Unit – 1 Date: 19/04/2023

Introduction:

A water supply scheme refers to the infrastructure and operations necessary to provide clean and safe water
to communities for drinking, sanitation, and other purposes. The scheme typically involves the collection,
treatment, storage, and distribution of water from natural sources such as rivers, lakes, or groundwater
wells.

The implementation of a water supply scheme requires careful planning, design, and construction of the
necessary infrastructure, including water treatment plants, reservoirs, pipelines, and distribution networks.
The scheme must also ensure that the water is of high quality and safe for human consumption by adhering
to national and international standards.

Effective management and operation of the water supply scheme are critical to ensure that the system is
maintained properly, and the water supply is sustainable and reliable. This includes regular maintenance and
repairs, monitoring water quality, and ensuring the efficient use of water resources.

Overall, a well-designed and managed water supply scheme is essential for the health and well-being of
communities, economic development, and environmental sustainability.

Objectives of Water Supply Scheme:

The primary objective of a water supply scheme is to provide a reliable and sustainable supply of safe and
potable water to meet the needs of the community. Some of the specific objectives of a water supply
scheme may include:

1. Meeting the demand for water: The scheme should be designed to meet the current and future
demand for water in the area.
2. Ensuring water quality: The water supply scheme should ensure that the water provided is safe and
meets the required quality standards.
3. Minimizing wastage: The scheme should aim to minimize water wastage through efficient
distribution and management practices.
4. Ensuring affordability: The scheme should be designed to ensure that the water supply is affordable
for the community.
5. Ensuring sustainability: The scheme should be designed and managed in a sustainable manner to
ensure long-term availability of water.
6. Ensuring equity: The scheme should aim to provide equal access to water for all members of the
community, regardless of their socio-economic status or location.
7. Ensuring reliability: The scheme should be designed to ensure a reliable supply of water, even during
periods of high demand or emergencies.
8. Providing adequate storage: The scheme should include adequate storage facilities to ensure a
continuous supply of water even during periods of low supply.
9. Ensuring efficient operation and maintenance: The scheme should be designed and operated in an
efficient manner, with regular maintenance and repairs to ensure optimal performance.

A water supply scheme typically has several components, including:

1. Source: The source of water can be either surface water, such as rivers or lakes, or groundwater from
boreholes, wells or springs. The source should be protected from contamination and should be able
to provide enough water to meet the demand.
2. Treatment plant: The water from the source needs to be treated to remove impurities and make it
safe for consumption. The treatment process typically involves physical, chemical, and biological
processes to remove suspended particles, bacteria, viruses, and other contaminants.
 3. Storage: The treated water is stored in reservoirs or tanks to ensure a constant supply of water,
especially during periods of high demand or low supply. The storage capacity should be sufficient to
meet the water demand during peak hours and provide a buffer during emergencies.
4. Distribution network: The water is then distributed to the consumers through a network of pipes,
valves, and pumps. The distribution network should be designed to minimize losses due to leakage or
evaporation and to ensure adequate pressure and flow to meet the demand.
5. Metering: The water supply scheme should have a metering system to measure the water
consumption by the consumers. This helps in managing the demand, identifying leaks, and ensuring
equitable distribution of water.
6. Operation and maintenance: The water supply scheme should be operated and maintained by
trained personnel to ensure uninterrupted and efficient supply of water. This includes regular
cleaning and maintenance of the treatment plant, storage facilities, and distribution network.
7. Customer service: The water supply scheme should have a customer service system to handle
complaints, billings, and payments, and to provide information to the consumers about the water
quality and availability.

Surface and Subsurface sources of water

Surface water refers to any water that can be found on the earth's surface, such as lakes, rivers, streams, and
oceans. This type of water is visible and can be easily accessed, making it an important source of drinking
water, irrigation water, and for other human activities.

Subsurface water, on the other hand, refers to any water that is located below the earth's surface, such as
groundwater. This water is found in aquifers, which are underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel that can
hold water. Subsurface water can be accessed through wells, and it can also seep to the surface as springs.

Both surface and subsurface sources of water are important for human use and ecosystem health. However,
they can also be impacted by human activities such as pollution and over-extraction, which can have negative
effects on water availability and quality.

Intake Structures

Intake Structures are the physical structures that are built to collect and convey water from a source to a
treatment plant or other facilities. They are an essential component of any water supply system and are
typically located in rivers, lakes, or reservoirs.

Types of Intake Structures:

Surface Intake - A surface intake is a type of intake structure that is built on the surface of a water source. It
consists of a structure that collects water from the surface of the water body and conveys it to the treatment
plant.

Submerged Intake - A submerged intake is a type of intake structure that is located below the surface of the
water body. It is typically used when the water source is deep or when the surface water is not suitable for
use.

Infiltration Intake - An infiltration intake is a type of intake structure that is used to collect water that has
seeped into the ground. It is typically located in areas where the groundwater is the primary source of water.

Factors Governing the Location of an Intake Structure:

 Water Quality - The quality of the water in the source is an essential factor to consider when locating
an intake structure. The water source must be free from pollutants, sediment, and other
contaminants.
 Accessibility - The intake structure must be located in an accessible area that allows easy access for
maintenance and repair.
  Hydrology - The hydrology of the area, such as the flow rate, water depth, and water level
fluctuations, must be considered to ensure that the intake structure can collect water effectively.
 Environmental Factors - The location of the intake structure must be chosen carefully to avoid
disturbing the local environment, including aquatic life, wetlands, and other natural habitats.
 Source Stability - The water source must be stable and reliable to ensure a consistent supply of
water to the treatment plant or other facilities.
 Distance - The intake structure must be located at a suitable distance from the treatment plant to
minimize transmission losses and other operational costs.

In summary, intake structures are crucial for any water supply system, and their location must be chosen
carefully based on various factors such as water quality, accessibility, hydrology, environmental factors,
source stability, and distance. The type of intake structure chosen depends on the characteristics of the
water source and the intended use of the water.

Demand of Water:

The demand for water refers to the quantity of water that people need and want for various purposes such
as drinking, irrigation, industrial processes, and household use. The demand for water is influenced by
several factors including population growth, urbanization, industrialization, climate change, and changes in
lifestyle.

As populations grow and urban areas expand, the demand for water increases. This is particularly true in
developing countries where access to clean water is often limited. Industrialization also increases demand for
water as factories and manufacturing plants require large quantities of water for production processes.
Changes in lifestyle can also have an impact on water demand, such as an increase in water-intensive
activities like swimming pools or car washing.

As the demand for water increases, it can put pressure on water resources, leading to water scarcity and
water stress. This is particularly true in regions that are already facing water scarcity or have limited water
resources. It is important to manage water demand through conservation, recycling, and sustainable
practices to ensure that there is enough water for everyone's needs.

Domestic, Industrial, commercial & institutional, public use, losses & wastes, fire demand:

Domestic water use refers to the water used in households for daily activities such as drinking, cooking,
washing, and bathing. This type of water use is typically low in volume but occurs frequently throughout the
day. The domestic consumption of water under normal condition is taken as 135 lt/day/capita (as p IS: 1172-
1971)

Industrial water use refers to the water used in manufacturing processes, cooling, cleaning, and other
industrial activities. This type of water use is often high in volume and requires specialized treatment and
distribution systems. For this purpose, is generally assumed as 20% to 25% of the total water demand of the
city or town.

Commercial and institutional water use refers to the water used in non-residential buildings such as offices,
schools, and hospitals. This type of water use can vary widely depending on the type of building and the
activities taking place within it. For this purpose, is generally assumed as 25 lt to 40 lt capita/day.

Public use refers to the water used in public spaces such as parks, fountains, and swimming pools. This type
of water use is often seasonal and can be affected by weather patterns and visitor traffic. For this purpose, is
generally considered as 5% of the total consumption of water in the town or city.

Losses and wastes refer to the water that is lost or wasted due to defective pipe joint, cracks in pipe line,
faulty valves and fittings, consumers may keep the taps open, public taps may be damaged, unauthorised
connection, evaporation, or other factors. This type of water use can be reduced through improved
infrastructure and conservation efforts. For this purpose, is generally considered as 15% of total water
requirement.

