Qassim University

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Properties of Structural Materials

CE 205

Lecture #4
Mechanical Properties of Structural Materials
(Shear, Bending, Torsion, Hardness, and Impact Tests)
Dr. Eyad Alsuhaibani

Semester 443
Loading Scenarios Commonly Employed in Mechanical
Testing of Materials:

a. Tension
b. Compression
c. Indentation hardness
d. Cantilever flexure
e. Three-point flexure
f. Four-point flexure
g. Torsion

❖ Usually, testing procedures is to (1) place small specimens of the material in testing
machines, (2) apply the loads, and then (3) measure the resulting loads or deformations
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Universal Testing Machine (UMT):

❖ The Universal Testing Machine (UMT) is used

for a wide range of testing which includes:

➢ Tension
➢ Compression
➢ Shear
➢ Flexure
➢ Impact
➢ Fatigue

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Type of Stresses: Shear stress ():
❖ When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite forces, acting tangentially
across the resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off across
the section, the stress induced is called shear stress. The corresponding strain is
called shear strain.

❖ Shear stress is where parts of material slide relative

to each other. Opposite forces not lined up

❖ Examples: scissors, pin in a wagon tongue, shear pin

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Shear Stress ():
Shear stress (N/m2) Force tangential to the area (N)
𝑉 A V

𝜏=
𝐴 Tangential area (m2)

𝐹
𝑉=
If F is large enough, the object fails on 2
AB and CD sections
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Shear Testing

Two types of tests:

(1) Using Direct Shear Test
❖ The direct shear test (also called transverse shear test) gives an approximation to the correct
values of shearing strength.
❖ The direct shear test has a limitation for the determination of elastic strength or of the modulus
of rigidity or shear rigidity, because of difficulty to measure shearing strain.

(2) Using Torsion Test

❖ Torsion test is usually carried out in the specimens of the circular cross-section for which
determine the state of stress and strain is relatively simple.

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Direct Shear Test
Single Direct Shear Test: Single shear occurs on a single plane.

Failure of a bolt in single shear

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Direct Shear Test
Double Direct Shear Test: Double shear occurs on two planes simultaneously.

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Double Direct Shear Test

❖ The pin A used to connect the linkage of this tractor is subjected to double shear because
shearing stresses occur on the surface of the pin at B and C

wall

bolt

Hanging mass

Huge force, F
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 Shear Testing: Single vs Double

➢ Single Shear

Single shear test

➢ Double Shear

Show video
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Shear Testing: Single vs Double

1) Single shear test

2) If it is extended to B, it will be subjected to double shear Punch for shear test of plates

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Shear Strain (𝜸):
❖ Shear strain (𝛾) is the distortion produced by shear stress on an element or rectangular block.

F d
(d)

𝜑 B

𝑑
𝛾= = tan 𝜑
𝐵
(𝜑 is small, therefore 𝜑 ≅ 𝛾)

Shear Strain (radian) Shear distance ❖ Shear strain then becomes the change in
𝑑 the right angle.
𝛾= ❖ Shear strain is measured in radians.
𝐵 Width B
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Shear Strain (𝜸) Example:
❖ A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in torsion and the shear stress–strain diagram is shown below.
Determine the shear modulus G, the proportional limit, and the ultimate shear stress. Also, determine
the maximum distance “d” that the top of a block of this material could be displaced horizontally if the
material behaves elastically when acted upon by a shear force V. What is the magnitude of V necessary
to cause this displacement?

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Shear Strain (𝜸) Example, Answer:
Shear Modulus. This value represents the slope of the straight-line portion OA of the shear stress-strain diagram.
The coordinates of point A are (0.008 rad, 360 MPa).Thus,

Proportional Limit. By inspection, the graph ceases to be

linear at point A. Thus,

Ultimate Stress. This value represents the maximum shear stress,

point B. From the graph,

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Shear Strain (𝜸) Example, Answer:
Maximum Elastic Displacement and Shear Force. Since the maximum elastic shear strain is 0.008 rad, a very
small angle, the top of the block will be displaced horizontally:
Shear Strain (radian) Shear distance
𝑑
𝛾=
𝐵
Width B

𝑑 = 0.4 mm

The corresponding average shear stress in the block is 𝜏𝑝𝑙 =360 MPa.
Thus, the shear force V needed to cause the displacement is

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Hooke’s Law in Shear

❖ The properties of a material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or
from torsion tests.
❖ Shear stress () is related to shear strain (𝛾) by constant G or (C).
❖ G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).
❖ Hooke’s Law in shear:

𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜈)

Where: E is modulus of elasticity

𝜈 is Poisson's ratio 16
Hooke’s Law in Shear

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Hooke’s Law in Shear

Example: An alloy specimen has a modulus of elasticity of 120 GPa and modulus of rigidity of 45 GPa.
Determine the Poisson’s ratio of the material.

SOLUTION. Given : Modulus of elasticity (E) = 120 GPa and modulus of rigidity (G) = 45 GPa.

𝐸 120 120 120

𝐺= 45 = 1+𝜈 = 𝜈= −1
2(1 + 𝜈) 2(1 + 𝜈) 2(45) 2(45)

𝜈 = 0.333

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 Bending Test (background)
❖ Structural members are usually classified according to the types of
loads that they support.
➢ An axially loaded bar supports forces having their vectors directed
along the axis of the bar

➢ Beams are structural members subjected to lateral loads, that is,

forces or moments having their vectors perpendicular to the axis
of the bar.

