Electrical Measuring Instruments

Electrical Measuring Instruments

7.1 Introduction

Electrical Measuring Instruments are used to measure magnitude of various electrical quantities such as
current, voltage, resistance, power, energy etc. A fixed quantity is taken as ‘unit’ in order to measure the
magnitude of electrical quantities. The process of comparing any quantity with a fixed unit for recording
its magnitude is known as ‘measurement’ and the overall system involved for this purpose is called as the
‘Measuring System’. In this chapter we will discuss the various electrical measuring instruments and their
working and principles associated with them.

7.2 Classification of Electrical Measuring Instruments

All Electrical measuring instruments can be classified as follow:

Absolute Instruments
Secondary Instruments

Integrating Instruments
Recording Instruments
Indicating Instruments

Moving Coil
Moving Iron Type
Hot Wire
Electrostatic
Induction Type

These instruments will be discussed in detail in later sections.

7.3 Operating Principles of Electrical Measuring Instruments

Most of the electrical quantities for e.g. current, voltage, power etc. cannot be observed physically. These
quantities are converted in to a mechanical force and then the force is measured.
This mechanical force will move the pointer over the calibrated scale, indicating the value of electrical
quantity to be measured.
This conversion from electrical quantity under measurement into mechanical force is done by using the
following effects:
1) Magnetic Effect
2) Thermal (or heating) effect
3) Electrodynamics effect
4) Electromagnetic effect
5) Electrostatic effect
6) Chemical effect

7.4 Essential Torques of an Indicating Instrument

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The analog instruments like ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter consist essentially of a moving system
with a pointer attached to it.
For satisfactory operation, the moving system is pivoted by jeweled bearings and is subjected to the
following three distinct torques:
1) Deflecting Torque
2) Controlling Torque
3) Damping Torque

7.4.1 Deflecting Torque

The torque which is responsible for the movement of the pointer from its zero position to the required
deflection is called Deflecting torque. The Deflecting torque can be produced by magnetic, thermal,
induction effects of current. In general, it is based upon the operating principle of the instrument. A
Deflecting torque is required to overcome the inertia, damping effect and controlling effect of the moving
system.

7.4.2 Controlling Torque

With the help of the deflecting torque, the pointer deflection will take place on the calibrated scale but to
stop the pointer at the definite position, controlling torque comes in to action. As the deflection of the
pointer increases, the controlling torque also increases and stops the pointer at the measured value.
Controlling torque is also known as restoring torque i.e. it brings back the pointer to its zero position
when deflecting torque is withdrawn. The pointer attains a steady position when controlling torque
becomes numerically equal to deflecting torque i.e. Td = Tc.
The controlling torque or restoring torque can be achieved in measuring instruments by the following two
methods:
(i) Spring Control (ii) Gravity Control

(i) Spring Control: In this method, two spiral hair springs are used (Fig 7.1). They are made up of
phosphor-bronze and spiraled in opposite direction.

Fig 7.1

One end of both the springs is attached to the body of the instrument and other end is attached to the
moving system.
The use of two springs also avoids error due to temperature variations. When the instrument is not in
use, the two springs are in their natural position without any tension or compression. When the
instrument is connected in the circuit for the measurement, deflecting torque acts and the pointer
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moves on the calibrated scale. One of the springs is unwound while the other gets twisted. The
resultant movement in the springs provides the controlling torque. More the deflection more is the
twist and hence greater will be the controlling torque. Thus the controlling torque is directly
proportional to the deflection of the moving system, i.e.
Tc θ (7.01)
And it is also clear that the pointer comes to rest when controlling torque becomes numerically
equal to deflecting torque i.e.
Td = Tc (7.02)
But the deflection or the deflection torque depends upon the current I hence
Td I (7.03)
So from equations (7.01) & (7.03)
I θ (7.04)

(ii) Gravity Control: In gravity control method two adjustable weights Wc and Wb are attach to the
moving system. The controlling torque can be varied by adjusting the position the control weight
(Wc) upon the arm (Fig 7.2).

Fig 7.2

Under the action of the deflecting torque the pointer is deflected through an angle θ from its zero
position to the dotted position as shown in the Fig 7.2. Due to the gravitational force acting on the
weight, it would try to come back to its original position (Vertical) and will produce the controlling
torque.
Let
θ = angle through which pointer (and hence weights) is deflected
l = distance of controlling weight from the axis of rotation
W = control weight
During deflection the controlling weight, Wc, can be resolved in to two component, i.e. Wccos θ and
Wc sin θ. The component Wc sin θ provides the controlling torque.
Tc = Wc sin θ × l (7.05)
As Wc and l have fixed values hence
Tc sin θ (7.06)
The pointer comes to rest when controlling torque becomes numerically equal to deflecting torque
i.e.
Td = Tc (7.02)
But the deflection or the deflecting torque depends upon the current I hence
Td I (7.03)
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So from equations (7.02), (7.03) & (7.06)

I sin θ (7.07)
7.4.3 Damping Torque

When the moving system of the instrument is subjected to deflecting and controlling torques, due to its
inertia, the pointer oscillates around its final position before it settle down there. This type of oscillation
makes it difficult to obtain the accurate readings quickly.
With the help of the damping torque the oscillations can be damped out and the pointer can be brought to
the final position quickly. The damping should oppose the movement of the pointer but should be, at the
same time, depends on it so that it ceases to operate once the pointer comes to rest and hence does not
affects its final deflection.
For developing damping torque the commonly used methods are:
(i) Air Friction damping (ii) Eddy Current Damping
(iii) Hydraulic damping

(i) Air Friction damping

In this method, light aluminum piston, which is attached to the moving system, moves in an air
chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. 7.3.

