CHAPTER

6
Ergonomics
Peter M. Budnick

Industrial Therapy Worker Care Spectrum

Ability Management: Disability Management:
Placement &Prevention Rehabilitation& Return to Work
Education & Work
Training Hardening

Job Work Work Exit

Analysis Conditionin Functional Conditioning Assessment

Capacity
Assessment
Job
Job Job
Placement Place Injury
Acute Return

9scription Offer ment Care To Work

ASsessment
Job
Analysis
Job
Modification Conditioning

Job
|Modification

achieve a greater understanding of complex issues that

Throughout the early industrial age, Western man was
quite often forced to adapt himself, in some sense to
Subject himself, to the machine. To this day we have not
yet completely reversed the relationship, for there is still
much to be understood and much to be done in mastering
our technological innovations.
Humans design things for themselves to make life
easier, more comfortable, and safer. Why, then, do we
continue to adapt, or even subject ourselves, to tech-
nology created by us? Why do we not focus more
closely on that most important parameter, the human
being, when we design products, systems, and envi-
ronments that interface with humans?
These are the perplexing philosophical questions
that hit squarely on the topic of this chapter. You will
not find the answers here, but with some luck you will
interplay in the design and analysis of living and
working environments. You may also gain a new
perspective on such issues, and pick up a few ideas
applying to the problem.
some useful definitions are
First, presented to
clarify ergonomics and what is required of the qualified
ergonomist. Next, the history of ergonomics is traced
from its practical beginnings in the Industrial Age
through today. This is followed by an overview of
ergonomic principles and concepts, the building blocks
of any successful intervention, analysis, or design
effort.
The chapter closes with discussion of the essential
elements of an ergonomics program that complements
any organization committed to improving bottom-
line concerns. This includes productivity, quality, and

75
 Part ll Injury Prevention
76

the breadth of one's knowledge of the various subject

understood
employee health and safety. It should be arcas that constitute ergonomic expertise. The BCPE
that this chapter is only a cursory review of some follows:
as
selected ergonomic topics. It should not be taken as a defines an ergonomist
summary of the profession, which becomes immedi about human abilities
Ergonomics is a body of knowledge ties,
ately clearer as you read the definitions in the next human limitations and human characteristics that are
section. relevant to design. Ergonomic design is the application of
his body of knowledge to the design of tools, machines
What is Ergonomics? Systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for safe, comfort
able and effective human use.
The word "ergonomics" originates from the Greck
words crgon, meaning "work," and nomos, meaning
The board certifies practitioners of ergonomics, not
crgonomics researchers or theoreticians. A practitioner of
laws. Literally, ergonomics means the "laws of crgonomics is a person who has; (a) a mastery of a body of
work."Depending on one's viewpoint, ergonomics can
be either a science or an applied technology. For ergonomics knowledge, () a command of the methodolo-
example, Wilson" views ergonomics as both a science gies used by ergonomists in applying that knowledge to
the design of a product, system, job, or environment, and
and a technology, implying the need for data collec-
(c) has applied his or her knowledge in the analysis,
tion,
analysis,
application, and evaluation of applica-
tion. He puts forth this broad definition design, testing and evaluation of products, systems, and
(originally Cnvironments.
reported by Christensen et al, 1988):
The Glossary of OSHAs "Ergonomics Program Man-
That branch of science and technology that includes wlhat
is known and theorized about human behavioral and agement Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants,"" dis.
cussed in the ergonomics program section later in this
biological characteristics that can-be validly applied to the
chapter, provides yet another definition of an ergonom-
specificatio1, design, evaluation, operation, and mainte-
ist, or professional ergonomist:
1ace of products and systems to enhance safe, effective,
and satisfying use by individuals, groups and organiza- . .a person who possesses a recognized degree or profes-
tions.
sional credentials in ergonomics or a closely related allied
field (such as human factors engineering) and who has
In contrast, Obornes believes ergonomics rests
squarely in thekind
applied domain.. its
.

