applied
sciences
Article
Safety and Stability Analysis of Demolition and Reconstruction
of Existing Railway Bridge Piers and Caps
Pengxu Pan 1 , Wei Chen 2, *
Citation: Pan, P.; Chen, W.; Wu, P.
Safety and Stability Analysis of
Demolition and Reconstruction of
Existing Railway Bridge Piers and
Caps. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app13127213
Received: 16 May 2023
Revised: 9 June 2023
Accepted: 13 June 2023
Published: 16 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13127213
and Pei Wu 2
1 Changsha Railway Survey and Design Co., Ltd., Changsha 410075, China; 15019419305@163.com
2 School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; 214811153@csu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: chenwei.csu@foxmail.com; Tel.: +86-15111378212
Featured Application: In this paper, a bearing in situ replacement scheme for an existing busy
railway bridge is proposed; its safety and stability in the critical process of construction are ana-
lyzed, and the implementation scheme, problems, and their solutions in the actual construction
are introduced, which can provide a reference for the practical application of the related projects.
Abstract: The process of bridge reconstruction often involves the demolition and reconstruction
of bridge piers and caps, while most of the construction methods used in the previous bridge
reconstruction projects changed the bridge-bearing positions. In this paper, an in situ replacement
scheme of bridge piers and caps is proposed, which can maintain the existing stress state of the
bridge without changing the bearing position. In order to figure out the safety and stability of the in
situ replacement scheme of existing railway bridges, a steel support system model for the removal
and reconstruction of the bridge piers and caps is established by ABAQUS, according to a domestic
railway bridge reconstruction project, and verified by field measurement test. Based on the model,
the stress and deformation of the steel support system under a trainload are analyzed, as well as
those of the bearing foundation and the superstructure. The results show that the steel support
system and steel pipe piles located directly below the line carrying the trainload are subjected to the
greatest stress and deformation. While under various load conditions, the stress and deformation
of the main components in the steel support system of the in situ replacement scheme meet the
design requirements, and the structure is safe under a trainload. In addition, guided by the numerical
calculation results, the implementation scheme, existing problems, and solutions of the project are
introduced in detail, which can provide a reference for similar projects.
Keywords: reconstruction of railway bridge; in situ underpinning; numerical simulation; steel
support; stress analysis
1. Introduction
In the process of water management, some existing waterways need to be dredged
to expand their navigability and flood control capacity [1–3], which typically involves the
modification of some piers, caps, and pile foundations of the bridges, such as pile buttress
replacement, pile cap reinforcement, and other alterations [4,5], which is also the key to
improve the service life of the bridges.
The applications of steel brackets are studied as follows: to check the safety of steel
pipe brackets in the construction stage, Deng et al. [6] established the finite element model
of steel pipe brackets and the field-measured steel pipe stress with MIDAS software.
Horyl [7] and Bobet [8] et al. used finite element software (e.g., ANSYS, ABAQUS, etc.) to
study the force characteristics of steel brackets, obtained the dynamic characteristics of
steel braces, verified the expressions for structural stress and displacement, and proposed
the optimal design spacing method. Rodríguez et al. [9] proposed a specific expression
for yielding steel ribs based on the convergence–confinement method, which is capable
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 2 of 17

of explaining the arch behavior and is easily used. Khalymendyk et al. [10] used a sim-
ple approach, including Kirsch equations, to analyze the stress distribution around the
roadway. Rotkegel et al. [11] assessed the impact of bearing plate dimensions on the
interaction of steel arch support and rock mass based on laboratory tests and numerical
calculations. Zang et al. [12,13] prefabricated steel pipe concrete arches on the ground, feed-
ing these arches into the ground and connecting these arches with flanges to form the
roadway supports, which have a high load capacity and are compressible. Huang et al. [14]
developed a concrete-filled steel tubular support for long-term, large-scale deformation
of deep roadways and verified the outstanding advantages of this support in improving
the bearing capacity and structural stability. To explore the mechanism of concrete-filled
steel tubular support in deep roadways, Zhang et al. [15] compared the mechanical per-
formances of U-steel supports and concrete-filled steel tubular supports by theoretical
calculation and numerical simulation. At present, the application fields of steel brackets
are more extensive, such as underground mine working and supporting roadways, but
there is a lack of research on the application of steel support systems in the process of
bridge reconstruction.
In the field of bridge reconstruction, there are numerous studies on the major meth-
ods and stability analysis during the procedure of bridge rebuilding and construction.
Fu et al. [16] adopted the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method to analyze the multi-
source data and set the early warning threshold for bridge safety in construction based on
the multi-source data of nearby construction and demolition construction of a large-span
RC arch bridge in China. Han et al. [17] considered a new type of corrosion-resistant
steel, A709-50CR, for girder replacement. The reliability- and risk-based bi-objective opti-
mizations were conducted on a multi-girder carbon steel bridge to determine when and
which carbon steel girders should be replaced under different target performance indica-
tors. Seyed et al. [18] investigated the effects of different alternatives for superstructure
and substructure systems on the progressive collapse procedure after verifying the bridge
collapse procedure. In addition, the application of restrainers at the connection of the deck
to the abutment was studied as an effective solution in order to prevent collapse propa-
gation and minimize associated damages. Tazarv et al. [19] performed an experimental
investigation to systematically determine the seismic performance of mechanically spliced
bridge columns and to develop the most comprehensive test database for these columns.
Mansouri et al. [20] investigated the effects of the earthquakes’ duration, intensity, and
magnitude on the seismic response of reinforced concrete bridges retrofitted with seismic
bearings. Based on the deformation coordination principle and suspension cable theory,
Huang et al. [21] proposed a practical calculation method that can calculate the load of
the tower acting by a cable system in the cable lifting construction of arch bridges, to
calculate and analyze cable lifting construction more quickly and accurately. Moreover, a
large-span arch bridge under construction was used as a case study, and the correctness
of the calculation method was verified by measuring the displacements of the tower top.
Li et al. [22] proposed using the Copula function to calculate the reliability index of the
bridge structure construction process system. The basic theory of the Copula function
was introduced in detail, and the formula was improved according to the actual situation
of bridge construction. As can be seen, most of the construction methods used in the
previous bridge reconstruction projects changed the bridge-bearing positions, which had
an unpredictable impact on the safety of the existing bridge and increased the disturbance
to the traffic on the bridge.
Given the above-mentioned unfavorable factors and the inadequacy of existing studies,
some of the alteration programs of existing railroad bridges can be optimized to bear an
in situ replacement scheme. That is, special steel sections are used at the existing railway
bridge bearings instead of piers and bearing pads without changing the position of the
bridge bearings and maintaining the existing stress state of the railway bridge (Figure 1).
In this scheme, the span of the girder is not changed, making the construction process
and force form of the steel support simpler. At the same time, there is minimal impact
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 3 of 17