Fire demand of water refers to the amount of water needed to fight fires in a given area. This type of water
use is typically high in volume and requires specialized infrastructure and equipment. The water required for
fire demand is calculated by the following empirical formulas:

a) The National Board of Fire underwriter’s formula,

Q=4637 √ P ( 1−0.01 √ P )Where, Q = lits/min & P = Population in thousand.

b) Freeman’s formula,
Q=1136.50 ( 5p +10 )Where, Q = lits/min & P = Population in thousand.
c) Buston’s formula,
Q=5663 √ PWhere, Q = lits/day & P = Population in thousand.

d) Kuichling’s formula,
Q=3182 √ PWhere, Q = lits/min & P = Population in thousand.
Break up of Per Capita Demand
1. Domestic Demand 135 lits/capita/day
2. Public Demand 20 lits/capita/day
3. Industrial Demand 40 lits/capita/day
4. Commercial Demand 10 lits/capita/day
5. Fire Demand 15 lits/capita/day
6. Loss and Waste 50 lits/capita/day
Total 270 lits/capita/day
Break up of Domestic Demand
1. For Dinking 05 lits/capita/day
2. For Cooking 05 lits/capita/day
3. For Bathing 50 lits/capita/day
4. For Cloth Washing 25 lits/capita/day
5. For Utensils Washing 10 lits/capita/day
6. For House Washing 10 lits/capita/day
7. For Latrine and urinal 30 lits/capita/day
Total 135 lits/capita/day
Break up of Public Demand
1. For Factory 30 to 40 lits/capita/day
2. For Hospital 300 to 400 lits/capita/day
3. For Hostel 125 to 135 lits/capita/day
4. For School & College 40 to 50 lits/capita/day
5. For Office 30 to 35 lits/capita/day
6. For Restaurant 60 to 70 lits/capita/day
7. For Hotel 150 to 175 lits/capita/day
 8. For Market & Cinema Hall 10 to 15 lits/capita/day

Factors affecting rate of demand

There are several factors that can affect the rate of water demand, including:

 Population: The size of the population in an area is a major factor affecting the rate of water
demand. As the population grows, the demand for water increases.
 Climate Condition: The climate in an area can also affect the rate of water demand. In hot and dry
climates, there is a higher demand for water for activities like irrigation and outdoor recreation.
 Economic development: The level of economic development in an area can affect the rate of water
demand. Areas with a high level of economic development may have more water-intensive
industries and higher demand for water for household and commercial uses.
 Land use: The type of land use in an area can also affect the rate of water demand. For example,
urban areas with more paved surfaces and larger buildings may require more water for activities like
landscaping and cooling.
 Cost of Water: If water tax is implemented by providing water meter, then the consumption of water
will be less. The consumers will control the wastage of water in their own interest.
 Distribution Pressure: If the distribution pressure is very high, the water consumption will be more.
Maximum water is lost unnecessarily when the tap is opened for bathing, face washing etc.
 Habits of People: Due to advantage life style water consumption is very high in the high value
premises. The rate is average in middle class zone and the rate is low in slum areas.
 Quality of Water: The good quality of water increases the rate of demand, whereas the bad quality
decreases the rate.
 Sewerage System: The existence of sewerage system in a town or city increases the rate of demand.
 System of Supply: In a continuous system of supply, the consumption of water is more as there is
every chance of misuse or wastage of water. So, the rate of demand is more.

Per Capita Demand

The demand of water per person per day is known as per capita demand or per capita consumption. To
obtained the per capita demand the total consumption of water in a year is divided by the total population
and the number of days in a year.

Yearly water consumption ( ¿ lts )

Per capita Demand =
Population ×365
Per capita demand of water refers to the amount of water that an individual use on average per day. The per
capita demand of water can vary depending on factors such as geography, climate, lifestyle, and access to
water sources.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the minimum amount of water required per person per
day for basic needs (drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene) is 50 liters. However, in reality, many people
use much more than this amount.

In developed countries, the per capita demand for water can range from 200 to 600 liters per day. This is due
to factors such as higher standards of living, larger homes, and more widespread use of water-intensive
appliances and technologies.

In developing countries, the per capita demand for water can be much lower, ranging from 20 to 50 liters per
day. This is often due to limited access to water sources and less water-intensive lifestyles.

Variations of water demands

Water demands can vary depending on a range of factors, including:

  Geographic location: Regions that are naturally arid or experience long dry seasons will typically
have higher water demands due to the need for irrigation.
 Time of year: Water demands often increase during the summer months when outdoor water usage,
such as watering lawns and gardens, is more common.
 Population: As the population of a given area increases, so does the demand for water for
residential, commercial, and industrial purposes.
 Economic activity: Areas with a high level of industrial activity, such as manufacturing, require
significant amounts of water for production processes.
 Climate change: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns caused by climate change can
impact water demands by altering the amount of water available in a given area.
 Water quality: Poor water quality can lead to increased demands for bottled water or home water
treatment systems.
 Lifestyle choices: Certain lifestyle choices, such as the decision to install a swimming pool or a large
garden, can significantly increase water demands.

Overall, water demands are influenced by a range of factors, and it is important for communities to
understand these variations and develop sustainable water management strategies to ensure that water
resources are available for future generations

Total yearly consumptionin lits

Average daily demand =
365
Maximum daily consumption=180 % of Average daily demand
Peak hourly demand =150 % of Average daily demand
Maximum hourly consumption of themaximum day , i . e . Peak Demand =270 % of Average daily demand
Problem: 1
A water supply scheme has to be designed for a city having a population of 100000. Estimate the important
kinds of drafts which may be required to be recorded for an average water consumption of 250 lpcd. Also
recorded the required capacities of the major components of the proposed water works system for the city
using a river as the source of supply. Assume suitable figure and data where needed.
Solution:
Average daily demand = (Per capita average consumption in lits/person/day) × Population
= 250 × 100000 lits/day
= 250 × 105 lits/day
= 25 Mld.
Maximum daily demand = 180% of average daily demand
180
= × 25 Mld
100
= 45 Mld
Maximum hourly demand = 270% of average daily demand
270
= × 25 Mld
100
= 67.5 Mld
Fire demand Q=4637 √ P ( 1−0.01 √ P )
= 4637 √100 ( 1−0.01 √ 100 ) (P = 100 thousand)
41733 ×60 ×24
= 41733 lits/min = Mld = 61 Mld
106
Coincident demand = maximum daily demand + fire demand
= 45 + 61
= 106 Mld. (which is greater than maximum hourly demand)
 It shows that the distribution system has to be designed for 106 Mld instead of 67.5 Mld, which proves
that the fire allowance considerably affects the design of distribution system.

Date: 20/04/2023

Population Forecast

The following are the general methods of population forecast:

1. Mathematical method
2. Decreasing rate method
3. Simple graphical method
4. Comparative graphical method
5. Master plan method
6. The ratio method
7. The logistic curve method
1. Mathematical Method: The following are the various mathematical method of population forecast:
a) Arithmetical Increase Method: In this method, the rate of increase in population is assumed
constant. So, the average increase in population is worked out from the record of past decades.
Then, this average is added to the present population and the population of successive decades
to get the required population.
Pn=[P 0+ n × x ]
b) Geometrical Increases Method: In this method, it is assumed that the percentage increase in
population remains constant. From the available census records this percentage increase is
worked out. Then the population of successive future decades is calculated according to the
procedure.

( )
n
r
Pn=P 0 1+
100
c) Incremental Increase Method: In this method, the average increase in population is first worked
out as per arithmetical increase method. Then, the average incremental increase is found out.
Then both the averages are counted to get the population in future decades as explained.
n ( n+1 )
Pn=P 0+ nx+ y
2
Problem: 2
The census records of a town show the population as follows:
a) Present population = 50300
b) Population before one decade = 46500
c) Population before two decades = 43100
d) Population before three decades = 40500
Calculation the probable population after one, two and three decades by using (a) Arithmetical increase
method, (b) Geometrical increase method, (c) Incremental increase method.