sole purpose
is demonstrated, througlh knowledge and experience, the
ability to identify and recommend effective means of
to relate of
some
working system to the operator's correction for ergonomic hazards in the workplace.
abilities." Oborne does discuss the importance and
role of scientific investigations, ". . . or at least the
results and implications of those investigations. .
Presumably, the OSHA ergonomics standard, report
edly to be completed by the end of 1994, will include a
and makes a case for conducting those studies in a definition that may differ from these. BCPE notes that
naturalistic environment, rather than a laboratory set- "ergonomics" is regarded as synonymous with "hu-
ting. man factors" and "human factors
A
qualified ergonomist must possess knowledge a source of confusion
engineering." This is
from variety of traditionally separate disciplines. The
a among practitioners and lay
people alike.
in
origin the study of work, an emphasis on productivi-
ty, more recently within the health and safety commu- Ergonomics is often used to refer to the applied
sciencefocusing on the physical aspects of human
nity, the use of engineering and psychological model-
work and
ing concepts applying to the human, all constitutes the capabilities, such as strength, size, ana
extensive training to posture. More specifically, this might better be termed
absence of learning
an
ergonomics expert. In the "industrial ergonomics." "Human factors," or "human
by actual experience, such exper- factors
tise is afforded by a combination of graduate training at engineering" is often taken to refer to the
an accredited institution and psychological aspects of humans, such as decision
To sten the inevitable practice. making processes, perception, mental loading, ana
if uninformed, bandwagon of enthusiastic, behavior. However, the used
Board of self-proclaimed ergonomics experts, the and ergonomics is
names are
synonymously,
Certification for Professional generally more
recognizable the
to
(BCPE) has been cstablished "to Ergonomists public.
organization certifying qualifivd provide formal a
Perhaps it was said best by Laughery" in his
nomics" (BCPE, 1993). practitioners ergo-
of discussion regarding the name of the Human Factors
From this Society: The Society represents a
the BCPE,
point forward, assuming success oftlhe that discipline has
fication by
professional ergonomists niust achieve certi-
two names, and the one we are not
using-ergonomne
passing certification cxam
a has become better known
and widely recog
designed to test nized than the one we are
more

using-human factors. Tne

 Chapter 6 Ergonomics 77

Society h.1s since changed its name to Iluman Eactors FIGURE 6.1 Power Mechanic by Lewis Hines. This
amous photograph illustrates the first level
and Ergonomics Society.
To contuse the matter more, vou may encounter of technology where the human supplies
terms like human engineerng," "human pertor- power and control.
m.ance engineering," or industrial psychology."
which describe speialized approaches to topics that
generally tall under the ergonomics umbrella. Review-
ing the history of the field may shed some light on how
and why such a variety of people and specialties have
come to use the term "ergonomies" to describe them-
selves and their protession.
The debate over what ergonomics is, what knowl-
cdge constitutes ergonomie enpertise, and who should
Tighttully practice ergonomics, will surely continue
well into the future. While this author concedes a bias
toward an engineering approach, materials covered in
this chapter should indicate that a reasonable approach
to ergonomics will often require a multidisciplinary
perspective. Frequently, such perspective is not avail-
able through one individual expert, and is not feasible
because of the financial burden a large team of experts
presents.

