendulum. Here we shall are A and B rc..;pcc11,cl\
. - 0 Ile, o,u11
unll ri~~.
,'
study the' ptinciple or a simple pendulum. motion or the bob from 10 A. -\. o Jiion of
In
back from B Lo O a~ ,ho,, 11 h, . h) f3 ~r
Simple pe11du/11m . . . uiin,,, ,
Tl1e motion ot bob l"rnm A t B in P,_
· o unct •
A. simple pendulum is a hemy poinr mass lrom B to A abo rep1"1.~'-Cnl\ 011 , th~- .
c (hcJ)J ',
(kno\1'11 as bob) SUS/)('lldedfi-0,11 a rigid support by Period of osci'lation or ,tt,,in
a massless and inextensible string. This is an ideal r7 · · I . time p
1, 11s 1s r 1e r1111e raken to con,,,{,, , h ii
LI( ();,( '
case because we cannot have a heavy mass having .
It 1s denoted by the symbol T It · · ~ 11

the size of a point and also a string which has no · ~ unn h, .

Frequenc-' of oscillatiop , / ,\.-,.~
mass. Fig. 1.16 shows a simple pendulum. Here a . . . . · • I I I I;,(
1
o.f osn!!otwns made 1n one !H!co .,.
heavy solid (iron or brass) ball is suspended by a . //( 1. 1l I . d
by the lcller _/ or 11. Its unit is p,, 1. ' c•·
light. but strong thread from a rigid support. The ' '" SC-.\1nJ
hertz (Hz). h n
ball is called the bob. Fig. l. I 6 shows three
Rclalion-;hiJJ he 1 \\cen ti
different positions of an oscillating bob. The rest time Pt'riod J1• n
.
(or mean) position of the bob is O while A and frcquenc-' : If T i~ the time period of ' I ' ill•• f

,'\
B are its extreme positions on left and right pendulum. then
p
respectively. s In time T second. the number of oscillation;, I
~~~ SUPPORT

I
In time l second. the number of' osc 1·11~11·1
I \
I . _ _ · u 111s ,,
I
I
I
\
be T which 1s the Irequency f
I \
I

/ ~\
I

.._
I
,'
\
\
I.e.,
I f=~ orT= .~ .... ti.I

L ~-'-w
I
,' B

Ci>-
I

-._. __ ~
~
~ I
\
\
Amplituck Tlil' 111arin111n1 di 111!c1n·111(·111 fl/,
hob ji·o111 its lll<'an 1){)sitio11 on ei1hcr .1id1. 11 111,
the a11111litudc ,~/' o .1cil!ario11. In Fig. 1. 16. ·
amplitude is OA. or OB. It is denoted h~ 1hc k
o or A and is measured in metre (111).
Fig. 1.16 A simple p endulum Effect he length of a pendulum : Ji t1
11
\.Vhen the bob from its mean position O is distance of the point q( mcillo/1011 0 '
pulled to one side and then released, the pendulum centre of gral'ity r~f the hoh I fio111 ;/,, P•' ·
is set in motion and the bob moves alternately on suspension S. In Fig. I .16 it i, , ho\\ n l'~ l
either sjde of its mean position. . d r c1 ,im1
(ii) 1l1easurement of time paw O'J
Note : The pendulum used in a clock is not a pendulum
To measure th~ tim..! pertlh.l 111 · ' ,
1
simple pendulum, but it is a compound pendulum
. 11 -a,! :r,
(i.e .• a body capable of oscillating about a hori::,oma/ pendulum. the !-wb i, :-;[ i2.ht)I d1~P •·'-'" ·
axis passing Through it). - . h ..n rd:.t'·
rest (mean) po:-itinn () and t' l ~ ,, n.:·
(i) Some ten11s related to simple pendulum . f l t
be gms to move to and ro ~l 1ou ' · · ·t, t'lt'JP t
,.
tJ 1 1ht -tn• ~
Oscillation ; One compl<:'te to and J;•o morion 0 in a \ ertical ptmc al on£ \\ 1 ,, •
--11 )1l'1-li' ...
cf tlie boh of pendulum is called one oscillation. time t for 20 complete o~n atil
 "i1h thl· h('lp t'f ·' :s!\)p ",Heh Jnd then di, idin!!. (iY) Slope of T 2 vs I graph
1 1,, 2l). it-- ume period T is calcu\J.ted . Th;
t''l~'timenl ts then repeated for different length<. The <.lope of the <;traighl line ob tained n. t -
of !Ill' rt>ndulum. The ohsen ation<. are recorded T2 , " I2:raph as shov. n in Fig. I . l -/ can be obta.:_n~
.~
b, takmo tv.:o points . p an d Q 011 the -tr,11 <:-? ht
111 1ht' 1abk as sho,, n he low.