and force form of the steel support simpler. At the same time, there is minimal impact on
the force of the existing railway bridge girder, which can minimize the disturbance to the
on the force
ballast of the
bed and existing
reduce railway bridge
the line-blocking girder,
time. which can
However, minimize theand
the deformation disturbance to
stress of the
the ballast bed and reduce the line-blocking time. However, the deformation and
steel support structure under load still need to be further studied to determine the safety stress
of
andthestability
steel support
of this structure under
construction load still
scheme. need to beafurther
Accordingly, studied
numerical to determine
simulation of the the
su-
safety and stability of this construction scheme. Accordingly, a numerical simulation
perstructure and support system model is carried out in this paper based on the actual of the
superstructure and support
bridge reconstruction system
project. Basedmodel
on theisestablished
carried outmodel,
in this the
paper based
force andon the actual
deformation
bridge reconstruction project. Based on the established model, the force and deformation
of the temporary support system under the trainload, as well as the deformation of the
of the temporary support system under the trainload, as well as the deformation of the
bridge and track components supported by this system, are investigated. The safety and
bridge and track components supported by this system, are investigated. The safety and
stability of the construction critical process are analyzed considering the bearing capacity,
stability of the construction critical process are analyzed considering the bearing capacity,
stability, deflection of the steel brace, and the bearing capacity of the braced steel pipe
stability, deflection of the steel brace, and the bearing capacity of the braced steel pipe
pile. In addition, the problems and solutions in the actual construction case are intro-
pile. In addition, the problems and solutions in the actual construction case are introduced,
duced, which can provide a reference for the related projects.
which can provide a reference for the related projects.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Bridge
Bridge pier
pier and
and steel
steel bracket
bracket system.
system.

2. Numerical Model
2. Numerical Model
2.1. Finite Element Model
2.1. Finite Element Model
The model established in this paper (Figure 2) is based on a domestic railway viaduct
The model
(including established
the bridge of linesinI,this paper
II, IV) (Figure
located in a2)right-angle
is based onturning
a domestic railway
section viaduct
of the river
(including the bridge of lines Ⅰ, Ⅱ, Ⅳ)
(Figure 3). The distance between the I and II lines of the railway viaduct is 5 m, whileriver
located in a right-angle turning section of the the
(Figure 3). The distance between the Ⅰ and Ⅱ lines of the railway viaduct
spacing between line IV and line I is 7.5 m. The bridges of the lines I and II are simple- is 5 m, while the
spacing between line Ⅳ and line Ⅰ is 7.5 m. The bridges of the lines Ⅰ and
supported girder bridges of length (8 + 10 + 20 + 2 × 10 + 2 × 8) m, while the length of the Ⅱ are simple-
supported
line girder
IV bridge is (3bridges
× 10 + 20of length
+ 2 × 10 (8 ++ 210×+8)20m.
+ 2 × 10 + 2 × 8) m, while the length of the
line Ⅳ bridge is (3 × 10 + 20 + 2 × 10 + 2 × 8) m.
The finite element model is mainly composed of the superstructure (box girder, ballast
bed, rail, sleepers, etc.), temporary steel bracket system, etc. The temporary steel bracket
system structure is composed of supporting longitudinal beams, supporting cross beams,
steel columns, diagonal braces, cross-linkages, temporary steel bracket bearings, and
steel pipe piles from top to bottom. The supporting longitudinal beams and supporting
cross beams are made of H500 × 500 special steel with a thickness of 4 cm. The steel
column is divided into two types: side-span steel column; and middle-span common steel
column. The side-span steel column has a 40 cm diameter and a 10 mm wall thickness,
while the diameter of the middle-span common steel column is 60 mm, and the wall
thickness is 10 mm. The diagonal braces, cross-linkages, and longitudinal linkages are
made of H300 × 200 sealed edge steel diagonal braces; the temporary steel bracket bearing
platforms are 1.5 m in height, with a width that corresponds to the original bearing platform
spacing of the bridge piers. The steel pipe piles are solid piles with a diameter of 30 cm
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 4 of 17

Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2023,
Sci. 13,13,
2023, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 4 of 18 4 of 18
and a length of 20 m, and the center distance between each pile is 0.7 m. Relevant material
parameters are shown in Table 1 [23,24].

(a)(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 2.2.2.
Figure Finite
Finite element
Finiteelementmodel:
elementmodel:(a)
model:(a)temporary
(a)temporarysteel
temporarysteelsupport
steelsupportsystem;
supportsystem;(b)
system;(b)superstructure.
(b)superstructure.
superstructure.

Figure 3. 3.
Figure The bridge
The toto
bridge bebe
reconstructed.
reconstructed.
Figure 3. The bridge to be reconstructed.
The
Thefinite
finiteelement
elementmodel
modelisismainly
mainlycomposed
composedofofthe thesuperstructure
superstructure(box (boxgirder,
girder,bal-
bal-
last bed, rail, sleepers, etc.), temporary steel bracket system, etc. The temporary
last bed, rail, sleepers, etc.), temporary steel bracket system, etc. The temporary steel steel
bracket
bracketsystem
systemstructure
structure isis
composed
composed ofof
supporting
supporting longitudinal
longitudinalbeams,
beams,supporting
supportingcrosscross
beams,
beams, steel columns, diagonal braces, cross-linkages, temporary steel bracketbearings,
steel columns, diagonal braces, cross-linkages, temporary steel bracket bearings,
and
andsteel
steelpipe
pipepiles
pilesfrom
fromtop
toptotobottom.
bottom.The
Thesupporting
supportinglongitudinal
longitudinalbeams
beamsand andsupport-
support-
ing
ingcross
crossbeams
beamsare aremade
madeofofH500
H500× ×500
500special
specialsteel
steelwith
witha athickness
thicknessofof4 4cm.
cm.The
Thesteel
steel
column is divided into two types: side-span steel column; and middle-span
column is divided into two types: side-span steel column; and middle-span common steel common steel
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 5 of 17

Table 1. Parameters of superstructure and temporary support system.

Components Elastic Modulus (MPa) Density (kg·m−3 ) Poisson’s Ratio

Rail 210,000 7800 0.3
Sleeper 36,500 2500 0.2
Ballast bed 130 1800 0.3
Box girder 34,500 2500 0.2
Supporting rods 210,000 7800 0.3
Bearing 30,000 2360 0.2

In the establishment of the ballast track finite element model, the interlocking force
between ballast particles is ignored, which is considered a continuous medium and sim-
ulated by solid elements [25–27]. The type of rail is CHN60, coupled to the sleepers by
fasteners simulated by spring–damper element [28,29]. The type-III fastener is adopted,
whose stiffness is 120 MN/m in the vertical direction, 40 MN/m in the lateral direction,
and 20 MN/m in the longitudinal direction [30]. The damping is 2 × 104 N·s/m in all three
directions. In the process of establishing the finite element model, the shape of the sleeper
is simplified to a regular rectangular body. The eight-node element-C3D8R is adopted to
simulate the ballast, rail, and sleeper.
The bottom of the steel pipe pile is fixedly restrained, and the two ends of the bridge
girder are fixedly restrained for simulating the support of the bridge piers. The ballast bed
is composed of a bulk structure, which keeps close to the bridge deck under the trainload;
thus, the ballast bed and the bridge deck are bonded together by the “tie constraint”.
The contact between the rail sleepers and the ballast bed is simulated as a “surface-to-
surface contact”, the normal contact is set as “hard contact”, while the Coulomb friction
model with a friction coefficient of 0.3 is adopted as the tangential contact. The supporting
longitudinal beams, supporting crossbeams, steel columns, diagonal braces, and other
bars are connected by continuous fillet welds, thus setting the contact between them as a
“tie restraint”.