History of Ergonomics
One way to understand the history of ergonomics is to
view it in the context of technological development.
Writing from the perspective of studying and improv-
hu-
ing human performance, Bailey' notes that early
man concerns with gathering food, protection
from the
environment, animals, and other people probably
provided the motivation for the first tool develop-
ments.
the odds (From George Eastman House.)
Improving pertormance meant improving
of survival for individuals and groups. With humble
sticks and stones to fashion tools,
beginnings using
human technology has progressed to the complex
today. Fueling level of technology exists when the machine supplies
systems and machines we depend on

industrial revolu- both power and information, but the human still
this progression, especially since the controls the operation. The paper-making plant shown
tion is a complex web of economics and
human
role in the in Figure 6.3 on page 81, is an example of this level. At
knowledge, each of which play a significant the highest level, the machine supplies power, control,
development of ergonomics.
and information, and the human role becomes one of
Kantowitz classifies four levels of technology by
monitorng the operation, intervening only when nec-
focusing on the contributions made by hunnans and
machines to the total system, in terms of power and essary.
control. At the lowest level, the human supplies both The cockpit of a modern airplane while on auto-

power and control. Pushing/pulling a cart, lifting

and
carrying, using a shovel, and using a nmanual hand tool
(Figure 6.1) are examples of the first level of tech-
nology.
At the second level, the machine supplies the
primary power, while the human retains control. Oper-
ating a punch press, a powered nut-runner, or welding
(Figure 6.2, page 78) are examples of second level
technologies.
As technological eomplexity increases, the third
pilot (Figure 6.4, page 79) is one example of the
fourth and highest level of technology. Conceivably,
there is a fifth level of technology in which the machine
provides power, control, and the ability to monitor
itself and make intelligent decisions in the complete
absence of human intervention. To date, there is no such
machine.
Bernardino Ramazinni is often cited as an early
recognition that exposure to "certain violent and irreg-
ularmotions and unnatural postures. . by which .

(Michael C. Hayman Photo Researchers)
the natural structure of the living machine is o im
paired that serious discases gradually develop. ."
He made this observation prior to the industrial revolu
tion, while technology was primarily at level
one
Oddly, even as the industrial revolution espanded
the levels and impacts of technolopy on individuals,
little has been done, until recently, to address the
problem of Cumulative Traunna Disorders (CTDs).
Chaffin notes that economics and the lack of basic
knowledge concerning the mechanics of the human
body is in part respornsible for the slow development of
ergonomics.
Manual labor was
inexpensive and easily replaced.
The biomechanical knowledge that did exist Vas
gen-
erally restricted to intellectuals, and rarely reached the
commercial enterprises that could have benefited fromn
it,
Near the turn of this century, an inmportant link
between labor and economics was made by 1'rederick
Taylor." Combining the practical experience he gained
as a laborer with the theorelical
knowledge he gained
in studies of mechanical engineering, he questioned:
"What is the best way to do this job?" Ile applied a
scientific approach to study work (until that time,
scientific methods had primarily been the tool of
FaUNE A o ahing plail ilualinlss ihe tifd
lovsl ol lou Iwoyy ho plail oplie
(Courteay Welvaco Corporatlion)
ehemistry and physie). I lis most fanous study focused
1 shoveling wlhile employed by ethlehem Steel
'rior to his study, 400 to o00 employees spent most of
their time shoveling a variety of materials. Each
em
ployee brought his own shovel, none were trained, and
pay was $1.15 per day,
y varying the coop sizes of the shovels, and thus
their carrying capacity, Taylor determined that the
axinum amount of material shoveled
per day o
curred wlen the material load was 21.5 pounds (tor
distances up to four feet and heights less than five
feet)
To apply this new knowledge, he had special shovel
sizes purchased, cach to be used for different materias
being shoveled. F'rom then on, employees were issued
slhovels each day; large scoops for ashes, medium ro
coal, and small for ore.
Dy studying the work, Taylor was also able to
establish a standard amount to be shoveled per day tor
Cach type of nmaterial. After receiving training in proper
shoveling methods, and being issued the proper too
tor the particular material
type, each worker tha
CxCeededl the day's standard received a 60% bonus
above tle day wage. Workers who were unable to
achieve tandards were put on a different job. Quie
common loday, thee concepts of
studying work, in