Solution:
(a) Arithmetical Increase Method:
Increase between present and 1st decades = 50300 – 46500 = 3800
st nd
Increase between 1 decades and 2 decades = 46500 – 43100 = 3400
Increase between 2nd decades and 3rd decades = 43100 – 40500 = 2600
Total Increase = 9600
Average increase per decade = 9800/3 = 3266.66 = 3267 (Say)
Population after one decade = 50300 + (1 × 3267) = 53567
Population after two decades = 50300 + (2 × 3267) = 56834
Population after three decades = 50300 + (3 × 3267) = 60101
 (b) Geometrical Increase Method:
Percentage increase in population:
50300−46500
(a) Between present and 1st decade = ×100=8.17
46500

46500−43100
(b) Between 1st decade and 2nd decades = × 100=7.89
43100
43100−40500
(c) Between 2nd decades and 3rd decades = × 100=6.42
40500

Average percentage ¿ √
3
8.17 ×7.89 ×6.42=7.45 = 7.5% (Say)

So, Population after One decade ( )

¿ 50300 × 1+
7.5 1
100
=54073

= 50300 × ( 1+
100 )
2
7.5
Population after Two decades =58128

= 50300 × ( 1+
100 )
3
7.5
Population after Three decades =62488

(c) Incremental Increase Method:

Average increase per decade = 3267 (as calculated in arithmetical increase method)

Period Increase in Population Incremental increase

rd nd
3 &2 2600
nd st
2 &1 3400 (+) 800
st
1 & Present 3800 (+) 400

Total 9800 (+)1200

9800 1200
Average per decade x= =3267 y= =¿
3 2

1 ( 1+ 1 )
Population after One decade P1=50300+1 ×3267+ ×600=54167
2
2 ( 2+1 )
Population after Two decades P2=50300+2 ×3267+ ×600=58634
2
3 ( 3+1 )
Population after Three decades P3=50300+3 × 3267+ ×600=63701
2
2. Decrease Rate of Growth Method: Since the rate of increase in population goes on reducing, as the
cities reach towards saturation, a method which makes use of the decrease in the percentage
increase, is many times used, and gives quite rational results. In this method, the average decrease in
the percentage increase is worked out, and is then subtracted from the latest percentage increase
for each successive decade. This method is however applicable only in cases where the rate of
growth shows a downward trend.

Problem: 3
The population of 5 decades from 1930 to 1970 are given below in the table. Find out the population after
one, two and three decades beyond the known decade, by using Decrease Rate of Growth Method.
 Year 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Population 25000 28000 34000 42000 47000

Solution:
Increase in Percentage increase in Decrease in the percentage
Year Population
Population Population increase
1930 25000
3000
3000 ×100=12 %
25000
1940 28000 ¿
6000
6000 ×100=21.4 %
28000
1950 34000 ¿
8000
8000 ×100=23.5 %
34000
1960 42000 ¿
5000
5000 × 100=11 .9 %
42000
1970 47000
Total 22000 (−11.5+11.6)=0.1 %
0.1
Average per decade =0.03 % decrease
3

11.9−0.03
The expected population at the end of year 1980 ¿ 47000+ × 47000=52700
100
11.87−0.03
The expected population at the end of year 1990 ¿ 52700+ ×52700=58800
100
11.84−0.03
The expected population at the end of year 2000 ¿ 58800+ ×58800=65750
100
3. Simple graphical method: In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between
time and population. The curve is then smoothly extended up to desired year. The method
however, gives very approximate results, as the extension of the curve is done by the intelligence
of the designer.

Problem: 4

Work out the population of the year 2000 form the data given below, using simple graphical method.

Year Population
1880 25000
1890 27500
1900 33000
1910 39000
1920 45000
1930 54500
1940 61000
Solution:
 70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

The curve obtained is smoothly extended up to year 2000, and to read corresponding population as 97000.

4. Comparative graphical method: In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristic
similar to the city whose future population is to be estimated are, first of all, selected. It is then
assumed that the city under consideration will develop, as the selected similar cities have
developed in the past. This method has a logical background, and if statistics of development of
similar cities are available, quite precise and reliable results can be obtained. However, it is rather
difficult to find identical cities with respect to population growth.

5. Master plan method: The master plan method of population forecasting is a technique used to
estimate the future size and composition of a population. It is a commonly used method in urban
planning and development, and is particularly useful for projecting the demand for various types
of services and infrastructure.
The master plan method involves developing a comprehensive plan for the development of an
area, which includes projections of population growth and demographic changes over a specific
time period. These projections are based on a range of factors, including current population
trends, birth and death rates, migration patterns, and economic and social factors that may
impact population growth.
Once the master plan has been developed, it can be used to guide decisions about land use,
zoning, transportation, and other infrastructure needs in the area. By providing a detailed picture
of future population growth and demographic changes, the master plan method helps ensure
that development decisions are based on realistic projections of demand.
One advantage of the master plan method is that it takes a comprehensive approach to
population forecasting, incorporating a wide range of factors that may impact population
growth. However, it can be challenging to develop accurate projections for a rapidly changing
population, and projections may need to be updated periodically to reflect changing conditions
and trends.

6. The ratio method: The ratio method of population forecasting is a demographic technique used
to estimate the future population of a specific area or region. It involves analysing the current
population structure of a given area and using it to make predictions about the future
population.
The ratio method assumes that the current distribution of population by age and sex will remain
constant over time. It involves calculating the ratio of the population in different age and sex
 groups in the current year and applying that ratio to the projected population numbers for future
years.
For example, if the current population has 20% of people aged 0-14, 50% aged 15-64, and 30%
aged 65 and over, and the projected population for the next year is 10,000, the ratio method
would estimate that there will be 2,000 people aged 0-14, 5,000 people aged 15-64, and 3,000
people aged 65 and over.
The ratio method can be useful for making short-term population projections but can be less
accurate for longer-term forecasts as it does not take into account changes in birth and death
rates, migration, or other factors that may affect the population structure over time. Therefore,
it is often used in combination with other demographic methods to provide a more
comprehensive forecast.

7. The logistic curve method: The logistic curve method of population forecasting is a mathematical
approach used to predict the future population of an area or a country based on its past
population growth rates. The method is based on the logistic growth model, which is a type of
differential equation that describes the growth of a population that is limited by a finite carrying
capacity.
The logistic curve method assumes that the growth rate of a population is proportional to the
size of the population and that there is a maximum limit to how large the population can grow.
As the population grows, the growth rate slows down until it reaches a point where the
population stabilizes at its maximum capacity.
To use the logistic curve method for population forecasting, historical population data is first
plotted on a graph, with time on the x-axis and population size on the y-axis. A logistic curve is
then fit to the data, which can be done using statistical software or by hand. The logistic curve is
characterized by an initial period of exponential growth, followed by a period of slower growth
until the population stabilizes.
Once the logistic curve has been fitted to the historical data, it can be used to make predictions
about future population growth. By extrapolating the curve into the future, one can estimate
when the population will reach its carrying capacity and what the maximum population size will
be.
The logistic curve method is a useful tool for population forecasting, but it is important to note
that it is based on a number of assumptions, such as the idea that the population growth rate is
proportional to the population size and that the carrying capacity of the environment is fixed.
These assumptions may not always hold true in the real world, and other factors such as
migration, disease outbreaks, and changes in government policies can also have a significant
impact on population growth. Therefore, it is important to use the logistic curve method in
conjunction with other methods and to regularly reassess population forecasts as new data
becomes available.

Design Period

The design period of a water supply scheme is the time period for which the system is designed to operate
effectively and efficiently. It is typically determined by factors such as population growth, water demand, and
expected changes in water quality or availability.

The design period for a water supply scheme can vary depending on the specific needs of the community or
region being served. In general, a design period of 20 to 30 years is common, as this allows for sufficient
planning and investment in infrastructure to meet the needs of the population for several decades.

During the design period, the water supply scheme will typically undergo regular maintenance and upgrades
to ensure that it continues to operate effectively and meet the needs of the community. This may involve
regular testing and monitoring of water quality, as well as upgrades to treatment facilities, distribution
networks, and storage infrastructure.
Overall, the design period of a water supply scheme is a critical consideration in ensuring that the system can
effectively meet the needs of the community it serves, both in the short-term and over the long-term.

Problem: 5

Estimate the water demand for a small town having the probable population as 500000 (after three
decades). Assume reasonable data.