2.2. Model Validation

To ensure that the bearing capacity of the steel pipe pile meets the requirements, a
single pile-bearing capacity test is conducted. Since there is no sufficient space for loading
under the bridge, its adjacent location with the same stratum was selected for the loading
test (Figure 4). In order to verify the reliability of the model, the mechanical parameters
of the site soil are selected, and the numerical simulation of the single pile static load test
of the pile foundation in the established model is carried out and compared with the data
measured on site. The effect of the load at a distance from the pile is negligible, so the
dimension of the soil model is set to 20 times the pile diameter in the radial direction (6 m)
and
Appl. Sci. 113,
2023, time
x FORthe pile
PEER length in the vertical direction (20 m). The Mohr–Coulomb constitutive
REVIEW 6 of 18
model is used to simulate the soil; the material parameters are shown in Table 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Single pile bearing capacity test: (a) preparation before testing; (b) testing in progress.
Figure 4. Single pile bearing capacity test: (a) preparation before testing; (b) testing in progress.
Table 2. Soil mechanics parameters.

Angle of
Thickness of Young Modulus Poisson’s Density Cohesion
Soil Layers Internal
Layers (m) (MPa) Ration (kg·m−3) (kPa)
Friction (°)
Sand 0.9 22 0.38 1520 40 21
 (a) (b)
Figure 4. Single pile bearing capacity test: (a) preparation before testing; (b) testing in progress.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 6 of 17
Table 2. Soil mechanics parameters.

Angle of
Table Thickness parameters.
2. Soil mechanics of Young Modulus Poisson’s Density Cohesion
Soil Layers Internal
Layers (m) (MPa) Ration (kg·m−3) (kPa)
Friction
Angle of(°)
Thickness of Young Poisson’s Density Cohesion
Sand
Soil Layers 0.9(m)
Layers Modulus22
(MPa) 0.38
Ration 1520
(kg · m−3 ) 40
(kPa) 21
Internal
Friction (◦ )
Silt 3.875 24 0.36 1520 42 26
Sand 0.9 22 0.38 1520 40 21
Siltstone
Silt 7.875
3.875 2426 0.34
0.36 1560
1520 3642 31
26
Silty clay
Siltstone 7.35
7.875 2626 0.35
0.34 1560
1560 4536 35
31
Silty clay 7.35 26 0.35 1560 45 35

The Q-S curve is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that there is a certain error between
The Q-S curve is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that there is a certain error between
the measured and simulated values, which is due to the fact that the friction coefficient μ
the measured and simulated values, which is due to the fact that the friction coefficient µ
between pile and soil used in the numerical simulation cannot be obtained accurately, but
between pile and soil used in the numerical simulation cannot be obtained accurately,
the basic trend of the simulated and measured data development is consistent, which
but the basic trend of the simulated and measured data development is consistent, which
proves the correctness of the model.
proves the correctness of the model.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. The
The Q-S
Q-S curve
curve of
of static
static load
load test.
test.

2.3.
2.3. Selection
Selection of
of Working
Working Conditions
Conditions
The
The engine of the train is
engine of the train is simplified
simplified as
as 55 concentrated
concentrated loads
loads weighing
weighing 2222 t,t, denoted
denoted
by
by F, while the vehicle is simplified as a uniform load weighing 9.2 t/m, denoted by by
F, while the vehicle is simplified as a uniform load weighing 9.2 t/m, denoted q.
q. By
By comparing the force of the bearings under different action positions of the simplified
comparing the force of the bearings under different action positions of the simplified static
static load during
load during train operation,
train operation, the working
the working condition
condition withlargest
with the the largest concentrated
concentrated force
force transferred from the bearing to the lower support system is obtained, which is the
most unfavorable load condition of the temporary steel bracket structure.
The train operation is divided into the following four working conditions to determine
the most unfavorable load condition for the steel support structure: the fourth axle operates
at the rightmost end of the first span; the fifth axle operates at the rightmost end of the first
span; the fifth axle is 1.5 m from the rightmost end of the first span; and the fifth axle is 3 m
from the rightmost end of the first span. The concentrated forces transmitted downward
from the temporary support of the box girder under the four working conditions are
calculated, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Concentrated force at temporary support.

Working Condition R1 (N) R2 (N) R1 + R2 (N)

3 3
1 704 × 10 434 × 10 1138 × 103
2 798 × 103 352 × 103 1150 × 103
3 633 × 103 483 × 103 1116 × 103
4 599 × 103 483 × 103 1082 × 103

In summary, the maximum total concentrated force transmitted downward from the
temporary support under working condition 2 is the largest, which means the fifth axle
operates at the rightmost end of the first span is the most unfavorable load position of
 2 798 × 103 352 × 103 1150 × 103
3 633 × 103 483 × 103 1116 × 103
4 599 × 103 483 × 103 1082 × 103

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 In summary, the maximum total concentrated force transmitted downward from 7 ofthe
17
temporary support under working condition 2 is the largest, which means the fifth axle
operates at the rightmost end of the first span is the most unfavorable load position of the
temporary steel support structure; thus, the stress state is selected for subsequent calcula-
the temporary steel support structure; thus, the stress state is selected for subsequent
tion. The distribution of the trainload in this working condition is shown in Figure 6. In
calculation. The distribution of the trainload in this working condition is shown in Figure 6.
the process of simulation, the trainload is applied in the form of a static load. A pressure
In the process of simulation, the trainload is applied in the form of a static load. A pressure
of 9.07 × 105 N/m2 is applied in the region where the uniform load q acts as shown in Figure
of 9.07 × 105 N/m2 is applied in the region where the uniform load q acts as shown in
6, while a concentrated force of value 110,000 N is applied in each of the five places where
Figure 6, while a concentrated force of value 110,000 N is applied in each of the five places
the concentrated force F acts as shown in Figure 6.
where the concentrated force F acts as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Distribution
Distribution of
of trainload.
trainload.

3.
3. Force
Force Analysis
Analysis ofof Steel
Steel Bracket
Bracket
The
The cases of the most unfavorable
cases of the most unfavorable trainload
trainload acting
acting on
on each
each of
of the
the three
three lines
lines of
of this
this
bridge are considered and classified as follows (Figure 7): Case 1: trainload applied
bridge are considered and classified as follows (Figure 7): Case 1: trainload applied on on line I;
line
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Case 2: trainload applied on line II; Case 3: trainload applied on line IV. The
Ⅰ; Case 2: trainload applied on line Ⅱ; Case 3: trainload applied on line Ⅳ. The maximum maximum
stress
stress of
of each
each component
component in in the
the support
support system
system under
under the
the three
three cases
cases is
is obtained
obtained through
through
finite element calculation and analysis, as shown in
finite element calculation and analysis, as shown in Table 4.Table 4.

Figure
Figure 7. Diagram
7. Diagram of working
of working conditions.
conditions.

Table 4. Maximum stress of each component in steel support system.