JI10' nom1a" rom the'"e , point,
:
!me c
and dra\l. . 1 f ~ on the..
Tintt' pniod fot· pendulum of different lengths
X and Y axes. eThen note the \ alue o f T- ~a"- T, -
s.~•io Len!!fh I Time for 20
and r, 2 at a and b respective!). and al,o th e \ aJue
Time period
(in rm) oscillations 1 T: -2n
I
---,-
(in cm s-2)
of I s;y / 1 and 12 respecti,elJ at c ~nd ~- Then
(in sl <in~, PR ah T,- - T:-
~5 20 1-t) 25 Slope =QR= cd = t 1 - I:
,\6 24
-' 40
1-2 25
4 64
28
>2 This slope is found to be a con<,tant at a place ao d
I .t ~5
16 25
5 81 36
100
~5 . equal to -4rc" where g 1s
1·8
1s · the ace elerat·1on due to
0 40 25 20
g place. Thus t he , a Iue of {'o, can b~
gravity at that
From the above obserYations l and 6. it can be determined at a place from these measurements b~
noted that if the length of a pendulum is made four using the following
relation :
times. the period of oscillation gets doubled i.e.,
now it takes twice the time for one complete to and
.... ( 1.9)
fro motion. Thus time period T is directly / f?= SlopeofT 2 \'>lgraph
proportional to the square root of effective length
/".''' of the pendulum (7 oc ,t) or the square of time (v) Factors affecting the time period of a simple
petiod 7 2 is directly proportional to the length / of pendulum
the pendulum (i.e., T 2 oc [) or l!T2 is a constant. From experiments on simple pendulum. it i"
(iii) Graph showing the variation of square of time observed that :
period (T 2) with the length (l) of a pendulum
( i) T/1e 1ime period o f O\ < illofi(Jn i, rfm, , ti
If a graph is plotted for the square of time period JJropor1io110/ 10 1he \ quore rr, fJf fJ/ 1/\ <'//('1·tii 1' J,,n~ rlr
(T2) taken on Y-axis against the length l taken on i.e .. 7 oc fi or in other v.ords. the square of time
X-axis, it comes out to be a straight line inclined to period of oscillation (72) i..., directly proportional to
' the /-axis)s shown in Fig. 1.17. This shows that 72 its effective length (/J i.e .. 72 oc /.
,: is directly proportional to /.
A pendulum clock has a compound pendulum
y
made up of a metal like brass (or steel). Due to
seasonal change of temperature, the effective length
of pendulum changes, due to which the clock goes
t T2 Q
r 2 b J ___ __ , - -- - ---~ R : fast in winter and slow in summer. [n winter <lue to
I I contraction, the effective length of the pendulum
I I
'/2 I II gets shortened, and so its time period is decreased

,---
d C X and the pendulum completes more osc1llationc, in c1
given time i.e., the clock goes fast. But 111 summer
FiK. 1.17 Graph showing variation of T2 with I
because of expansion i.e., increa~ in the cffectl\e
To /incl rime period, rhc ri111e .fur 1111mber ()f osrillmion~
111orc 1ha11 I is 11url'II ht·cw11e rhe leo.11 c-ou11r of .\lop 11 ·arlh
length of pendulum. its time period i~ mcrea cd
1.1 eirhl'I I , or 0-5 t. Ir can 1101 ll'cord rill' rime P!·_nod 7'. and it completes less number of 0~1llation in a
frac1io11 such cn J-2 s or l·-1 sands~ 011. Ir 1 1 ma« given time i.e.. the clock goes slo\\.
1111.1.1ihlt· In ,w1i111: the ti111c I {<,r 20 OH 1/lat1fl111 or more
a11d lfu II dil'idi11~ r In· 1/u.• 1111111/Jer of 01nllc1t1<J1H. Similarly, while swinging_. 1f we stand on the
\\?,c1t· ( = [ + ,. 11 iwrt· J. 11 1/,e (111,:rh of 1h1• 1Jri11.z rill
1/u• hook of tht lob and r 1.1 the rad111 1 of thi b<'b.
swing. the time penod of ~wmg decrease (1.e the
23
swing moves faster). This is because when we The time period of oscillar
stand, the centre of gravity rises, so the effective
length of the swing decreases due to which its time
period decreases.