FIGURE 6.4 The cockpit of Boeing 757 jet illustrates the highest level of
a
airplane supplies power, control, and information while the technology.
the
(Courtesy of Boeing.)
selection were
centive pay, and personnel
Taylor's era,
When Taylor's methods were applied at Bethle-
hem, the same amount of material was moved by only
140 employees (each making 60% higher wages). The
material handling costs, including the cost of the
studies, new tools, and the wage bonuses, was cut by
half. "Taylorism,'' the idea that jobs should be de-
SIgned by experts, and workers should just follow
1nstructions, resulted in dramatic productivity im
provements that contributed to equally dranatic in-
creases in standard of living for many cultures. Howev-
er, knowledge levels of individuals throughout society
not just the "experts," have increased since Taylor's
time, and now employee involvement in the design of
work, is an important part of successful ergonomics
and successful organization.
Chaptor 6 Ergonornics 79
When the autopilot is engaged
hunan monitors the operation.
innovative in Henry Ford, incorrectly credited for theautomobile
assembly line, made another important contribution to
the economic worth of humans engaged in organized
work. (Random Olds had applied the assembly line
concept in 1899, ten years betore Ford. However, Ford
dominated the auto building industry and held the
public's eye.)"
By studying and controlling job and work design
Ford made significant productivity inecreases. Through
the use of assembly lines, Ford was supplying one halt
of the world's automobiles by 1924. An important
factor in this success was his move to inerease employ-
ee pay from $2.50 per nine hour day to $5.00 per eight
hour day. He also established a $30,000,000 profit-
sharing fund. Certainly, Ford made a significant
amount of money himself, but his methods resulted in
employees being more and more an economic factor in
 Part II Injury Prevention
80

hand,other itself is responsible for some productivity increases,

business and production decisions. On the rather than the varied, specific parameters. The Haw
method also exposed employees
this type of assembly thorne studies still debated today, are nevertheless
factor associated
activities, one
to highly repetitive to the study of workplace
with ergonomic hazards. important contributions
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth are credited with
anoth- productivity.
economic and sci-
the study of work: micromotion So far in this discussion, the
er important tool in have been restricted
of entific advancements detailed
study. The contributions they made in the study second levels of technolog
micromotions laid the foundation for methods that are primarily to the first and
this section. These de
described at the beginning of
used to this day. in the realm of industrial
A key job in Mr. Gilbreth's construction business velopments fall primarily
recall is only one aspect of
(he was an engineer) was bricklaying. He had learned ergonomics, which you'll
or human factors en-
bricklaving as a teenager, and later applied his analyti- the overall field of ergonomics,
cal skills to study the trade in detail. Using micromo- gineerin8 I
After the depression in the 1930s, World War
tion studies, he broke the entire job into small sub-
scientific and technological advance
tasks, each requiring small motions or actions. With spurred rapid levels of
ments. During that period higher technology
this detailed understanding of the job, he was able to shift in focus occurred in
became more common, and a
the
optimize the motions required by humans to satisfy human-machine