Maximum Stress (MPa)

Components
Case 1 Case 2
Supporting longitudinal beam 73.62 73.82
Supporting cross beam 29.09 18.71
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 8 of 17

Table 4. Maximum stress of each component in steel support system.

Maximum Stress (MPa)

Components
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
Supporting longitudinal beam 73.62 73.82 68.69
Supporting cross beam 29.09 18.71 29.79
Diagonal brace 81.97 89.35 88.01
Cross linkage 78.92 80.33 85.60
Longitudinal linkage 30.01 35.53 30.38
Side-span steel column 23.48 20.34 15.33
Middle-span steel column 8.99 9.05 3.18

From Table 4:
(1) The middle-span steel columns directly bear the trainload transferred by the sup-
porting longitudinal beam and cross-beam when the trainload operates on line I and
line II, whereas the trainload acting on line IV has no direct effect on the middle-span
steel columns, which only bear the self-weight generated by the superstructure, so the
maximum stress of the middle-span steel columns under case 3 is 35% of that under
case 1 and 2;
(2) The diagonal braces are subjected to the greatest stress among the components in the
three cases, whose maximum stress is less than the yield strength of Q235 steel [31],
indicating that the entire steel bracket system is in an elastic stage under the trainload,
which means that the bracket design can meet the safety requirements.
The stress condition of the steel pipe piles can reflect the force law of the bridge and
steel support system structure under the trainload for the train, and the superstructure load
is mostly passed from the steel pipe piles to the foundation. Figure 8 illustrates the analysis
of the stress and displacement cloud diagram of the steel pipe piles in each case. The
maximum stress of the steel pipe pile is σmax = 6.65 MPa < fd = 215 MPa, which meets
the design requirements. Under these cases, the steel pipe piles located directly below the
line of the trainload are subjected to the greatest force. The maximum stress appears at the
bottom of the pile, while the maximum displacement appears at the top of the pile, and
the magnitude of stress and displacement of the steel pipe piles decreases from the area
affected by the trainload to both sides.
The steel structure is permitted to deflect up to 1/400 of its span length under the effect
of constant load and live load [31]. The allowable deflection of the supporting longitudinal
beam in the temporary support is 2800/400 = 7 mm, and the allowable deflection of the
supporting cross beam is 5000/400 = 12.5 mm. The maximum deflections of the longitudinal
beams and cross beams, respectively, are 2.13 mm and 2.05 mm, which are less than the
allowable deflection and satisfy the requirements from Table 5.

Table 5. Deflection of longitudinal beam and cross beam.

Maximum Deflection (mm) Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Longitudinal beam 1.03 1.17 2.13
Cross beam 0.97 0.97 2.05

The comparison of case 1 and case 2 demonstrates that the maximum deflection of
the longitudinal beams in line IV is 2.07 times and 1.82 times that in line I and line II, re-
spectively, due to a greater distance between the two intersection points of the longitudinal
beams and the supporting crossbeams below. At the same time, there are 60 cm diameter
middle-span steel columns in the steel brackets under lines I and II to share the force of the
side-span steel columns and diagonal braces, which enhances the stiffness of the brackets.
As a result, the maximum deflection of the cross beam is 47% of what it is in case 3.
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2023,
2023,13,
13,x 7213
FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of
9 of1817

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure
Figure8.8.Cloud
Clouddiagram
diagramofofsteel
steelpipe
pipepile:
pile:(a)
(a)stress
stressinincase
case1 1(Unit:
(Unit:Pa);
Pa);(b)
(b)displacement
displacementinincase
case1 1
(Unit: m); (c) stress in case 2 (Unit: Pa); (d) displacement in case 2 (Unit: m); (e) stress in case 3 (Unit:
(Unit: m); (c) stress in case 2 (Unit: Pa); (d) displacement in case 2 (Unit: m); (e) stress in case 3
Pa); (f) displacement in case 3 (Unit: m).
(Unit: Pa); (f) displacement in case 3 (Unit: m).
The
Thesteel structure
stress is permitted
and displacement to deflect
cloud up to
diagrams of 1/400 of its span
the bearing underlength under the
the trainload are
effect of constant load and live load [31]. The allowable deflection of the supporting
depicted in Figure 9, in which the maximum longitudinal compressive stress of the bearings lon-
gitudinal
under thebeam in the
3 cases temporary
is 0.402 support
MPa, 0.361 MPa, is and
2800/400
0.348=MPa,
7 mm, and
and thethe allowabletensile
maximum deflection
stress
ofisthe supporting cross beam is 5000/400 = 12.5 mm. The maximum deflections
0.272 MPa, 0.276 MPa, and 0.343 MPa, respectively. The area of the bearing platforms of the lon-
gitudinal beams and cross beams, respectively, are 2.13 mm and 2.05 mm, which are
attached to the steel columns below the train line of action presents a noticeable rise in stress, less
than the allowable deflection and satisfy the requirements from Table 5.
and the stress away from this area gradually declines. The maximum stress is lower than
the tensile and compressive strengths of concrete. The bearing platform directly subjected
Table 5. Deflection of longitudinal beam and cross beam.
to the trainload appears to have the largest displacement with maximum deformation of
0.9155 mm, 1.189
Maximum mm, (mm)
Deflection and 1.664 mm, Case
respectively.
1 Case 2 Case 3
Longitudinal beam 1.03 1.17 2.13
Cross beam 0.97 0.97 2.05
 ings under the 3 cases is 0.402 MPa, 0.361 MPa, and 0.348 MPa, and the maximum tensile
stress is 0.272 MPa, 0.276 MPa, and 0.343 MPa, respectively. The area of the bearing plat-
forms attached to the steel columns below the train line of action presents a noticeable rise
in stress, and the stress away from this area gradually declines. The maximum stress is
lower than the tensile and compressive strengths of concrete. The bearing platform di-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 10 of 17
rectly subjected to the trainload appears to have the largest displacement with maximum
deformation of 0.9155 mm, 1.189 mm, and 1.664 mm, respectively.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Cloud
Clouddiagram
diagramofofbearing:
bearing:(a)
(a)stress
stress
inin case
case 1 (Unit:
1 (Unit: Pa);
Pa); (b)(b) displacement
displacement in case
in case 1 (Unit:
1 (Unit: m);
m); (c) stress in case 2 (Unit: Pa); (d) displacement in case 2 (Unit: m); (e) stress in case 3 (Unit: Pa);
(c) stress in case 2 (Unit: Pa); (d) displacement in case 2 (Unit: m); (e) stress in case 3 (Unit: Pa);
(f) displacement in case 3 (Unit: m).
(f) displacement in case 3 (Unit: m).

4. Displacement
4. Displacement and and Stress
Stress of
of Bridge
Bridge and
and Track
TrackComponents
Components
Table66 demonstrates
Table demonstrates the
the displacement
displacement analysis
analysis results
results of
of the
the track
track structure
structure and
and the
the
box girder,
box girder,indicating
indicatingthat
thatin
in the
the identical
identical case,
case, the
the displacement
displacement of of the
the superstructure
superstructure has
has
aa certain
certain correlation
correlation with
with its substructure under the force of its own own gravity;
gravity; consequently,
consequently,
the displacements
the displacements of of the
the components
components in in the
the track
track structure
structure remain
remain essentially
essentially the
the same
same as
as
those of the box girder. In cases 1 and
those of the box girder. In cases 1 and 2, 2, the displacements
displacements of of each component are smaller
component are smaller
than those in case 3, suggesting that the overall stiffness of the supporting structure in line I
and line II is higher than that in line IV.