I T = 2it [ii l
pendulum is given by the followinion of a Sitti
g relation : Pl

··•.. (I.!(,
(ii) The time period of oscillation is inversely
proportio11al to the square root qf acceleration due or y2 = 4n:2 ..!_g
to grm·,ty .
. 1.e., T oc JiI where T = time period,
l = effective length of pendul
For this reason, a pendulum clock goes slow um - (L
where L is the length of the string and- r . -1-,I
(i.e., the time period of oscillation increases) when
radius of the bob ts t~
it is taken to mountains or to mines due to decrease
in the value of g.* and g = acceleration due to gravity.
At a given place, since g is c
(iii) The time period of oscillation dog_s J'!Of . . onstant
time penod of a pendulum of given 1 ' the
depend 011 the mass or rnater~qj_ of the body
constant. This is why a pendulum can b ength ii
suspe,ulfi_dJJ.e., th_e bol]). If we take two pendulums e Used ~
measure time.
of equal lengths, but with bobs of different masses
or different materials, their time periods will (vii) Seconds' pendulum
remain same. The pendulum of a clock which we use
(iv) The time period of osc;ffation _does_ nQt time in 01:11" hous~, is a seconds' pendulum. ;~ no~
def!.._end on the extent 2f swing on either side (i.e., time 1 s m movmg from one extreme to th lakei
· · • e 0lher
on amplitude) provided the swing is not too large. extreme, so 1ts time penod is 2 s. Thu
pendulum with a time period of oscillation equal s, a
(vi) Expression for the time period of simple .
to two seconds, zs known as a seconds pe~,1
,i,uu1wn
pendulum
The effective length of the seconds' pendulum,at·
-2
k The value of acceleration due to gravity g decreases with a place where g = 9 ·8 m s (the average value)
altitude as v-.·ell as with depth from the earth surface. is nearly 1 metre. ·

EXAMPLES

I. Calculate the length of a seconds' pendulum at a 2

or
place where g = 9·8 m s--2 • - 1-5 - 3
2
For seconds' pendulum T = 2-0 s, g = 9-8 m s- • i.e., T 1 : T2 = 2 : 3 (or 0·667 : 1)

From the relation T = 2n J+ , 3. Compare the time periods of two simple penduhm11
of length 1 m and 16 m at a place.

gT2
Given : 11 = 1 m and l 2 = 16 m
length of pendulum, l = - -2
4n Since Toe .Ji :. Ii_ = /4
9-8(2·0) 2
X
T2 V½
l = 4 x (3 _14)2 = 0·994 m
;: = ~ =: i.e., T1 : T2 = 1: 4
2. Compare the time periods of a simple pendulum at
1 a bob
d'ng
places whereg is 9·8 m s-2 and 4·36 m s-2 respectively. 4. (a) A simple pendulum is made by suspen 111
of mass 500 g by a string of length l m. Ca!~u a
9-8 m s-2 , g2 = 4-36 m s-2
5
Given its time period at a place where g = lO m •eff
1 T1 ~ (b) How will the time period in part (a) be ~Te;h 1:1
Since T oc
-fi :. T2 = 'y°i; bob of mass 100 g is used, keeping the en
string unchanged ?
24
 \J, (h, ,'n : .1 = I m. ,,: = !() m ~ :
' -I
Tune pcm-,J T = _;;
\ .,, . hcc:nt~L' it dncs nnt dqwnd on till' 111,1,, ol hoh
= 1·99 s
EXERCISE-1 (C)
I. \\l1at is a simpk pendulum ·7 Is the pendulum used
in a pendulum clock simple pendulum ·7 Give reason
w ~ our answer.
2. J?.~fine lhe tem1s : \i) o~cillation. (ii) amplimde.
(!II) frequenc~. and (I\') ume period as related to a
simple pendulum.
J. Dra~, a neat di~gram of a simple pendulum. Show
on It t:he effecm e length of the pendulum and its
one oscillation.
.J. '.'fame rira factors on which lhe time period of a
simple pendulum depends. Write ll1e relation for the
time period in terms of rhe above named factors.