Solution:

Assumption-

1. Domestic demand = 135 lpcd

2. For School & College (10000 Students) = 50 lpcd
3. For hostels (1000 boarders) = 125 lpcd
4. For factories (5000 workers) = 40 lpcd
5. For hospitals (1000 beds) = 300 lpcd
6. For offices (4000 employees) = 30 lpcd
7. For hotels (4000 persons) = 50 lpcd
8. For restaurants (4000 persons) = 50 lpcd
9. For market and cinema halls = 15 lpcd
10. For fire demand = 15 lpcd
11. For parks and swimming pools = 20 lpcd
12. For loss and waste = 10 lpcd

Requirement of total quantity of water

1. Domestic demand ¿ 500000 ×135 lpcd=67.5 Mld

2. For School & College (10000 Students) ¿ 10000 ×50 lpcd=0.50 Mld
3. For hostels (1000 boarders) ¿ 10000 ×125 lpcd=1.25 Mld
4. For factories (5000 workers) ¿ 5000 ×40 lpcd =0.20 Mld
5. For hospitals (1000 beds) ¿ 1000 ×300 lpcd=0.30 Mld
6. For offices (4000 employees) ¿ 4000 × 30lpcd =0.12 Mld
7. For hotels (4000 persons) ¿ 4000 ×50 lpcd =0.20 Mld
8. For restaurants (4000 persons) ¿ 4000 ×50 lpcd =0.20 Mld
9. For market and cinema halls ¿ 500000 ×15 lpcd=7.5 Mld
10. For fire demand ¿ 500000 ×15 lpcd=7.5 Mld
11. For parks and swimming pools ¿ 500000 ×20 lpcd =10 Mld
12. For loss and waste ¿ 500000 ×10 lpcd=5 Mld

Total=100.27 Mld
Quality of Water: The quality of water refers to its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that
determine its suitability for various uses, such as drinking, irrigation, industrial processes, and aquatic
habitats. Water quality is affected by a wide range of natural and human-made factors, including:

1. Physical factors: temperature, turbidity, color, odor, taste, and suspended solids.
2. Chemical factors: pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), heavy metals,
pesticides, and organic compounds.
3. Biological factors: bacteria, viruses, algae, and other microorganisms.

The quality of water is important because it can affect the health of humans, animals, and plants. Poor water
quality can cause a range of health problems, such as waterborne diseases, skin irritation, and
gastrointestinal problems. It can also harm aquatic ecosystems by reducing the diversity and abundance of
aquatic life.
Water quality can be monitored and regulated by government agencies, such as the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States, through a combination of testing, regulations, and
enforcement. Individuals can also take steps to improve water quality by conserving water, reducing
pollution, and properly disposing of household chemicals and waste.

Need for analysis of water

Water analysis is essential to determine its quality and suitability for various purposes. There are several
reasons why water analysis is necessary, including:

1. Health concerns: The quality of drinking water can affect human health, and certain contaminants
can cause illness or disease. Water analysis helps to detect and quantify the presence of harmful
substances such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, heavy metals, and chemical pollutants.
2. Environmental concerns: Water pollution can harm aquatic life and disrupt ecosystems. Water
analysis helps to identify sources of pollution and measures the extent of contamination. This
information can be used to develop strategies to protect and restore aquatic environments.
3. Industrial processes: Water is used in many industrial processes, and the quality of water can affect
the efficiency and effectiveness of these processes. Water analysis can help to ensure that water
used in industrial processes meets the required specifications.
4. Agricultural uses: Water is also used in agriculture for irrigation and other purposes. The quality of
water used in agriculture can affect crop growth and yield. Water analysis can help farmers to
manage their water resources more effectively and efficiently.

Overall, water analysis is crucial for ensuring the safety and quality of water for various purposes. It helps to
identify potential health and environmental risks and provides information for making informed decisions
about water management and use.

Characteristics of water- Physical, Chemical and Biological:

Water is a unique and essential substance that is critical to life on Earth. It has several physical, chemical, and
biological properties that make it such a vital resource.

Physical Characteristics:

 Water is a colorless, odourless, and tasteless liquid.

 It has a high boiling point and a high specific heat capacity, which means it can absorb and retain
heat.
 It is a universal solvent and can dissolve many substances, including salts, sugars, and gases.
 It is denser in its liquid state than its solid state, which is why ice floats on water.
 It has high surface tension, allowing it to form droplets and support small objects.

Chemical Characteristics:

 Water is a polar molecule, which means it has a positive and negative end.
 It is a neutral substance with a pH of 7.
 It is a weak electrolyte, meaning it can conduct electricity but not as well as strong acids or bases.
 It can participate in many chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.
 It is a reactant in many biochemical reactions, including photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Biological Characteristics:

 Water is essential for all living organisms and is the main component of cells, tissues, and organs.
 It helps regulate body temperature, transport nutrients, and remove waste.
 It is involved in many biological processes, such as digestion, metabolism, and circulation.
 It supports aquatic ecosystems, providing a habitat for many organisms and serving as a source of
food and oxygen.
  It is sensitive to environmental changes and can be a key indicator of ecosystem health.

Meaning and importance of different parameters of water

 Total Solids: It refers to the total amount of dissolved and suspended solids present in water. High
levels of total solids can make the water unfit for drinking and other purposes.
 Hardness: It is the measure of the amount of dissolved minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium,
in water. High levels of hardness can cause scaling and clogging of pipes and can also affect the taste
of water.
 Chlorides: Chlorides are the salts of chlorine and are found in many natural water sources. Excessive
levels of chlorides in water can make it unpalatable and cause corrosion of metal pipes.
 Dissolved Oxygen: It is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and is necessary for the survival of
aquatic life. Low levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to the death of fish and other aquatic organisms.
 pH: pH is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water. The ideal pH range for drinking water is
between 6.5 to 8.5.
 Fluoride: It is a naturally occurring mineral found in water sources. It is beneficial in preventing tooth
decay when present in the right amount. However, excess levels of fluoride can cause fluorosis, a
condition that affects the teeth and bones.
 Arsenic: Arsenic is a toxic metal that can enter water sources naturally or through human activities.
Exposure to high levels of arsenic in water can cause skin lesions, cancer, and other health problems.
 Nitrogen and its Compounds: Nitrogen and its compounds are found in water sources due to
agricultural practices, sewage disposal, and industrial activities. High levels of nitrogen and its
compounds can lead to eutrophication of water bodies, causing algal blooms and depletion of
dissolved oxygen.
 Bacteriological Tests: Bacteriological tests are conducted to determine the presence of harmful
bacteria in water, such as E. coli and coliform bacteria, which can cause illnesses.
 E. coli and B. Coli Index: These are tests that determine the presence and levels of E. coli and
coliform bacteria in water. High levels of these bacteria indicate contamination and can pose a risk to
human health.
 MPN: Most Probable Number (MPN) is a method used to estimate the number of bacteria in water
samples.
 Sampling of Water: Sampling of water is the process of collecting water samples from various
sources and testing them for different parameters to assess the quality of water.
 Water Quality Standards as per IS:10500: IS:10500 is a set of water quality standards established by
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) that provides guidelines for drinking water quality in India. The
standards specify the maximum permissible limits for various parameters in drinking water to ensure
its safety for human consumption. Some of the key parameters and their maximum permissible limits
as per IS:10500 are:
 Colour: Not more than 5 units
 Odour: Unobjectionable
 Taste: Agreeable
 pH: 6.5 to 8.5
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): 500 mg/litre (maximum), except for specified areas
 Turbidity: 5 NTU (maximum)
 Alkalinity (as CaCO3): 200 mg/litre (maximum)
 Chlorides (as Cl): 250 mg/litre (maximum)
 Fluorides (as F): 1 mg/litre (maximum)
 Iron (as Fe): 0.3 mg/litre (maximum)
 Nitrate (as NO3): 45 mg/litre (maximum)
 Residual Free Chlorine: 0.2-0.5 mg/litre (minimum)
 Ammonia (as NH3): 0.5 mg/litre (maximum)
  Total Hardness (as CaCO3): 600 mg/litre (maximum)
 Calcium (as Ca): 75 mg/litre (maximum)
 Magnesium (as Mg): 30 mg/litre (maximum)
 Sulphates (as SO4): 200 mg/litre (maximum)
 Copper (as Cu): 0.05 mg/litre (maximum)
 Zinc (as Zn): 5 mg/litre (maximum)
 Arsenic (as As): 0.01 mg/litre (maximum)
 Mercury (as Hg): 0.001 mg/litre (maximum)
 Cadmium (as Cd): 0.01 mg/litre (maximum)
 Lead (as Pb): 0.01 mg/litre (maximum)

It is important to note that these standards are the minimum acceptable quality parameters for drinking
water, and water with higher quality than these standards is desirable.

Unit – 2

Purification of Water

Water purification is the process of removing contaminants, impurities, and pollutants from water to make it
safe for human consumption or for other purposes such as industrial or agricultural use.

Here are some common methods used for water purification:

Boiling: Boiling water kills bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. This method is simple and effective, but it
requires energy to boil the water and may not remove all types of contaminants.

Filtration: Filtration involves passing water through a physical barrier, such as a sand filter, activated carbon
filter, or ceramic filter. Filters can remove sediment, chlorine, chemicals, and some bacteria and viruses, but
they may not remove all contaminants.