Table 6. Maximum displacement and stress of each component.

Displacement
Tensile Stress (MPa) Compressive Stress (MPa)
Indicators (mm)
Rails Sleepers Ballast Bed Box Girder Rails Rails Ballast Bed
Condition 1 4.273 4.445 4.434 4.404 38.27 45.34 0.121
Condition 2 4.297 4.653 4.637 4.642 38.29 45.30 0.123
Condition 3 7.057 7.233 7.225 7.343 39.18 45.41 0.177

The maximum tensile and compressive stress of the track components is below the
strength limit, which is not significantly different in all three cases, according to the results of
the stress analysis in Table 6. At the same time, the stress of the ballast bed in condition 3 is
greater than that in condition 1 and condition 2. By comparing its displacement value in
 Condition 2 4.297 4.653 4.637 4.642 38.29 45.30 0.123
Condition 3 7.057 7.233 7.225 7.343 39.18 45.41 0.177

The maximum tensile and compressive stress of the track components is below the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 strength limit, which is not significantly different in all three cases, according to the results 11 of 17
of the stress analysis in Table 6. At the same time, the stress of the ballast bed in condition
3 is greater than that in condition 1 and condition 2. By comparing its displacement value
in different conditions, it can be seen that this is mostly caused by the larger displacement
different conditions, it can be seen that this is mostly caused by the larger displacement
and deformation of the ballast bed in condition 3, thus causing a compressive stress value
and deformation of the ballast bed in condition 3, thus causing a compressive stress value
1.46 times
1.46 those
times thosein in
conditions
conditions1 and
1 and2. 2.
The results of the numerical simulation
The results of the numerical simulation for for stress
stressand
anddisplacement
displacement of of bridge
bridge andand
track
track structure under case 1 are shown in Figure 10. Among them,
structure under case 1 are shown in Figure 10. Among them, the maximum tensile the maximum tensile
and
and compressive
compressive stress
stress appears
appears at at
thethe point
point of of concentrated
concentrated force
force action
action in the
in the rail.
rail. Mean-
Meanwhile,
while, the displacement
the displacement of rail
of the the rail structure
structure in the
in the lineline under
under trainload
trainload action
action is signifi-
is significantly
cantly greater than those in other
greater than those in other lines. lines.

(a) (b)
Figure 10.10.
Figure Cloud
Clouddiagram of of
diagram bridge and
bridge andtrack
trackstructure:
structure:(a)
(a)the
theregion
regionwith
withaalarger
larger concentration
concentration of
of stress; (Unit: Pa) (b) Displacement in case 1 (Unit: m).
stress; (Unit: Pa) (b) Displacement in case 1 (Unit: m).

5. Technical
5. TechnicalSolutions
Solutionsforfor
On-Site
On-Site Construction
Construction
5.1. Railroad Bridge Bearing In Situ Bracket Replacement
5.1. Railroad Bridge Bearing In Situ Bracket Replacement Technology
Technology
TheThe construction
construction process
process of of railway
railway bridge-bearing
bridge-bearing support
support replacement
replacement is as
is as fol-fol-
lows: reinforcing existing piers, constructing steel pipe piles → constructing
lows: reinforcing existing piers, constructing steel pipe piles → constructing support bear- support
bearings
ings → installing
→ installing temporary
temporary steel support
steel support → blocking
→ blocking railway
railway for forsupport
bearing bearingbeams
support
beams installation
installation construction
construction → cutting and → removing
cutting and removing
existing existingin pier
pier bearings piecesbearings
→ exca- in
pieces
vating the→pier
excavating
pit → pouring pit →
the pierpier pouring
bearing pier bearingconcrete
reinforcement reinforcement pier→
concrete
→ pouring pour-
rein-
ing pier reinforcement concrete → pouring pier cap reinforcement concrete
forcement concrete → pouring pier cap reinforcement concrete → cutting bearing bracket → cutting
bearing bracket
replacement beam, replacement beam, removing
removing temporary temporary
steel bracket steel bracket
→ completion → completion
and acceptance.
and acceptance.
5.1.1. Construction of Steel Pipe Pile
5.1.1. Construction of Steel Pipe Pile
The steel pipe piles are mainly divided into existing bridge pier reinforcement steel
The steel pipe piles are mainly divided into existing bridge pier reinforcement steel
pipe piles and temporary support steel pipe piles. The construction process is as follows:
pipe piles and temporary support steel pipe piles. The construction process is as follows:
leveling site → processing steel pipe piles → measuring and positioning →aligning the
leveling site → processing steel pipe piles → measuring and positioning → aligning the
drilling rig → drilling → drill-hole finished → cleaning the hole → lowering the steel pipe
drilling rig → drilling → drill-hole finished → cleaning the hole → lowering the steel
pipe → secondary hole cleaning → filling cement slurry until pure cement slurry flows out
of the hole → dumping stones inside the steel pipe piles and pounding.

5.1.2. Construction of Temporary Steel Bracket

The temporary steel bracket (Figure 11) is composed of steel columns and a sup-
port system, whose composition is as follows from bottom to top: ϕ30 cm steel pipe pile
foundation → temporary steel bracket bearing platform → ϕ40 (ϕ60) cm steel
columns → H500 × 500 steel cross beams → H500 × 500 steel longitudinal beams → bearing.
The erection of steel brackets can be completed in two parts, the installation of steel
columns and the construction of the support system.
The steel column is installed by the bracket. The components are moved to the vicinity
of the installation site manually after they have been lifted by the crane and unloaded
outside the projection range of the bridge deck. After erecting the bracket above it and
placing the crossbeam to hang the lifting zipper pulley, it will be straightened and welded
with the pre-built parts of the foundation.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213
5.1.2. Construction of Temporary Steel Bracket
The temporary steel bracket (Figure 11) is composed of steel columns and a support
system, whose composition is as follows from bottom to top: φ30 cm steel pipe pile foun-
dation → temporary steel bracket bearing platform → φ40 (φ60) cm steel columns → H500
× 500 steel cross beams → H500 × 500 steel longitudinal beams → bearing. 12 of 17
The erection of steel brackets can be completed in two parts, the installation of steel
columns and the construction of the support system.

Figure 11. Construction of steel support.

Figure 11. Construction of steel support.