Fig. 7.3

There is very little clearance between the piston and the air chamber. When the spindle moves due
to a deflecting torque, the piston also move along with it, say out of cylinder, the air pressure
inside the cylinder fall thus the outward movement of the piston is opposed by the outside air at
atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when the piston is moved into the cylinder, the air trapped inside
the chamber is compressed and opposes the movement. Thus, the suction and compression action
on the air produces the necessary damping torque inside and thereby the oscillation of the pointer
is arrested.

(ii) Eddy Current Damping

In eddy-current damping, a thin disc of conducting but non-magnetic material like aluminum or
copper is attached to the instrument spindle as shown in Fig. 7.4.

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Fig. 7.4
The disc is allowed to move along with the spindle inside the magnetic field provided by a
permanent magnet. The movement of the disc causes an eddy e.m.f to get induced in it causing an
eddy current to flow. The flux set up eddy current interacting with the magnetic field exerts a force
on disc. The force by lenz’s law, opposes the movement of the disc. Thus necessary damping
torque is provided.

(iii) Hydraulic damping

In hydraulic damping or fluid friction damping the vanes are connected to the moving system and
are kept in the oil filled pot (Fig 7.5) which has high viscosity. When pointer tries to oscillates, the
vanes and fluid viscosity opposes the motion of pointer. Hence the required damping torque is
produce.

Fig. 7.5

In this method no extra care is required as in case of air friction damping.

But this method is not suitable for portable instruments because there can be leakage of oil. It has
to be always used in vertical position only.

7.5 Moving Coil Instruments

There are two type of Moving Coil instruments, viz. (i) Permanent Magnet type and (ii) Dynamometer
type.

7.5.1 Permanent Magnet Type Moving Coil Instruments

Fig. 7.6 shows the main parts of permanent magnet type moving coil instrument. It consist of a coil of
very thin insulated copper wire wound on an aluminum former and placed in the field of a strong
horseshoe shaped permanent magnet.

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Fig. 7.6
The aluminum former carrying the coil is fitted to facilitate is fitted to shaft. The shaft ends are housed in
jewel bearings to facilitate frictionless movement of the former together with the coil. The current to the
coil fed through two spiral spring, one on either side of the coil. The spring in addition to serving as lead
wires, also provide the controlling torque. A pointer is attached to shaft and the entire moving system is
carefully balanced by suitable counter weights.
When a current pass through the coil, a deflecting torque is produced causing the moving system,
including the pointer, to the swing through angle proportional to the current. The pointer is usually
provided with a knife edge and is arranged to move over graduated dial. A mirror is also provided on dial
besides the graduations to facilitate in observing the readings without parallax error. The deflecting torque
Td is given by
Td I (7.08)
The controlling torque Tc offered by the two spiral springs
Tc θ (7.09)
The pointer reaches a steady position when
Td = Tc (7.10)
Or I θ (7.11)
Therefore, scale graduation in moving coil instruments will be uniform throughout the range. The
instruments cannot be used in AC circuits because in Ac the current changes its polarity in both
directions. Due to this, in positive half cycle the deflection will be in one direction and in negative half
cycle the deflection will be in other direction. So we will not be able to achieve a final value or reading of
the measuring quantity.

7.5.2 Dynamometer Type Moving Coil Instruments

In this type, the operating magnetic field is produced by air-cored electromagnets excited by two fixed
coils as shown in Fig. 7.7. In all other aspects, they are similar to the permanent magnet moving coil
instrument.

Fig. 7.7
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As the force on the moving coil is proportional to the flux produced by the fixed coils (and hence the
current through it, If ) and the current in the moving coil, Im’
Then the deflecting torque will be
Td If Im (7.12)

Therefore, it is seen from the above equation that the meter deflection is not affected when the currents
through the coils are reversed. Thus, this type of instrument can be used in both AC and DC circuits.

7.4 Moving Iron Instruments

There are two type of moving iron instruments, viz. (i) Attraction type and (ii) Repulsion type.

7.4.1 Attraction Type Moving Iron Instruments

In this type of instrument, a stationary field coil carries the current proportional to the current to be
measured in case of ammeter or voltage to be measured in case of voltmeter. The current carrying coil
produces a magnetic field.

Fig. 7.8

A small iron piece placed nearby and fitted to the spindle of the instrument gets attracted by the magnetic
instrument field and turns towards the coil (Fig 7.8). This causes the spindle and pointer attached to it get
the required deflection. The pointer moves over a graduated scale.
As the force of attraction due to an electromagnet varies in proportion to the square of the flux density, the
torque in this type of instrument is proportional to the square of the current through the field coil.
Td I2 (7.13)
The controlling torque Tc offered by the two spiral springs
Tc θ (7.09)
The pointer reaches a steady position when
Td = Tc (7.10)
Or θ I2 (7.11)
Therefore, scale graduation in moving coil instruments will be no-uniform throughout the range.
Hence, MI instruments can be used in both DC and AC currents.

7.4.2 Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instruments

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The principal of this instrument is that two iron pieces kept within close proximity in a magnetic field get
magnetized to the same polarity and exert a force of repulsion within themselves.
A seen in Fig. 7.9, there are two vanes of iron inside the field coil. One of the vanes is rigidly mounted to
the frame of the instrument and other vane is attached to the spindle.

Fig. 7.9

When current flows through the coil, both the vanes are magnetized with same polarity and there results a
force of repulsion between them.
As a result of this force of repulsion, the movable vane rotates causing a corresponding deflection in the
pointer. It is evident that, in this case too, the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current.
Td I2 (7.14)
Hence, the instruments can be used in both DC and AC circuits.

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