5. :\'.rune nro factors on which the time period of a
simple pendulum does not depend.
6. How is the time period of a simple pendulum
affected. if at all. in lhe following situations :
(a) the length is made four times.
(b) the acceleration due to gravity is reduced to one-
fourth. Ans. (a) doubled, (b) doubled
7. How are the time period T and frequency f of an
oscillation of a simple pendulum related ?
I
Ans./= T
8. How do you measure the time period of a given
pendulum ? Why do you note the time for more
than one oscillation ?
9. How does the time period (D of a simple pendulum
depend on its length (/) ? Draw a graph showing
the variation of T 1 with l. How will you use this
graph to determine the value of g (acceleration due
to gravity) ?
10. Two simple pendulums A and B have equal lengths,
but their bobs weigh 50 gf and 100 gf respectively.
What would be the ratio of their time periods ? Give
reason for your answer.
Ans. I : 1 ; Reason : Time period does not
depend on the weight of the bob.
11. Two simple pendulums A and B have lengths 1·0 m
and 4-0 m respectively at a certain place. Which
pendulum will make more oscillations in 1 minute ?
Explain your answer.
25
(h) On l'll,lll)!llll,! till' h11h h) ,1111Hhc1 huh ol d1lk1,·111
lllass. the tllllL' pc11od will rtmain 11m1ffcrlt'1t
\us. A. The reason is that T oc J, :. time rcriocl
of B is more (twice) than that of/\. Hcm;c A will
make more oscillations (twice) in a given lime.
than B.
12. Stale how does the time period of a simple penc.lulum
depend on (a) length of pendulum, (b) mass of bob.
(c) amplitude of oscillation and (d) acceleration c.lue
lo gravity.
13. What is a seconds' pendulum ?
14. State the numerical value of the frequency of
oscillation of a seconds' pendulum. Does it depend
on the amplitude of oscillation ? Ans. 0-5 s- 1, No.
l\lultiple choice type :
1. The length of a simple pendulum 1s made
one-fourth. Its time period becomes :
(a) four times (b) one-fourth
(c) double (d) half. Ans. (d) half
2. The time period of a seconds' pendulum clock is :
(a) l s (b) 2 s
(c) I min (d) 12 h Ans. (b) 2 s
3. The length of a seconds' pendulum is nearly :
(a) 0-5 m (b) 9·8 m
Ans. (e) 1-0 m
(c) l·0 m (d) 2·0 m
Numericals :
1. A simple pendulum completes 40 oscillations
in one minute. Find its (a) frequency, (b) time period.
Ans. (a) 0-67 s-1 (b) 1·5 s
2. The time period of a simple pendulum is 2 s. What
is its frequency ? What name is given to such a
pendulum ? Ans. 0·5 s- 1• seconds· pendulum
3. A seconds' pendulum is taken to a place where
acceleration due to gravity falls to one-fourth. How
is the time period of the pendulum affected. if at
all ? Give reason. What will be its new time period '?
Ans. The time period increases (it is doubled) because
I
T oc Ji . Its ne\.\ time period will be ➔ ~-
 Find the length of a seconds ' pendulum at a pl ace ~
7
mple penuu ., J m.., a l
u ' pb e
1 he time raiod'> of two"' II be the r a ll< > ' I l' 1cir
where g = 10 m s- 2 (Taken= 3-14). arc in th e ratio 2 : I . Whcil wi \. , -t I
1
Am, l -0142 rn length <, '1
5. Compare the time periods of two pendulum ~ or length to rno\e f((>fll n1 can
8 , pendulum b.O b the umc p 1.: ric1 <l c> f
lt Lak e<, 0 -2 '> Ior a
1 m and 9 m. A 1\. l : 3 . . . • d What 1'>
f)O '> Jlion to one.; en · \
11
1, (J X
6. A pendulum completes 2 oscillaLion s in 5 -, _ pendulum ? .
(a) What is its time period ? (b) If g = 9 -8 rn s 2 . find I . <,econd<, pcndul11111
9. · d O c <, the bo b O a
How mu c h lim e . 1•l'> o'>ciilaLJ(•n t, 1
its length . tak e 10 m ove Jrom on e
• extreme o 1 .\ ,. J ...
11
An\ ( a) 2-5 s. (b ) 1-55 m th e o ther ex treme '?