➢ A bar in torsion supports torques (or couples) having their

moment vectors directed along the axis.
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 Bending Test (cont.)
❖ Bending test (or flexural test) provides fundamental
knowledge on bending behavior of materials.
❖ Bending tests are conducted by placing a length of material
across a span and pushing down along the span to bend the
material until failure.
❖ The deflection due to bending load is an indication of the
overall stiffness of the material.
❖ Bending tests reveal the elastic modulus of bending, flexural
stress, and flexural strain of a material.

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 Bending Test (cont.)
❖ In bending, loads tend to induce tensile and compressive stresses over the cross-section of the beam.
❖ Bending tests are intended for brittle materials when the scope of test is to determine the strength of
material.
❖ In bending, the specimen simultaneously sees:
➢ Compressive stresses (on the surface where the load is applied).
➢ Tensile stresses (on the opposite surface of the sample).
➢ Shear stresses at the mid-plane (neutral axis).

Show video
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Bending Test (cont.)
❖ Two common types of bending tests: 3-point bending & 4-point bending

3-point

4-point

❖ Usually, long specimens with higher length to depth ratio (L/h > 10) are recommended.
❖ Likewise, a shorter beam (L/h < 6) is intended for shear failure testing in bending. 22
Bending Test (cont.)
❖ The flexural strength of brittle materials obtained from bending tests would be higher than that
determined from tensile tests.
❖ Bending tests is not common to determine the flexural strength of ductile materials.
➢ Difficulties in determining the yield point of the materials under bending.
➢ The obtained stress (strain curve in the elastic region may not be linear).
❖ The resistance to deformation in bending within elastic range is called “stiffness in bending”
➢ A measure of this property is the “modulus of elasticity in bending” which is defined by load-deflection
relation.

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Torsion Test
❖ The torsion test is useful for determining the material properties such as shear modulus of
elasticity, torsional yield strength and shear modulus of rupture.
❖ Torsion tests are carried out by applying a twisting moment to one end of a specimen while
measuring angular deformation at the other end.
❖ Measured data is plotted to obtain torque versus angle of twist.

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Torsion Test (cont.)
Relationship of shear modulus and torsion

➢ The angle of twist (or angle of rotation) 𝜙

𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑑,
𝜙=0
➢ T is the applied torque

➢ L is the length of the specimen

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑,
➢ G is the shear modulus of elasticity 𝜙 = 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥

➢ 𝐼𝑃 is Polar moment of inertia,

For a circle of radius r and diameter d

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Torsion Test (cont.) Obtaining shear modulus using Torsional testing

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Torsion Test (cont.): Elastic Behavior in Torsion

❖ Stiffness in torsion is measured by “shear modulus” or “modulus of

rigidity” denoted by G.

Typical torque - twist diagrams for a ductile (normalized mild steel) and a brittle (cast iron) material.
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Hardness Test

❖ Hardness is a measure of materials’ resistance to localized penetration, wear, or scratch.

❖ Hardness tests are more commonly applied to metals.
❖ Hardness tests can be utilized to:
➢ Grade similar materials according to hardness.
➢ Control quality of materials according to hardness test results.
➢ Establish a correlation between hardness and other properties.
❖ Most common methods to characterize hardness are:
1. Scratch tests.
2. Rebound tests.
3. Indentation tests.

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Hardness Test: (1) Scratch Test

❖ Scratch tests commonly involve comparatively scratching

progressively harder materials.
❖ In mineralogy, a Mohs hardness scale is used Diamond, the
hardest material, is assigned a value of 10. Decreasing values are
assigned to other minerals.
❖ If two materials are compared, the harder one can scratch the
softer one, but not vice versa.

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Hardness Test: (2) Rebound test

❖ Rebound tests techniques may be employed to assess the resilience of material by measuring
changes in potential energy.
❖ For example, the Sceleroscope hardness test employs a hammer with a rounded diamond tip. This
hammer is dropped from a fixed height onto the surface of the material being tested

Sceleroscope hardness test Leeb hardness test 30

 Hardness Test: (3) Indentation test

❖ Indentation tests produce a permanent impression on the surface of the

material.
❖ A ball, cone, or pyramid is forced into the surface of the metal being tested.
❖ The force and size (area and depth ) of the impression can be related to a
quantity (hardness) which can be objectively related to the resistance of
the material to permanent penetration.
❖ Types of indentation test:
➢ Brinell,
➢ Knoop,
➢ Rockwell, and Brinell hardness test

➢ Vickers
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Hardness Test: (3) Indentation test (cont.)

Vickers and Knoop hardness test

Rockwell hardness test

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Hardness Test

➢ Comparison of several hardness scales.

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 Impact Test:

❖ Impact tests are performed to evaluate shock absorbing

capacity of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads.
❖ The property of a material relating to the work required
to cause rapture is termed “Toughness”.
❖ Two types of notch impact tests are commonly:
1. Charpy test.
2. Izod test.
❖ The energy required to cause rupture of the sample is
determined from an indicator that measures how high
the pendulum swings after breaking the sample.
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo&t=3s
Impact Test (Cont.):
Pendulum
• Izod: the specimen is supported as a cantilever
and help vertically.
• The specimen is held vertically in a vice.
• Impacted at front face of the specimen.
• The notch on the specimen faces the pendulum.
• The Izod test is often used for testing impact
resistance of polymers (plastics).
Vice
Specimen

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Impact Test (Cont.):

• Charpy: the specimen is supported as a Pendulum

single beam and held horizontally.

• Impacted at the back face of the specimen.
• The notch on the specimen faces away from
the pendulum.

Support
Specimen

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Impact Test (Cont.):

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 Thank You!
Any Questions?

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