which psychological aspects of the
job requirements. interface became increasingly important.
Gilbreth also redesigned work methods, scaffold-
of the
mortar consistency to reduce the
The emphasis shifts, in part, to the study
ing, and standardized where humans
number and extent of the motions required by the
mind in the higher levels of technology,
exercise control over information and decision-making
worker. When he was finished, he had reduced the in complex machines and systems, rather than mostly
number of motions per brick from 18 to 4.5. Using his levels.
new methods, bricklayers were able to lay 350 bricks/ physical control and power at lower
No matter how much training, motivation, and
hour, compared to the previous record for similar work selection the militaries applied to their
of 120 bricks/hour. What made this work so important personnel
continued to occur.
was the job he studied; bricklaying had been per- troops, accidents and catastrophes
to Human performance, or so it seemed, couldn't keep up
formed for 3,000 years. Applying systematic study with the technology. As Taylor reflected in 1957,
the work, one man wasable to generate a 300%
the methods developed through "bombs and bullets often missed their targets, planes
improvement over crashed, friendly ships were fired upon and sunk, and
experience for over 3,000 years.
After Frank Gilbreth died, Lillian continued
his whales were depth charged." As reported by Bailey
work on micromotion study, and the many small (1989-courtesy of the American Psychologist), Taylor
elenents they recorded are called "therbligs,"
Gilbreth further observed that:
form the basis
spelled back wards-almost. Therbligs
motion-time studies used to establish the time
it
for Regardless of how much he could be stretched by trainin
perform specific tasks. Many ergonomists
use
takes to or pared down through selection, there were still mary
variations on the therblig theme to break a job down
into its essential elements, for detailed hazard analysis military equipments which the man just could not e
molded to fit. They required of him too many hands, too
and abatement. Lillian is also credited as the first many feet, or in the case of some of the more comple
person to develop process charts and symbols. Her devices, to0 many heads
charts were the forerunners of system developers' flow
charts, and her symbols are some of the first icons to be
Sometimes they called for the ope rator to see targes
which were close to invisible, or to understand speech
used in business.
the presence of deafening noise, to track simultaneousiy
After World War I, the Industrial Fatigue Board was
in three coordinates with two hands, to solve analog, fo
set up in England. The board reportedly relied on
objective neasures to indicate evidence of fatigue in complex ditferential equations, or to consider larg
the workplace. Up until 1929, the board produced 6l
amounts of information and to reach life-and-dean
decisions in split seconds with no hope of another try.
reports.
A series of productivity studies at the Western
Electric Hawthorne plant were implemented in 1927 For this author, two points stand out in tthis
After twelve years and five studies focusing on the passage. The idea that the human be "molded to "
relationship between workplace illumination inten- the technology, and the idea that the technolo
sity and productivity, many questions were left un- required "too many heads." Using 20/20 hindsign
answered. These studies are remembered as the this author and
"Hawthorne effect." It may well be that change in
emphasizes a match between human a
machine, rather than molding the human to the ma-