Distillation: Distillation involves boiling water and then collecting the condensed steam. This method
removes minerals, heavy metals, and some bacteria and viruses. However, it requires a lot of energy and may
not remove volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other chemicals.

Reverse osmosis: Reverse osmosis involves passing water through a semi-permeable membrane under
pressure. This method removes minerals, salts, and some bacteria and viruses, but it may not remove VOCs
or other chemicals.

Chlorination: Chlorination involves adding chlorine to water to kill bacteria and other pathogens. This
method is widely used in municipal water treatment plants, but it may not remove all types of contaminants
and can produce harmful disinfection by product.

UV sterilization: UV sterilization involves exposing water to ultraviolet light to kill bacteria and other
pathogens. This method is effective, but it requires a power source and may not remove other types of
contaminants.
Different water purification methods can be combined to improve the quality of water. The choice of method
depends on the specific contaminants present in the water, the required level of purity, and the available
resources.

Objectives of water treatment: The objectives of water treatment are to remove the impurities and
contaminants present in the water, to make it safe for consumption, and to improve its aesthetic qualities.

Screening: The objective of screening is to remove large objects such as leaves, sticks, and other debris from
the water. This is typically accomplished by passing the water through a series of screens with varying mesh
sizes.

Aeration: The objective of aeration is to increase the oxygen content of the water, which can improve its
taste and odour, and promote the growth of beneficial bacteria. Aeration can be accomplished through
several methods, including:

Surface aeration: air is introduced into the water through mechanical agitation, such as paddles or fountains.

Diffused aeration: air is introduced into the water through fine bubbles from diffusers located at the bottom
of the water.

Spray aeration: water is sprayed into the air to increase its exposure to oxygen.

Plain sedimentation: The objective of plain sedimentation is to allow suspended particles to settle out of the
water due to gravity. This is typically accomplished by allowing the water to flow slowly through a settling
tank, allowing the heavier particles to settle to the bottom.

Sedimentation with coagulation: The objective of sedimentation with coagulation is to improve the
efficiency of sedimentation by using chemicals, called coagulants, to cause suspended particles to clump
together and settle out of the water more easily.

The principles of coagulation: It is involving the addition of a chemical coagulant to the water, which
neutralizes the repulsive charges on the suspended particles and allows them to come together to form
larger, heavier particles that are more easily settled out of the water.

Types of coagulants: The most common types of coagulants used in water treatment include aluminium
sulphate, ferric chloride, and poly aluminium chloride.

Jar Test: The Jar Test is a laboratory test used to determine the optimal dosage of coagulant needed for a
particular water source. This involves adding different amounts of coagulant to small samples of the water
and observing how the suspended particles react.

Process of coagulation: The process of coagulation involves adding a coagulant to the water, stirring the
water to mix the coagulant and suspended particles, and allowing the particles to clump together into larger,
heavier particles that can settle out of the water.

Types of sedimentation tanks: There are two main types of sedimentation tanks used in water treatment:

Rectangular sedimentation tanks: these tanks have a rectangular shape and are typically used in smaller
treatment plants.

Circular sedimentation tanks: these tanks have a circular shape and are typically used in larger treatment
plants.

Clariflocculator: A Clariflocculator is a type of sedimentation tank that combines the processes of

sedimentation and flocculation. The water is introduced into the tank and a coagulant is added to cause the
suspended particles to clump together. The mixture is then stirred to form flocs and allowed to settle out of
the water. The clarified water is then drawn off from the top of the tank.
Filtration

Filtration: It is a physical and biological process of removing impurities from water by passing it through a
porous material or a medium. The impurities can include suspended solids, colloidal particles, and
microorganisms. Filtration is an essential process in water treatment plants and is usually followed by
disinfection to ensure that the water is safe for human consumption.

Mechanism of Filtration:

a) Physical Filtration: This type of filtration is based on the physical barrier to remove impurities. It can
be done using materials like sand, gravel, or ceramic filters.
b) Chemical Filtration: This type of filtration involves the use of chemicals or materials that react with
impurities to remove them. Examples include activated carbon filters, which remove chemicals and
odours from water.

There are different types of filters used in water treatment plants, including gravity filter and pressure filters.
These filters differ in their construction and operation, as well as their filtration rate.

Gravity Filters: In this types of filters, the water percolates under the force of gravity. Again, these filter may
be two types:

a) Slow sand Filters: In this filters, the water is allowed to pass slowly through the layer of sand and the
sand used of finer quality. The filter bed removes suspended solids and microorganisms through
physical and biological processes, such as sedimentation, adsorption, and microbial activity. The
filtered water is collected from the bottom of the filter bed.
b) Rapid sand filters: In this filter, the rate of filtration is increased by increasing the size of sand grains
(i.e. coarse sand) and the water is allowed to pass under a great filtration head. The impurities are
removed by physical processes, such as sedimentation, adsorption, and straining. Rapid sand filters
require periodic backwashing to remove accumulated solids and maintain their efficiency.

Pressure filters: In this filter, the water is allowed to pass under a pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure through a closed cylinder. These filters are used for removing fine suspended solids and colloidal
particles that are difficult to remove by other filtration methods.

Operational problems in filtration

It can arise due to clogging of the filter bed, which can lead to reduced efficiency and increased pressure
drop. To prevent clogging, the filter bed needs to be cleaned periodically through backwashing or other
cleaning methods.

Disinfection is a critical step in water treatment that aims to kill or inactivate any remaining microorganisms
in the water.

The object of disinfection:

The primary objective of disinfecting water is to eliminate or inactivate harmful microorganisms such as
bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that can cause waterborne diseases. Disinfection is an essential step in the
water treatment process, as it ensures that the water is safe to drink and use.

Common disinfectants used for water treatment include chlorine, chloramine, ozone, and ultraviolet light.
These disinfectants work by either destroying the cell wall or genetic material of the microorganisms,
rendering them unable to cause infection.

In addition to eliminating harmful microorganisms, disinfection can also help to improve the taste, odour,
and appearance of the water. Disinfection is typically the final step in the water treatment process before the
water is distributed to consumers.

Methods of disinfection:
The disinfection process can be achieved using various methods, including chemical disinfection, physical
disinfection, and biological disinfection.

Chemical disinfection: This method involves the use of chemicals to kill or inactivate harmful bacteria,
viruses, and other pathogens present in water. Common chemical disinfectants used for water treatment
include chlorine, ozone, and ultraviolet (UV) light.

Physical disinfection: This method involves the use of physical processes to remove or kill harmful
microorganisms in water. Physical disinfection methods include boiling, filtration, and distillation.

Biological disinfection: This method involves the use of microorganisms to remove or kill harmful bacteria
and viruses in water. Biological disinfection methods include slow sand filtration and biological activated
carbon (BAC) filtration.

Chlorination: The process of disinfection of water by the application of chlorine is known as chlorination. The
term chlorination indicates the destruction of bacteria from drinking water and waste water in order to
protect the public health from water-borne dieses.

Application of chlorination:

Chlorine has many applications in various industries, including:

 Water Treatment: Chlorine is commonly used as a disinfectant to kill bacteria, viruses, and other
harmful microorganisms in drinking water, swimming pools, and wastewater treatment plants.
 Chemical Industry: Chlorine is used in the production of many chemicals, such as PVC, solvents, and
pesticides.
 Paper Industry: Chlorine is used to bleach paper products, such as paper towels, tissue paper, and
toilet paper.
 Pharmaceuticals: Chlorine is used in the production of many pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics
and painkillers.
 Textile Industry: Chlorine is used to bleach and disinfect textiles, such as cotton and wool.
 Food Industry: Chlorine is used as a disinfectant in food processing facilities, and as a sanitizer for
food contact surfaces.
 Petroleum Industry: Chlorine is used in the refining of petroleum products, such as gasoline and
diesel fuel.
 Metal Industry: Chlorine is used in the production of titanium and other metals.

Overall, chlorine is a versatile and essential chemical that has a wide range of applications in different
industries. However, it is important to use it safely and responsibly to avoid any adverse effects on human
health and the environment.