The
Theinstallation
steel columnof the support system
is installed is based on
by the bracket. Thethe bottom-to-top
components are method.
moved toThetheproce-
vicin-
dure
ity ofofthe
transverse support
installation erection is after
site manually as follows: constructing
they have been liftedtheby
steel
thecolumns
crane and→unloaded
erecting
the bottom
outside theconnecting beamsof→the
projection range erecting
bridgethe connecting
deck. beamsthe
After erecting at bracket
the top above
of the itsteel
and
columns
placing the → crossbeam
linking thetoinclined
hang thebracing systempulley,
lifting zipper between thebesteel
it will columns.and
straightened The steel
welded
bracing
with therods should
pre-built be connected
parts by continuous fillet welds, the weld size of which is
of the foundation.
8 mm Thefor the continuous
installation of beam bracingsystem
the support and 10ismm for the
based on continuous rigid bracing.
the bottom-to-top method. The
procedure of transverse support erection is as follows: constructing the steel columns →
5.1.3. Replacement
erecting the bottom Construction of the Bridge-Bearing
connecting beams → erecting the Bracket
connecting beams at the top of the
steelThe center→
columns spacing
linkingoftheϕ30 cm steel
inclined pipe piles
bracing system is 0.7 m. The
between thesteel
steelskeleton
columns.is The
welded
steel
on top ofrods
bracing the steel pipe
should bepiles, whichby
connected is coupled
continuous with thewelds,
fillet temporary steel size
the weld bracket-bearing
of which is 8
foundation
mm for theas a whole. beam
continuous Pre-buried
bracing bolts
andare10 needed
mm for theto fix the steel columns
continuous on the top
rigid bracing.
surface of the temporary bracket foundation, and the steel columns are reinforced with
longitudinal and horizontal
5.1.3. Replacement rodsof
Construction tothe
ensure stability. The
Bridge-Bearing flange is set at the top of the
Bracket
steel column for placing the crossbeams (vertical line direction) fixed by a block welded to
The center spacing of φ30 cm steel pipe piles is 0.7 m. The steel skeleton is welded on
the flange.
top of the steel pipe piles, which is coupled with the temporary steel bracket-bearing founda-
Temporary bearings are positioned on the bracket replacement longitudinal beam
tion as a whole. Pre-buried bolts are needed to fix the steel columns on the top surface of the
corresponding to the original bridge-bearing position to hold up the railway bridge. The
temporary bracket foundation, and the steel columns are reinforced with longitudinal ofand
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
original railway bridge bearing (or the same type as the original bearing) is chosen 13 as the18
horizontal rods to ensure stability. The flange is set at the top of the steel column for placing
temporary bearing (Figure 12).
the crossbeams (vertical line direction) fixed by a block welded to the flange.
Temporary bearings are positioned on the bracket replacement longitudinal beam
corresponding to the original bridge-bearing position to hold up the railway bridge. The
original railway bridge bearing (or the same type as the original bearing) is chosen as the
temporary bearing (Figure 12).

Figure12.
Figure 12.Replacement
Replacementconstruction
constructionofoflongitudinal
longitudinalbeams.
beams.

After
Aftereach
eachlongitudinal
longitudinalbeam
beamhas hasbeen
beeninstalled,
installed,the
thegap
gapbetween
betweenthe
thebottom
bottomofofthe
the
longitudinal beams and the old bridge piers should be stuffed with triangular wood
longitudinal beams and the old bridge piers should be stuffed with triangular wood be- before
fore opening the line. After all the longitudinal beams are installed on one pier, the trian-
gular wood at the bottom of the longitudinal beams should be removed so that each lon-
gitudinal beam can be stressed at the same time. After all the longitudinal beams of a pier
are installed, remove the triangular wood from the bottom of the longitudinal beams, al-
lowing each longitudinal beam to bear the force simultaneously.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 13 of 17

opening the line. After

Figure 12. Replacement all the
construction longitudinal
of longitudinal beams.beams are installed on one pier, the triangular
wood at the bottom of the longitudinal beams should be removed so that each longitudinal
After each longitudinal beam has been installed, the gap between the bottom of the
beam can be stressed at the same time. After all the longitudinal beams of a pier are
longitudinal beams and the old bridge piers should be stuffed with triangular wood be-
installed,
fore openingremove
the line.the triangular
After wood from
all the longitudinal beamsthe
arebottom
installedof
onthe
one longitudinal
pier, the trian- beams, allowing
each
gularlongitudinal
wood at the bottom beam to bear
of the the force
longitudinal beamssimultaneously.
should be removed so that each lon-
gitudinal
In thebeam can be stressed
process of bridge at thejacking,
same time.the
After all the
force longitudinal
applied beams
to the of a pier jacks gradually
hydraulic
are installed, remove the triangular wood from the bottom of the longitudinal beams, al-
increases to 1100 kN to hold up the railway bridge, which can ensure that the bridge will
lowing each longitudinal beam to bear the force simultaneously.
not fall or tilt
In the during
process the cutting
of bridge process,
jacking, the and then,
force applied to thethe concrete
hydraulic block-cutting
jacks gradually operation can
be carried
increases to out.
1100 kN to hold up the railway bridge, which can ensure that the bridge will
not fall or tilt during the cutting process, and then, the concrete block-cutting operation
5.1.4.
can beDemolition
carried out. of Old Bridge Piers and Bearings

5.1.4.The support
Demolition will
of Old transfer
Bridge all Bearings
Piers and the load to the steel columns through the bracket re-
placement longitudinal beams and
The support will transfer all the load to cross beams
the steel afterthrough
columns the steel bracket
the bracket re-has been entirely
assembled, and then,
placement longitudinal the and
beams loadcross
is transmitted
beams after thetosteel
thebracket
bracket hassteel pipe piles through the
been entirely
bracket
assembled,bearing platform.
and then, the load isBy this time,
transmitted thebracket
to the old piers
steel and
pipe bearings will
piles through theno longer be sub-
bracket bearing platform. By this time, the old piers and bearings will no longer be sub-
jected to the upper load, allowing for the removal of piers and bearings in slow time outside
jected to the upper load, allowing for the removal of piers and bearings in slow time out-
the blocking point (Figure 13).
side the blocking point (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Pier cutting.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Figure 13. Pier cutting.

5.1.5. Newly Constructed Piers and Abutments

5.1.5.Tie
Newly
the Constructed Piers and Abutments
bearing reinforcement, pour concrete, and rebuild the foundation of the bridge
Tie the bearing
pier bearings reinforcement,
according pour concrete,
to the design and rebuild
requirements afterthe foundationthe
excavating of the
foundation pit
bridge pier bearings according to the design requirements after excavating the foundation
of the new bridge pier bearings (Figure 14). The bracket replacement steel longitudinal
pit of the new bridge pier bearings (Figure 14). The bracket replacement steel longitudinal
beams are embedded in the new pier cap, becoming a part of the new pier columns, and
beams are embedded in the new pier cap, becoming a part of the new pier columns, and
the temporary steel
the temporary steel bracket
bracket is removed
is removed after
after the the reconstruction
reconstruction of the newofpiers.
the new piers.

Figure 14. Reconstruction of abutments and piers.