chine. If molding is to occur it should
emphasize th
design ot the system. not the human.
In practice. it is otten a
molding of the technology
to fit human characteristics oombined with a molding
of human operators through training. selection, and
motivation that constitutes an ergonomic approach.
The concept of "too manv heads," as Taylor puts it,
emphasizes an important divergence in the field of
ergonomics. As terhnologr entered the third and
fourth levels described above. there became a pro-
nounced need to tocus on the mental. or psychological
aspects ot the human-machine interface. To this day, as
discussed in the detinitions section above, there has
been contusion over terminology and "membership'"
in the field of ergonomics, with the
psychological
viewpoint generally using the name "human factors
engineering. and the physical or biomechanically
oriented viewpoint using the term "ergonomics."
Todav, the terms are, for the most part, interchange-
able.
Since World War I, there has been a flurry of
activity in studying human capabilities and limitations,
and applying that knowledge to the design and evalua
tion of work and living environments. A variety of
texts, journals, and organizations have risen to meet
the challenge-too many to summarize here. Assum-
ing that therapists most often interface with ergonom-
ics in the industrial setting this historical focus will
conclude with developments that fall in that arena.
In particular, biomechanical modeling and the
wider of cumulative trauma disorders as a
recognition
Significant workplace concern, both industrial ergo-
nomics topics, will conclude this discussion.
Chaffin provides a summary of epidemiological
biomechanics, which can be
support for occupational
viewed as a supporting sub-specialty of ergonomics."
He notes that in the 1970s, for a variety of socioeco-
nomic reasons, there was a realization
that health and
quality of life are greatly reduced for a large population
disorders.
due to acute and chronic musculoskeletal
Since then, many industries have acknowledged
this
in
S1gnificant cost burden, in terms of degradations
bottom-line cost, and competitiveness factors, such as
quality and productivity. Chaffin' summarizes a report
published in 1978 by J.K. Kelsey:
About 20 million people in the United States
had musculoskeletal impairments.
Musculoskeletal conditions ranked second
to Circulatory system diseases in total econom-
ic cost, and ranked first among all
disease
groups in cost attributed to lost earnings and
non-fatal illnesses (about $20 million in 1972).
In the United States, at least 85,000 work-
ers receive permanent disability allowances for
musculoskeletal conditions each year
Chapter 6 Ergonomics 81
Back injuries accounted for about one-
sixth of all occupational injuries
Since that time, these numbers have continued to
rise, and awareness of musculoskeletal disorders has
increased. OSHAs*"Ergonomics Program Management
Guidelines for Meatpacking Plants" begins with the
tollowing
In recent yeurs, there has been a significant increase in
reporting of Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs) and
other work-related disorders due to ergonomic hazards.
CTDs aecount for an increasingly large percentage of
Workers' Compensation costs each year, and they repre-
sent nearly half of the occupational illnesses reported in
tihe amual Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) survey.
Much of the inerease in CTDs exp0se employees to
InCTeased repetitive motion and other ergononnic risk
may bt attributed to increased
awareness-
factors; some
by industry, labor, and government-and reporting of
these disorders.
This passage covers the three main topics that have
repeatedly surfaced in this historical perspective on
ergonomics; economics, type of work, and human
knowledge. Recall that early in the industrial revolu-
tion, workers, for all intents and purposes, were inex-
pensive and replaceable, and knowledge was often
reserved by specialists outside of the commercial sec
tors that could benefit from it.
Consequently, little effort was directed toward the
human machine interface early on. As technology
developed and required new and different work roles
from humans beyond simple physical power input and
manual control, a more educated and conditioned
work force was required.
Additionally, the costs required for selecting, train-
ing. keeping, and motivating a work force in higher
level technologies increased the economic worth of
employees in industry. Thus, as knowledge is dissemi-
nated to a wider population and the economic value of
individual employees increases, so has the need for
and knowledge about ergonomics increased.
ERGONOMICS PROGRAMMING
For better or for worse the Occupational Safety and
lealth Administration (OSHA) has identified cumu
lative trauma disorders and the ergonomic risk fac-
tors that contribute to them, as primary enforcement
targets. The meat-packing industries in particular have
been singled out due to high incidence and severity of
CTDs, culminating in OSHAs first step in producing
ergonomic guidelines for industry.
 Part il Injury Prevention
$2