Forms of chlorination:

There are several forms of chlorination, including:

a) Chlorine: It may be applied in two ways – gaseous form or liquid form. The use of free
chlorine is favoured universally for the following advantages:
i) Chlorine is the most powerful for destroying the bacteria absolutely.
ii) The process of application is easy.
iii) It can be stored easily.
iv) The optimum dose can be easily found out by break point chlorination.
b) Chloramines: The free chlorine is not suitable in water. To make is suitable, some
amount of ammonia is mixed with water along with chlorine. As a result of the chemical
reaction some components are formed which are known as chloramines. The following
are the benefits of adding ammonia along with chlorine:
i) It makes chlorine stable in water.
 ii) It reduces the amount of chlorine necessary for treatment.
iii) It reduces the irritating effect of chlorine.
c) Bleaching Powder: Bleaching Powder is also known as calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl) 2].
When it is mixed with water, hypo-chlorine ions (OCl) are formed. These ions again
combine with hydrogen ions (H +) present in water and thus hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is
formed. This phenomenon is known as hypo-chlorination. The bleaching powder is
available in white powder form which contains usually 30% of chlorine. Before
application, the bleaching powder is dissolved in water and a solution is prepared. This
solution is added to the predetermined dose. Generally, the dose of bleaching powder
is about 2 to 4 ppm.
d) Chlorine Dioxide: Sometimes, Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) is used for the removal of
bacteria. It is produced by passing chlorine gas through sodium chlorine in a closed
container. It is very unstable and should be used very quickly. It can remove taste and
odour. It is not suitable for large scale. It may be used for small installations like housing
estate, factories etc.

Types of chlorination practices:

1. Plain chlorination: When the raw water is supplied to consumers by applying chlorine
treatment only, it is termed as plain chlorination. Generally, in case of emergencies, for
military camps, training camps, survey camps etc. the process of plain chlorination is
adopted.
2. Pre-chlorination: When the raw water is suspected to be highly contaminated, then a
dose of chlorine is added to raw water before it enters the sedimentation tank. This
application of chlorine is termed as Pre-chlorination.
3. Post-chlorination: When chlorine is added to water after all the treatments are over
and just before it enters the distribution system, it is termed as Post-chlorination. The
dose of chlorine is about 1 to 2 ppm.
4. Double chlorination: When pre-chlorination and post-chlorination are both adopted in
water supply scheme to safeguard the public health from epidemic, then it is termed as
double chlorination.
5. Break point chlorination: Break point chlorination is a water treatment process that
involves adding chlorine to water until the point at which it reacts with and oxidizes all
of the organic and inorganic contaminants present in the water. This is known as the
break point, and it marks the point at which the chlorine has achieved its maximum
oxidation potential and is no longer consumed by contaminants in the water.
6. Super-chlorination: The process of application of chlorine beyond the formation of
break point, is termed as super-chlorination.
7. De-chlorination: The process of removal of excess residual chlorine from water is
known as de-chlorination. For de-chlorination various type of chemicals may be used
such as sodium sulphite, activated carbon, potassium permanganate, sulphur dioxide,
etc.

Residual Chlorine: Residual chlorine refers to the amount of chlorine remaining in water or
other solutions after a disinfection process. Chlorine is commonly used as a disinfectant to kill
bacteria, viruses, and other harmful microorganisms in water.

The residual chlorine level is typically measured in parts per million (ppm) and is an important
indicator of the effectiveness of water treatment and the safety of the water supply. A
sufficient residual chlorine level helps ensure that the water is free from harmful
microorganisms and safe for consumption. However, excessive residual chlorine levels can
have negative effects on the taste and odour of water, as well as potentially cause health
problems for people who consume it.
Important of residual chlorine:

Residual chlorine in water is important for several reasons:

 Disinfection: Chlorine is a powerful disinfectant that can kill harmful bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms that can cause waterborne diseases. Residual chlorine ensures that the water
remains safe to drink by continuously killing any remaining pathogens.
 Protection against contamination: Chlorine can also prevent re-contamination of water during
distribution. If any bacteria or viruses enter the water supply after it has been treated, residual
chlorine can kill them before they can cause harm.
 Monitoring of water treatment: The presence of residual chlorine in water is an indicator that the
water treatment process has been effective in killing harmful microorganisms. Regular testing of
residual chlorine levels can help ensure that the water is safe for consumption.
 Extended shelf-life: Residual chlorine can extend the shelf-life of stored water by preventing the
growth of bacteria and other microorganisms. This is particularly important in emergency situations
or areas where access to clean water is limited.

However, it is important to note that excessive levels of chlorine can have negative health effects, and
therefore, maintaining appropriate residual chlorine levels is crucial.

Problem: 6

It is required to supply water to a population of 20000 at a per capita demand 150 litres per day. The
disinfectant used for chlorination is bleaching powder which contains 30 percent of available chlorine.
Determine how much of bleaching powder is required annually at the waterworks, if 0.3 ppm of chlorine
dose is required for disinfection.

Problem: 7

Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20000 cubic meter per day is 8 kg/day. The residual after 10 min contact is
0.20 mg/l. Calculate the dosage in milligrams per litre and chlorine demand of the water.

The flow diagram of a water treatment plant

It is typically including the following stages:

 Intake point is the function of this unit is to collect water in the intake well so that the water can be
supplied throughout the year.
 Pump house is the function of this unit is to draw water from the intake well and supply the same to
the treatment plant.
 Plain Sedimentation Tank is the function of this unit is to remove the heavier suspended particles in
water.
 The coagulation stage involves adding a coagulant to the water to neutralize the charges on
suspended solids and allow them to clump together.
 The flocculation stage involves mixing the water to encourage the formation of larger particles, or
flocs.
 The Secondary Sedimentation stage involves allowing the flocs to settle out of the water by gravity.
 The filtration stage involves passing the water through a filter medium to remove any remaining
impurities.
 The disinfection stage involves adding a disinfectant, such as chlorine, to kill or inactivate any
remaining microorganisms.
Removal of Colour, Odour and Taste: Properties like colour, odour and taste in water indicate the presence
of dissolved gases, organic matters, industrial wastes, etc. These are removed in the following ways:

1. By Aeration: In this process, water is brought in intimate contact with air so that the water can
absorb oxygen from air. The aeration can be done by following methods:
a) By Air Diffusion: In this method, a perforated pip is provided at the bottom of the settling tank,
in which the raw water is sent
through inlet pipe. The
compressed air is blown through
the perforated pipe as shown in
fig. The air is bubbles are
formed and comes out through
the perforations. Thus air
bubbles are formed and the
water is agitated vigorously. In
this way, the water absorbs
oxygen from the compressed air and the colour, odour and taste are removed.
b) By Trickling Beds: In this method, the water is allowed to flow through the trickling bed prepared
with coke. The bed of
coke is laid on the
perforated plate. The
water is spread over the
bed by the rotating arm
as shown in fig. While
flowing through the
coke the water becomes
free from the dissolved
gases and thus the
colour, odour and taste are removed.
c) By Spray Nozzles: As
shown in figure in this
method, the water is
thrown up in the air like
spay through the nozzles.
Thus, the water comes in
contact with air and the
colour, odour and taste
are removed.
 d) By Cascades: As shown in fig in this method, the water is allowed to fall over a series of concrete
steps which
are known as
cascades. The
water flows
in thin film so
that it comes
in contact
with air, and
thus the colour, odour and taste of water are removed.

2. By Activated Carbon: The activated carbon is manufactured by charring the wood, saw dust, etc. at
about 500C in a
closed chamber. Then
it is activating by
passing air or stream.
It is usually available
in powder form. As
shown in fig, a bed of
activated over the
bed. While the water
flows through the
activated carbon, the
colour, odour and taste are removed.
3. By Copper Sulphate: The solution of copper sulphate (CuSO 4, 7H2O) is prepared and added to water
in the reservoir or just at the entry in the distribution system. The dosage of copper sulphate is
generally 0.50 to 0.75 ppm.
4. By Oxidation: The oxidation of organic matters is done by adding chlorine, potassium permanganate,
ozone, etc. to water as oxidising agents. Generally, the excess chlorine is added beyond the break
point for oxidising the organic matters.

Water Softening: Water softening may be defined as the removal or reduction of hardness from water.

Hardness: The hardness of water is defined as the quality of water which is due to the presence of
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium; sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. Such
water is termed as hard water.

Types of Hardness: Hardness may be of two types

Temporary Hardness: The presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium in water is known as
temporary hardness. It is also known as carbonate hardness.

Permanent Hardness: The presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium in water
is known as permanent hardness. It is also known as non-carbonate hardness.