Figure 14. Reconstruction of abutments and piers.
5.2. Problems and Solutions of In Situ Replacement Construction
5.2.1. Narrow Operating Space
The construction operation is relatively difficult due to the limited space for installing
bearing bracket replacement steel beams, removing existing piers, and transiting opera-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 14 of 17

5.2. Problems and Solutions of In Situ Replacement Construction

5.2.1. Narrow Operating Space
The construction operation is relatively difficult due to the limited space for installing
bearing bracket replacement steel beams, removing existing piers, and transiting operations.
Part of the space in the pier cap concrete of the new bridge is occupied by the support
bracket replacement steel beams. To ensure normal railway traffic, the support bracket
replacement steel beams will be cast in the new pier cap concrete of the bridge to form a
permanent structural system.
The above negative conditions are analyzed in detail and overcome by implementing
special technical measures, such as arranging the replacement construction operations
in accordance with the railway blocking conditions, decomposing the steps of cutting
the concrete of the existing pier caps, wearing beams, and reinforcing to guarantee that
the entire blocking operation is carried out in an orderly manner; increasing the concrete
strength level of the new piers minimizes the impact caused by train vibration.

5.2.2. Construction of Steel Pipe Piles Encountering Underground Obstacles

The underground situation is rather complicated due to the underlying obstacles
encountered in the location of the steel pipe piles on the river side of the construction
line, which leads to the inability to drive piles despite various attempts at the site. After
reporting to the design unit and obtaining consent, the steel pipe piles on the south and
north sides of the bearing platforms are canceled and replaced with the temporary, braced-
steel pipe piles on the east and west sides in equal numbers (Figure 15), and the final hole
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18
elevation of the braced steel pipe piles and the reinforced steel pipe piles of the bearing
platform is the same, which means that the bearing capacity of the piles is identical.

Figure15.
Figure 15.Construction
Constructionofofsteel
steelpipe
pipepiles.
piles.

The
Thereinforcement
reinforcementprogram
programof of4#4#pier
pierbearing
bearingin inline
lineIIisismodified
modified as as follows:
follows: firstly,
firstly,
anchoring
anchoring44temporary
temporarybracket
bracketsteel
steelpipe
pipepiles
pileson
oneach
eachside
sideofofthe
theeast
eastand
andwestwestsides
sidesinto
into
the
thenewnewbearing
bearing(Figure
(Figure16); pouring
16); pouring a new
a newbearing, which
bearing, which measures
measures 5.2 m5.2(long) × 3.685
m (long) m
× 3.685
(width) × 2 m (height); then, when the entire replacement construction
m (width) × 2 m (height); then, when the entire replacement construction is accomplished, is accomplished,
remove
removethe thesteel
steelbrackets
bracketsfrom
fromlines
linesIIIIand
andIVIVwhile
whilestill
stillretaining
retainingthe thesteel
steelbrackets
bracketsininline
line
IIafter
afterthe
thepier
piercap
capconcrete
concretehas hasreached
reachedthe thedesign
designstrength
strengthand andthe thepier
pierforce
forcehas
hasbeen
been
restored.
restored.After
Afterthat,
that,the
the44steel
steelpipe
pipepiles
pilesin
inthe
thesecond
secondrow rowof ofthe
theeast
eastand
andwestwestsides
sideswill
will
be cut out; the new 4# pier bearing in line I will then be widened and reinforced
be cut out; the new 4# pier bearing in line I will then be widened and reinforced by means by means
of
ofenlarging
enlarging70 70cm
cmononeach
eachof ofthe
theeast
eastandandwest
westsides
sidesandandanchoring
anchoring88steel steelpipe
pipepiles
pilesinto
into
it.
it. Finally, backfill the pit and then remove the steel support of line I after the concretein
Finally, backfill the pit and then remove the steel support of line I after the concrete in
the
thewidened
widenedportion
portionofofthe
thebearing
bearingplatform
platformreaches
reachesthethedesign
designstrength.
strength.
 remove the steel brackets from lines II and IV while still retaining the steel brackets in line
I after the pier cap concrete has reached the design strength and the pier force has been
restored. After that, the 4 steel pipe piles in the second row of the east and west sides will
be cut out; the new 4# pier bearing in line I will then be widened and reinforced by means
of enlarging 70 cm on each of the east and west sides and anchoring 8 steel pipe piles into
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 15 of 17
it. Finally, backfill the pit and then remove the steel support of line I after the concrete in
the widened portion of the bearing platform reaches the design strength.

Figure 16. Connection process of steel pipe pile and bearing.

Figure 16. Connection process of steel pipe pile and bearing.

The
Thereinforcement
reinforcementprogram
programof ofthe
thepier
pierbearing
bearing ininline
line IV
IV5#5# isismodified
modified as asfollows:
follows:
Anchor
Anchor 1212 temporary bracket steel
temporary bracket steelpipe
pipepiles
pilesononeach
each side
side of of
thethe
easteast
andand
west west sides
sides into
into the new
the new bearing,
bearing, pouringpouring
a newabearing,
new bearing, which measures
which measures 8.4 m
8.4 m (long) (long)
× 5.3 × 5.3 m
m (width) ×2
(width) ×2m
m (height). (height).
Backfill the Backfill
pit and the
thenpit and then
remove the remove the steel
steel support support
of line of line
IV after the IV after
concrete
the concrete
in the in the
widened widened
portion portion
of the of the
bearing bearing
platform platform
reaches the reaches the design strength.
design strength.

5.2.3. Negative Impact on Other Structural Members

Demolition of old bridge piers and bearings is a comprehensive and systematic project,
which could have a negative impact on other structural members due to the influencing
impact force. In order to minimize the negative impact on the structure, the monitoring
of the overall bridge form, structural displacement, internal forces at important nodes,
and foundation settlement are key steps to ensure that the construction process is carried
out safely.
The controlling of the displacement includes two stages, during the construction pro-
cess and after the construction is completed. The former is to ensure that the displacement
value is within the controllable range in strict accordance with the relevant requirements of
the drawings and specifications during the construction process. The latter is to monitor
whether the displacement will exceed the limit value after the construction is finished to
ensure the safety of the bridge.
In terms of stress, control the stress of each structure during the construction process,
monitor the local stress at the most unfavorable stress location, and understand its stress
characteristics through the stress changes at the monitoring points.

6. Conclusions
To study the stability and safety of the steel support system for the demolition and
reconstruction of the bridge pier bearing, the deformation and stress of the components
under the trainload are analyzed, and the detailed presentation of the on-site construction
cases, the following conclusions are obtained:
(1) The stress and deformation of the main components of the steel bracket system meet
the design requirements in each load condition, which means the safety and stability
of the structure can be guaranteed;
(2) For the stress and displacement distribution of the steel pipe pile under the trainload,
the maximum stress appears at the bottom of the pile, while the maximum displace-
ment appears at the top of the pile, and the magnitude of stress and displacement of
the steel pipe pile decreases from the area of the trainload to both sides;
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 16 of 17