The Ergonomics Program Management Guidelines Ergonomic Program Elements

for Meatpacking Plants (U.S. Department of Labor,
and Health Administration, Once organizational commitments are made, the ero.
Occupational Safety
OSHA 3123, 1991) sets outlines that summarize corpo- nomics program should be developed with at leas
rate commitments, program elements, detailed guid- these three elements; worksite analysis, hazard Dre
ance and examples, some simple assessment tool ex- vention and control, and training and education. Thee
hibits. a bibliography, glossary, and a questions-and- elements work in concert with existing organizational
answers section, thus providing a basis for those health and safety programs and a comprehensiv.
attempting to set up an ergonomics program. medical management program.
As this is written, OSHA is writing a standard Ergonomic improvements will often affect tho
which may appear within the year. The meatpacker workplace and design methods. Engineers and other
guidelines are expected to serve as the basis for that product and process experts will also benefit the
standard. This section describes the basic elements of a programn.
Successtul ergonomics program, and remains The worksite analysis is used to identify existing
tent, yet not all inclusive, with the
consis
meatpackers guide- hazards and conditions which may contribute to ergo
lines. nomic risks. This includes confidential analysis of
medical, insurance, and other injury-reporting records
This serves to identify tasks or work areas which
Management Commitment require further hazard analysis and controls. This
It cannot be stressed enough that the most
process is also used to identify low risk and light duty
important jobs, which should be shared with, and applied by,
factor to initiate and sustain a successful ergonomics
healthcare officials when injured employees are being
program takes clear and true commitment from man-
agement. That commitment should be evident at all reassigned to work.
management levels. When the corporate culture is such Under no circumstances should a recovering em-
ployee be returned to a job that stresses the same body
that all members are committed and dedicated to
success, then that organization will benefit from an tissues and regions of the original CTD. The ergonomic
hazard evaluation of specific workstations and tasks
ergonomics program. In fact, an ergonomics program
compliments and integrates well with other manage-
should identify the muscle and tendon groups and
ment initiated programs designed to enhance
tissues that are stressed, and this information trans-
competi- ferred to those in charge of work
tiveness, such as Total Quality Management (TQM). reassignments.
In the absence of management commitment, an Following the worksite hazard evaluations are
organization will remain in a reactive ergonomics hazard prevention and controls consisting of one or more
mode, which will likely produce unforeseen, avoidable of the following; engineering controls, workpractice
long term losses, degradations in quality, reliability, controls, and administrative controls. Personal
tive
protec
productivity, and efficiency, in addition to the com- equipment are not necessarily ergonomic controls
monly understood health and safety losses. in themselves, but should be selected and fitted so as
not to contribute to
ergonomic stressors. For example
improperly selected or fitted gloves can significanty
Employee Involvement increase grip forces. Braces, splints, back belts, ana
other sinmilar devices are not
A successful personal protective equ
organizational commitment will include ment, and should never be used as such.
employee involvement. Observations show that no
matter how Engineering controls, where feasible, are the
pr
many experts and supposed experts parade ferred means of
through a workstation, the actual problems, and often controlling hazards in the workplace
Rather than seek minimum
the solutions, are left in the head of the
person most
to
exposures
engineering controls are used to minimize or eliminate
a
hazaru
knowledgeable with the area; the employee perform- the hazard all
ing the task. together by physically altering the wot
area. Administrative controls focus on
Employee involvement, in understanding and cor- reducing
ployee exposure to known hazards. For example, usi
recting ergonomic hazards, is a crucial part of the job rotation, increasing the number of
overall process, especially after
employees have re- employ
ceived training to recognize and correct such providing rest pauses, and
reducing production ra
hazards. Can reduce duration,
This fits well with the trend in American
industry to Sure to
frequency, and severity t e
"empower" the employees, and has been notably ergonomic stressors.
effective when employee team Work practice controls are safe are