Effects of Hardness: The following are the effects of hardness:

a) It makes the food tasteless.

b) The vegetables, meat, etc. takes much time to be boiled properly (i.e. soft).
c) It increases the fuel cost for cooking.
d) It consumes more soap and so it is uneconomical in washing of clothes.
e) The working of dying system is highly affected as it causes the change of colour shades in fabrics.
 f) It reduces the life of fabrics.
g) It forms scales on boilers which reduce the life of steam engines.
h) It leads to corrosion and incrustation of pipes.

Necessity of Water Softening: The softening of water is necessary for the following reasons:

a) To improve the taste of food.

b) To reduce the consumption of soap in washing of clothes.
c) To reduce the formation of scales in boilers.
d) To increase the life of fabrics.
e) To neutralise the effect on colour in dying system.
f) To reduce the corrosive effect on pipes.

Removal of Temporary Hardness: The temporary hardness may be removed by the following methods: (a)
By boiling and (b) By adding lime.

a) By Boiling: When the water is boiling for a long time, the chemical reactions take place as given
below:

Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O

Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + CO2 + H₂O

After boiling, the magnesium and calcium carbonates are formed which are insoluble in water and they settle
down at the bottom of the tank when the water is cooled gradually.

This process is not suitable for large scale. This is applicable in domestic purposes only.

b) By Adding Lime: When lime is added to water having temporary hardness, the following chemical
reactions take place:

Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3+ Mg(OH)2+ H₂O

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 +2H2O

After reaction, the calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are formed. These are insoluble in water
and they settle down at the bottom of the tank.

Removal of Permanent Hardness: The permanent hardness can be removed by the following three
processes:

1. Lime-soda process: In lime-soda process, hard water is treated with lime (CaO or Ca (OH)2) firstly, after
that with soda. In this
process, the hardness is
removed by sedimentation as
calcium carbonate or
magnesium hydroxide.

Advantages:

i) The pH-value of water

is increased which
reduces the corrosion
of distribution pipes.
ii) The alkalinity of water
is increased which destroys pathogenic bacteria.
iii) It removes iron and manganese to some extent.
iv) It reduces the other mineral contents.
 v) It reduces the quantity of coagulants required for coagulation.

Disadvantages:

i) It is difficult to dispose of the large volume of sludge.

ii) The calcium carbonate formed in this process is not completely in soluble. It is slightly soluble in
water. So, this process cannot remove the hardness completely.
iii) If re-carbonation is not done, a layer of calcium carbonate will be deposited on the filter media.
This layer disturbs the process of filtration.

Problem: 8

Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to treat two million litre (Ml) of hard water, containing
carbonate hardness equal to 15 French, and magnesium hardness equal to 9 French, and a total hardness
of 24 French.

Problem: 9

The analysis of a hard water shows the following compositions:

Free carbon dioxide = 3 mg/l

Alkalinity = 68 mg/l

Non-carbonate hardness = 92 mg/l

Total magnesium = 15 mg/l

Assume that it is possible to remove all but 35 mg/l of carbonate hardness with lime, and that the treated
water is to have a total hardness of 80 mg/l. Determine the amount of hydrated lime and soda required for
treatment per million litre of raw water.

2. Zeolite process: It is a method of removing the permanent as well as temporary hardness of the water. It
involves the precipitation of Calcium and
Magnesium ions present in water. The
exchange of and ions occurs with the help
of zeolite and therefore, it is known as
Zeolite softening process.

Advantages

i) The treatment unit is compact.

ii) No sludge is formed in this process
iii) It produces zero hardness of water.
iv) The desired degree of hardness can
be prepared by adding this soft
water to any hard water in a to
proper proportion.
v) It is automatic and economical.
vi) It eliminates the deposition of calcium carbonate in distribution system.

Disadvantages

i) It is not suitable for turbid water.

ii) It is unsuitable for water containing iron and manganese.
iii) Much time is lost at the time of regeneration of exhausted sodium.
3. Demineralisation process:
Demineralization of water is the removal of
 essentially all inorganic salts by ion exchange. In this process, strong acid cation resin in the hydrogen
form converts dissolved salts into their corresponding acids, and strong base anion resin in the hydroxide
form removes these acids.

De-fluoridation: If it is found that water contains fluoride in excess than the permissible quantity, then the
excess quantity should be removed by applying some chemicals. This method of reducing the fluoride is
termed as de-fluoridation. De-fluoridation is done by adding activated carbon, calcium phosphate, etc. in
water just before the distribution system.

Unit 3

Conveyance and Distribution of water

The following are the pipes that are generally used for the conveyance of water in water supply schemes

a) Asbestos cement pipe

b) Cast-iron pipe
c) Cement concrete pipe
d) Galvanised iron pipe
e) Lead pipe
f) Steel pipe
g) Wrought iron pipe
h) Copper pipe
i) Plastic pipe
a) Asbestos Cement Pipes: The asbestos cement pipes are manufactured from a mixture of cement and
asbestos fibre. These pipes are very light and can be transported easily. But these are very brittle and
able to be broken if handled carelessly. The cutting, drilling, jointing, etc. can be done easily with
these pipes. The pipes are not affected by salts, acids and corrosive agents. These pipes are suitable
for distribution system where internal pressure is low
b) Cast-Iron Pipes: The cast-iron pipes are manufactured from pig iron by casting (i.e. moulding). These
pipes can resist corrosion and can with- stand high internal pressure. But these are very heavy and
very difficult to transport. The pipes are brittle in nature and may form cracks if handled carelessly.
These are suitable for conveyance where the internal pressure is very high.
c) Cement Concrete Pipes: The pre-cast cement concrete pipes are manufactured in rolling mills and
then transported to the site as per requirement. The pipes may be made of plain concrete,
reinforced cement concrete or pre-stressed cement concrete. The plain concrete pipes are used for
carrying water at places where there is no internal pressure. The reinforced cement concrete pipes
are manufactured by reinforcing with steel bars and casting the concrete in a framework. These
pipes can withstand high internal pressure. Now a day, for very high pressure the pre-stressed
cement concrete pipes are used. The concrete pipes are very heavy and thus, very difficult to handle
and transport.
d) Galvanised Iron Pipes: These are manufactured by galvanising iron pipe. The pipes are economical,
light and easy to handle and transport. They can be easily cut and threaded. The pipes can be easily
joined by sockets. But these pipes are liable to be affected by acidic and alkaline water. These pipes
are suitable for service connections.
e) Lead Pipe: Lead pipes are not adopted for the conveyance of drinking water, because it may cause
lead poisoning. These pipes are generally used in sanitary fitting and water treatment plant.
Sometimes these are used in chemical industries. These are very light and can be easily bent and cut.
 f) Steel Pipes: The steel pipes are light and strong to withstand high internal pressure. They can be
easily transported. But they cannot withstand external pressure. These pipes are not suitable for
distribution system in water supply scheme. The pipes are joined by welding or riveting.
g) Wrought Iron Pipes: The wrought iron pipes can be easily cut and threaded. These are costly and not
much durable. The pipes are affected by corrosion and hence these are generally used inside the
building. These pipes may be recommended for main pipe line if these are galvanised by zinc.
h) Copper Pipe: These pipes are very costly and are not used for ordinary works. These are not affected
by corrosion and can resist acidic action. So, these pipes are generally used in chemical industries
and for making gooseneck in house plumbing. Sometimes, these are used in hot water supply line.
i) Plastic Pipes: At present, the plastic pipes are commonly used in water supply systems. They are
resistant to corrosion, light in weight and economical. The pipes are available in different forms:
i. Low density polythene pipes
ii. High density polythene pipes
iii. Rigid PVC (poly vinyl chloride) pipes
Among the three types, the rigid PVC pipes are most favourite in water supply schemes. These are
resistant to acids, alkalies and salts. These pipes are safe for carrying potable water. These pipes are
strong and can withstand much higher pressure for a smaller wall thickness.

Choice of Pipe Material: The choice of pipe material depends on various factors such as the purpose of the
pipeline, the type of fluid being conveyed, the pressure and temperature conditions, the environmental
conditions, and the cost of the pipe material.

Pipe Joints: The pipes are manufactured in small length varying from 2m to 5m. But at the time of laying, the
pipes are joined together to make them continuous. The selection of the type of joint depends on the pipe
materials, internal pressure, site condition, etc. For example

a) For cast iron and wrought iron pipes – Bell and spigot joint.
b) For steel pipes – Welded or riveted joint.
c) For R.C.C. and A.C. pipes – Collar joint
d) For temporary work – Flanged or threaded joint
e) For temperature change – Expansion joint
f) For places where settlement is suspected – Flexible joint.