(3) The greater the distance between the two intersection points of the longitudinal beam
and its supporting crossbeams below, the larger the deflection of the longitudinal
beam above it;
(4) Due to the presence of the middle-span steel column, the overall stiffness of the
supporting structure under line I and line II is higher than that under line IV;
(5) The railway bridge-bearing in situ replacement construction plan has little impact
on the existing railway bridge girders, and the steel bracket is simple in force form,
but there are also corresponding problems in the process of construction operations
that must be addressed by applying various safeguard measures to maximize the
superiority of this construction plan.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.P. and W.C.; funding acquisition, W.C.; methodology,
P.P.; software, W.C. and P.W.; validation, P.P. and P.W.; formal analysis: P.W.; investigation: P.P.;
visualization: W.C.; writing—original draft, P.W.; writing—review and editing, W.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province [grant
number 2022JJ30715].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study may be available on reasonable request
from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Cook, W.; Paul, J.B.; Marvin, W.H. Bridge failure rate. J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2013, 29, 04014080. [CrossRef]
2. Mitoulis, S.A.; Argyroudis, S.A.; Loli, M.; Imam, B. Restoration models for quantifying flood resilience of bridges. Eng. Struct.
2021, 238, 112180. [CrossRef]
3. Pejović, J.; Serdar, N.; Pejović, R. Damage assessment of road bridges caused by extreme streamflow in Montenegro: Reconstruc-
tion and structural upgrading. Buildings 2022, 12, 810. [CrossRef]
4. Yuan, Z.W. Study on reconstruction technology for river-crossing multi-span bridge on railway operating line. Railw. Constr.
Technol. 2019, 5, 56–59+89. (In Chinese)
5. Wang, J. Application of bridge demolition technique in reconstruction and expansion engineering of expressway. Transp. Res.
2014, 42, 156–159. (In Chinese) [CrossRef]
6. Deng, D.Y.; Zhang, X.Q.; Chen, Z.; Yang, G.F.; Lu, J.X. Study on force of steel bracket for construction of large span and wide steel
box girder. IOP Conf. Ser. Mat. Sci. Eng. 2019, 490, 032013. [CrossRef]
7. Horyl, P.; Šňupárek, R. Behaviour of steel arch supports under dynamic effects of rockbursts. Min. Technol. 2007, 116, 119–128.
[CrossRef]
8. Bobet, A.; Yu, H.T. Full stress and displacement fields for steel-lined deep pressure tunnels in transversely anisotropic rock. Tunn.
Undergr. Space Technol. 2016, 56, 125–135. [CrossRef]
9. Rodríguez, R.; Díaz-Aguado, M.B. Deduction and use of an analytical expression for the characteristic curve of a support based
on yielding steel ribs. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 2013, 33, 159–170. [CrossRef]
10. Khalymendyk, I.; Baryshnikov, A. The mechanism of roadway deformation in conditions of laminated rocks. J. Sustain. Min.
2018, 17, 41–47. [CrossRef]
11. Rotkegel, M.; Bock, S. Impact of bearing plates dimensions on interaction of mine workings support and rock mass. J. Sustain.
Min. 2015, 14, 12–20. [CrossRef]
12. Zang, D.S.; Li, A.Q. Study on concrete-filled steel tube supports. Chin. J. Geotech. Eng. 2001, 23, 342–344. (In Chinese)
13. Zang, D.S.; Wei, L. Research and lab test of steel tube concrete support. Mine Constr. Technol. 2001, 6, 25–28. (In Chinese)
14. Huang, W.P.; Yuan, Q.; Tan, Y.L.; Wang, J.; Liu, G.L.; Qu, G.L.; Li, C. An innovative support technology employing a concrete-filled
steel tubular structure for a 1000-m-deep roadway in a high in situ stress field. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 2018, 73, 26–36.
[CrossRef]
15. Zhang, J.P.; Liu, L.M.; Cao, J.Z.; Yan, X.; Zhang, F.T. Mechanism and application of concrete-filled steel tubular support in deep
and high stress roadway. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 186, 233–246. [CrossRef]
16. Fu, M.Z.; Liang, Y.X.; Feng, Q.S.; Wu, B.T.; Tang, G.X. Research on the application of multi-source data analysis for bridge safety
monitoring in the reconstruction and demolition process. Buildings 2022, 12, 1195. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7213 17 of 17

17. Han, X.; Yang, D.Y.; Frangopol, D.M. Optimum maintenance of deteriorated steel bridges using corrosion resistant steel based on
system reliability and life-cycle cost. Eng. Struct. 2021, 243, 112633. [CrossRef]
18. Seyed, K.A.; Akbari, R.; Maalek, S.; Gharighoran, A. Assessment of design and retrofitting solutions on the progressive collapse
of Hongqi Bridge. Shock Vib. 2020, 2020, 4932721. [CrossRef]
19. Tazarv, M.; Sjurseth, T.; Greeneway, E.; Hart, K.; LaVoy, M.; Wehbe, N. Experimental studies on seismic performance of
mechanically spliced precast bridge columns. J. Bridge Eng. 2022, 27, 0001948. [CrossRef]
20. Mansouri, S.; Kontoni, D.P.N.; Pouraminian, M. The effects of the duration, intensity and magnitude of far-fault earthquakes on
the seismic response of RC bridges retrofitted with seismic bearings. Adv. Bridge Eng. 2022, 3, 19. [CrossRef]
21. Huang, Q.; Wu, X.G.; Zhang, Y.F.; Ma, M. Proposed new analytical method of tower load in large-span arch bridge cable lifting
construction. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 9373. [CrossRef]
22. Li, Q.F.; Zhang, T.J. Research on the reliability of bridge structure construction process system based on copula theory. Appl. Sci.
2022, 12, 8137. [CrossRef]
23. Tan, S.Y. Study on Vibration Transfer Characteristics and Structure Selection of Railway Track in Active Fault Zone Tunnels.
Master’s Thesis, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China, 2017. (In Chinese)
24. Qi, W.; Cao, Y.; Zhao, Z.H.; Mo, H.Y. Research on the influence of track gauge on stress characteristics of track structure.
Railw. Eng. 2020, 60, 131–134. (In Chinese)
25. Galvín, P.; François, S.; Schevenels, M.; Bongini, E.; Degrande, G.; Lombaert, G. A 2.5D coupled FE-BE model for the prediction of
railway induced vibrations. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 2010, 30, 1500–1512. [CrossRef]
26. Costa, P.A.; Calçada, R.; Cardoso, A.S. Ballast mats for the reduction of railway traffic vibrations. Numerical study. Soil Dyn.
Earthq. Eng. 2012, 42, 137–150. [CrossRef]
27. Cai, X.P.; Tan, S.Y.; Shen, Y.P.; Cai, X.H. Dynamic analysis of laying elastic sleeper on ballast track in tunnel. J. China Railw. Soc.
2018, 40, 87–93. (In Chinese)
28. Pan, L.; Xu, L.; Chen, X.M.; Zhu, Z.X. Curved ballasted track-vehicle dynamic interaction: Effects of curve radius and track
structural nonlinearity. J. Comput. Nonlinear Dynam. 2021, 16, 071004. [CrossRef]
29. Lee, J.; Oh, K.; Park, Y.; Choi, J. Study on the applicability of dynamic factor standards by comparison of spring constant based
dynamic factor of ballasted and concrete track structures. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 8361. [CrossRef]
30. Cai, X.P.; Zhong, Y.L.; Hao, X.C.; Zhang, Y.R.; Cui, R.X. Dynamic behavior of a polyurethane foam solidified ballasted track in a
heavy haul railway tunnel. Adv. Struct. Eng. 2019, 22, 751–764. [CrossRef]
31. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China. Standard for Design of Steel Structures, 1st
ed.; China Architecture & Building Press: Beijing, China, 2018. (In Chinese)

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.