approaches
have been understood and followed by practices tnas visors

implemented. managers,
and
employees alike. Important elementssup rk in

practice controls include using proper work tech-
niques, employee training and conditioning, regular
monitoring, feedback, maintenance, adjustments and
modifications, and enforcement.
It should be
emphasized that cach of these general
elements should exist in an effective
ergonomics pro-
gram, but it is this author's opinion tlhatonly engineer-
ing controls actually minimize or eliminate ergonomic
hazards
Work practices,
especially if they conflict with the
most natural and efficient means of
completing a task,
may not be etfective and may negatively affect produc-
tion requirements. Administrative controls also come
with expense, and may not
always be adhered to under
production demands. Engineering controls may be
more expensive up-front, but they do reduce or elimi-
nate hazards, and they do minimize additional costs in
the long run, when injuries have occurred because of
their absence.
The fourth major clement of an
ergonomics pro-
gram, training and education throughout all levels of the
organization, is crucial to success. Giving each individ-
ual the knowledge to recognize, understand the effects
of, and ultimately the power to initiate control of
ergonomic hazards will have long lasting positive
effects.
A training program should include and be specifi-
cally tailored for the following generic organizational
groups; all effected employees, engineers and mainte-
nance personnel, supervisors, managers, and health
care providers. Each plays an important role in the
Overall program, and each requires specific knowledge.
Coordination among individuals in each of the groups
is also required for success. The training should be
conducted by qualified personnel with a broad under-
standing and expertise in the field of ergonomics,
which includes extensive background knowledge in
technical, health, and safety, as discussed in the intro-
duction.
Both general and job specific training should be
provided for effected employees. The general training
should familiarize the employee with the nature of
CTDS, the risk factors that may contribute to them,
how to recognize and report such factors, any symp-
toms they may experience, and the steps each can take
to prevent disorders.
Job specific training, at a minimum, should be
provided for all new or reassigned employees. This
type of initial orientation training is useful in teaching
employees other job specifie methods and concepts,
which often compliments ergonomic training. As nmen-
tioned previously, sound ergonomics often im1proves
other bottom-line organizational motives including
quality, efficiency, and productivity.
The content of job specific training depends on the
Chapler 6 Ergonomics 83
tasks required by the job. However, in general it should
include instruction regarding the proper use, mainte-
nance, and application of tools, jigs, and other process
implements, the purpose of any safety equipment, and
proper task methods to be used in the completion of
the job requirements.
Important in this process, and ultimately the moti-
vation empowering employees with such knowledge,
is to instruct, allow, and encourage individuals to
develop and implement safe and efficient methods,
tools, and implements to meet the job requirements
SUMMARY
The specialty known as ergonomics evolved through a
complex mix of economics and human knowledge. As
the marketplace increases the real value of individual
employees and as accurate knowledge and information
are widely disseminated throughout the population,
more resources are made available to optimize the
performance of employees.
Optimizing employee performance includes moti-
vation, training, and compatibility with work station
design. An ergonomics program which ensures input
and communication between all involved parties and
individuals is crucial when optimizing the human-ma-
chine interface. This type of organizational commit-
ment and vision works well with similar competitive
strategies, such as quality improvement programs. The
benefits of such optimization efforts are reflected in
increased productivity and quality. Employee safety,
health, and comfort are also increased.
Ideally, ergonomics is applied proactively, begin-
ning with the earliest design phases for product and
process designs and carried on throughout the life of
those products and processes. This is the most effective
and efficient opportunity in terms of both cost and long
term success.
In the absence of proactive ergonomics, a reactive
approach may be required to control existing or un-
foreseen hazards. This is generally less effective and
more expensive than proactive approaches, but still
cost effective when potential losses related to employee
injuries and reduced productivity and quality are con-
sidered.
The wide variety of knowledge required for an
etfective ergonomics approach requires either a quali-
fied ergonomist with extensive training, or a team
approach involving members with differing special
skills. Knowledge of human physical and psychologi-
cal capabilities and limitations, human anatomy, phys-
iology, medicine, and engineering should be applied
when devising an ergonomics intervention or program.
 Provention
$4 Pat I Injury

and un- a molding of technology to fit the human,prefera

as

The abilities to apply scientific methodology

are also re- to molding of human to technology. Realisticallly, a
fit
in industries extremes is required, howeo
derstand technologies used combination of the two er,
tor successtul ergonomics.
adapting technology to the human seems much wise
quired to reduce ergo-
There general methods
are three in the long term.

nomie hazards in the workplace.

are used to reduce or
Engineering controls machine and system
eliminatea hazard through
design or moditication.
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Administrative
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factors/ergonomics to achieve computer system usability,
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Work method controls are
2. Cartier-Bresson H: Man and Machine, photographs by
and rule-
employee behavior through training be-
Henri Cartier-Bresson, IBM World Trade Corporation,
the interface
making intended to improve 1969, Davis-Delaney-Arrow.
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Engineering controls seek to Wiley & Sons.
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als, an introductory pamphlet, Bellingham, Wash, 1993
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ed 3, Worth-
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Horizons.
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to fit the ington, Ohio, 1990, Publishing Human
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Economic and technical feasibility certainly play
a
&
reduction. This author practical ergonomics methodology, London, 1990, Taylor
arge role in ergonomic hazard
Francis.
advocates the elimination of hazard through design,
or