Types of valve used in pipe line and their use and location:

1. Air valves: Air valves are components used in pipeline systems to release or
admit air from the pipeline. They are typically located along the pipeline, in
strategic positions such as high points or areas prone to air accumulation.
The primary function of air valves is to prevent the build-up of air pockets
within the pipeline system. Air pockets can cause problems such as reduced
flow, pressure fluctuations, and even pipeline failure due to the formation
of water hammer. Air valves help to release this trapped air, ensuring that
the pipeline operates at optimum efficiency.
2. Reflux valves: Reflux valves, also known as check valves, are components
used in pipeline systems to
prevent the backflow of fluid in the pipeline. They are
typically installed at strategic locations in the pipeline
system to prevent the fluid from flowing back in the
wrong direction, which can cause damage to equipment
or even cause safety hazards. The function of reflux
valves is to allow fluid to flow in only one direction,
while preventing backflow in the opposite direction.
 3. Relief valves: Relief valves are safety devices used in pipeline
systems to protect the system from overpressure conditions.
They are typically installed at strategic locations along the
pipeline to prevent equipment damage, leaks, or other safety
hazards that could result from excessive pressure. The
function of relief valves is to automatically release excess
pressure within the pipeline, once it reaches a
predetermined set point. The valve opens and allows the
excess fluid to flow out of the pipeline, thus reducing the
pressure to a safe level. Once the pressure has been reduced
to an acceptable level, the valve closes automatically.
4. Sluice valves: Sluice valves, also known as gate valves, are components used in pipeline systems to
control the flow of fluid within the pipeline. They are typically
installed at strategic locations (i.e. intersection points) along the
pipeline to isolate sections of the pipeline for maintenance or repair,
or to regulate the flow of fluid within the system. The function of
sluice valves is to open or close the flow of fluid within the pipeline,
by moving a gate or wedge-shaped barrier perpendicular to the
direction of flow. When the valve is open, fluid flows freely through
the pipeline, and when it is closed, fluid is prevented from flowing
through that section of the pipeline.
5. Scour valves: Scour valves, also known as flushing valves, are components used in pipeline systems
to remove sediment, debris, or other contaminants from the pipeline. They are typically installed at
strategic locations (i.e. dead end) along the pipeline to maintain the integrity of the pipeline and
prevent clogging or other problems caused by build-up within the system. The function of scour
valves is to flush out debris or sediment from the pipeline, by releasing a large volume of water at
high velocity. This helps to dislodge any build-up within the pipeline and flush it out of the system.
The valve is typically operated manually or automatically, depending on the specific requirements of
the application.

Distribution of water:

Distribution of water is an essential aspect of providing a reliable and safe water supply to consumers. There
are various methods of distributing water, including gravity, pumping, and combined systems. Additionally,
service reservoirs are used to store and regulate the distribution of water. The layout of the distribution
system is also critical and can be designed in different ways, including the dead end system, grid iron system,
circular system, and radial system. Each system has its suitability, advantages, and disadvantages.

Methods of distribution of water:

a) Gravity distribution: In this system, water flows naturally from a high elevation to a lower elevation,
using the force of gravity. It is an efficient and cost-effective method of distribution, but it requires a
source of water at a higher elevation than the consumers.
b) Pumping distribution: In this system, water is pumped from a source to a higher elevation to reach
the consumers. It is suitable for areas with low elevations, but it requires energy and maintenance
costs.
c) Combined system: This system combines both gravity and pumping methods to provide a reliable
and efficient water supply.

Service Reservoirs: These are tanks used to store water for distribution. They are critical for regulating the
flow of water and ensuring a constant supply to consumers. The different types of service reservoirs include
elevated tanks, ground-level tanks, and underground tanks.
Layouts of distribution of water:

1. Dead-end system: In this system, water is distributed

through a network of pipes that lead to a dead end. It is
a simple and inexpensive layout but can result in poor
water quality due to stagnant water. This system is
suitable for irrigation developing town or city.
Advantage:
a) Dead-end systems are relatively simple and easy
to install compared to other systems since they
do not require additional drainage or outlet
pipes.
b) Dead-end systems are cheaper to install and maintain than other systems since they require
less piping and hardware.
c) Dead-end systems are suitable for applications where the water or fluid is not contaminated
and does not require frequent changes or replenishment.

Disadvantage:

a) Dead-end systems can cause stagnant water or fluid to accumulate, leading to bacterial
growth and contamination, which can cause health hazards.
b) Dead-end systems can cause water or fluid to become discoloured, stale, and odorous over
time, making it unsuitable for use.
c) Dead-end systems are not suitable for applications where frequent changes or replenishment
of water or fluid is required, such as in hot water systems.
2. Grid iron system: This system features a network of interconnected pipes, forming a grid-like
pattern. It is a reliable and efficient system but can
be expensive to install. This system is suitable for
town or city having rectangular layout of road.

Advantage:

a) Reliable supply: The gridiron system provides a

reliable water supply as it is designed to
ensure that each property is supplied with
water from multiple directions. This reduces
the risk of water shortages due to any pipe
breaks or other issues.
b) Easy to maintain: The gridiron system is relatively easy to maintain as each block of the grid is
supplied with water from multiple directions. This makes it easier to isolate and fix any issues
that may arise without disrupting the water supply to the entire system.
c) Cost-effective: The gridiron system is cost-effective to install and maintain as it requires fewer
pipes and fittings than other types of water supply systems. This can result in significant cost
savings over time.

Disadvantages:

a) Lower water pressure: The gridiron system may result in lower water pressure as the water
supply is divided among several properties. This can be especially problematic during peak
usage periods, such as in the morning or evening when many people are using water
simultaneously.
b) Water quality issues: The gridiron system may result in water quality issues if there are any
cross-connections or backflow problems in the system. This can lead to contamination of the
water supply and potentially serious health issues.
 c) Limited flexibility: The gridiron system is less flexible than other types of water supply systems,
such as the looped system, as the water supply is fixed in a rectangular or square pattern. This
can limit the ability to expand the system or make changes to the layout of the network.
3. Circular system: In this system,
water is distributed in a circular
pattern, providing a constant flow
of water to all consumers. It is a
reliable and efficient system but
can be expensive to install. This
system is suitable for well-planned
town or city where the locality can
be divided into square or circular
blocks and the main water line can
be laid around the side of the square or around the circle.

Advantages:

a) Water conservation: Circular systems reduce the demand for freshwater sources and conserve
water, which is becoming increasingly scarce in many regions of the world.
b) Reduced pollution: By treating and reusing wastewater, circular systems can reduce pollution of
water sources such as rivers and lakes, which are often used for wastewater disposal.
c) Cost-effective: Circular systems can be cost-effective in the long run, as the cost of treating and
reusing wastewater is generally lower than the cost of transporting and treating freshwater
sources.

Disadvantages:

a) Infrastructure requirements: Implementing a circular system requires significant infrastructure

investments, such as constructing treatment plants and distribution networks, which can be
costly.
b) Public perception: Some people may perceive recycled wastewater as unclean or unsafe, which
can make it difficult to gain public acceptance and support for the implementation of circular
systems.
c) Technical challenges: Treating and reusing wastewater can be technically challenging, as the
water may contain pathogens, contaminants, and other pollutants that need to be removed
before it can be reused.
4. Radial system: In this system, water is distributed from a central point to different areas. It is
suitable for areas with a high demand for water, but it can be
challenging to maintain.

Advantages:

a) Simple design: The radial system is a simple and easy-to-

understand water distribution system. It is easy to install
and maintain, which makes it a cost-effective option.
b) Reliable water supply: In the radial system, water is
distributed from a central point, which means that water
pressure remains consistent throughout the system. This
ensures a reliable water supply to all points in the
network.
c) Easy to expand: The radial system is easy to expand; as new pipes can be added to the network
from the central point.
d) Easy to isolate faults: In case of any fault in the system, it is easy to isolate the fault and fix it
without affecting the rest of the network.
 Disadvantages:

a) Limited coverage area: The radial system is only suitable for small to medium-sized areas. If the
area to be covered is large, then the radial system may not be the best option.
b) Limited water supply: The radial system is not suitable for areas that require a large volume of
water, such as industrial areas or areas with high water demand.
c) High pressure at the centre: In the radial system, the pressure at the centre is high, which can
lead to higher maintenance costs.
d) High pumping costs: The radial system requires high pumping costs, as the water has to be
pumped from the central point to various points in the network.

Unit – 4