2 | Foundation Engineering

COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL

4.0 Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to discuss analysis of the
effects of soil compressibility in foundation through concept study; problem solving
and observation through video demonstrations.

4.1 Introduction
Structures transfer loads to the subsoil through the foundations. The effect of
the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of about two to three times the width
of the foundation. The soil within this depth gets compressed due to the imposed
stresses and the compression of the soil mass leads to the decrease in the volume of
the mass which results in the settlement of the structure. The displacements that
develop at any given boundary of the soil mass can be determined on a rational basis
by summing up the displacements of small elements of the mass resulting from the
strains produce d b y a change in the stress system . The compression of the soil mass
due to the imposed stresses may be almost immediate or time dependent according to
the permeability characteristics of the soil .

Cohesionless soils which are highly permeable are compressed in a relatively

short period of time as compared to cohesive soils which are less permeable. The
compressibility characteristics o f a soil mass might be due to any or a combination of
the following factors:
1. Compression of the solid matter
2. Compression of water and air within the voids.
3. Escape of water and air from the voids

It is quit e reasonable and rational to assume that the solid matter and the pore
water are relatively incompressible under the loads usually encountered in soil
masses. The change in volume of a mass under imposed stresses must be due to the
escape of water if the soil is saturated. But if the soil is partially saturated, the change
in volume of the mass is partly due to the compression and escape of air from the
voids and partly due to the dissolution of air in the pore water. The compressibility of
a soil mass is mostly dependent on the rigidity of the soil skeleton. The rigidity, in
turn , is dependent on the structural arrangement of particles.

Soil in nature may be found in any of the following states:

1. Dry state
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2. Partially saturated state

3. Saturate d state

Settlements of structures built on granular soils are generally considered only

under two states, that is, either dry or saturated. The stress-strain characteristics of dry
sand, depend primarily on the relative density of the sand, and to a much smaller
degree on the shape and size of grains. Saturation does not alter the relationship
significantly provided the water content of the sand can change freely. However, in
very fine-grained or silty sands the water content may remain almost unchanged
during a rapid change in stress. Under this condition, the compression is time -
dependent. Suitable hypotheses relating displacement and stress changes in granular
soils have not yet been formulated . However, the settlements may be determined by
semi-empirical methods (Terzaghi,1996)

4.2 Compressibility of Soil

4.2.1 Consolidation

Consolidation - the process, involving a gradual compression occurring

simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass and with a gradual transfer of the
applied pressure from the pore water to the mineral skeleton.

Swelling - the process opposite to consolidation, which involves an increase in

the water content due to an increase in the volume of the voids.

Consolidation ma y be due to one or more of the following factors:

1. Externa l static loads from structures.
2. Self-weigh t of the soil such as recently placed fills.
3. Lowerin g of the ground water table.
4. Desiccation

The total compression of a saturated clay strata under excess effective pressure
may be considered as the sum of;
1. Immediate compression,
2. Primary consolidation, and
3. Secondary compression

Immediate compression - the portion of the settlement of a structure which

occurs more or less simultaneously with the applied load. This settlement is due to the
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immediate compression of the soil layer under undrained condition and is calculated
by assuming the soil mass to behave as an elastic soil.

Primary consolidation- the rate of compression of the soil layer is controlled

solely by the resistance of the flow of water under the induced hydraulic gradients.
The portion of the settlement that is due to the primary consolidation is called primary
consolidation settlement or compression.

Secondary compression- the third part of the settlement is due to secondary

consolidation or compression of the clay layer. This compression is supposed to start
after the primary consolidation ceases, that is after the excess pore water pressure
approaches zero. It is often assumed that secondary compression proceeds linearly
with the logarithm of time.

4.2.2 Estimating Foundation Settlement

The total settlement of a foundation is the sum of the elastic

settlement/immediate and the consolidation settlement. Consolidation settlement
comprises two phases: primary and secondary.

4.2.2.1 Immediate settlement

Immediate settlement analyses are used for all fine-grained soils including silts
and clays with a degree of saturation S ≤ 90 percent and for all coarse-grained soils
with a large coefficient of permeability. Immediate or elastic settlement is based on
the Theory of Elasticity.
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The settlement of the corner of a rectangular base of dimensions B' * L' on the
surface of an elastic half-space can be computed from an equation from the Theory of
Elasticity as follows:

The influence factors I1 and I2 can be computed using equations given by

Steinbrenner as follows:

The influence factor is from the Fox equations, which suggest that the
settlement is reduced when it is placed at some depth in the ground, depending on
Poisson's ratio and L/B.
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4.2.2.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement

On the basis of the one-dimensional consolidation settlement, primary

consolidation settlement equation is written as,

The consolidation settlement Sc due to this average stress increase can be

calculated as follows:
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Note: The increase in effective pressure on the clay layer is not constant with depth.
The magnitude of effective pressure will decrease with the increase in depth measured
from the bottom of the foundation. However, the average increase in pressure may be
approximated by:

4.2.2.3 Secondary Consolidation Settlement

At the end of primary consolidation (i.e., after the complete dissipation of

excess pore water pressure) some settlement is observed that is due to the plastic
adjustment of soil fabrics.
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Fig. 4a- Plot of deformation against the logarithm of time during secondary
consolidation- practically linear.

From the figure, the secondary compression index can be defined as,

The magnitude of the secondary consolidation can be calculated as,

4.2.2.4 Time Rate of Consolidation

The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of the clay layer at any
time t can be expressed as,
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The values of the time factor and their corresponding average degrees of
consolidation for the case presented in may also be approximated by the following
simple relationship:

4.2.3 Sample Problems

1. During a consolidation test, a sample of fully saturated clay 3 cm thick (=

ho) is consolidated under a pressure increment of 200 kN/m2. When
equilibrium is reached, the sample thickness is reduced to 2.60 cm. The
pressure is then removed and the sample is allowed to expand an d absorb
water. The final thickness is observed as 2.8 cm (ft,) and the final moisture
content is determined as 24.9%. If the specific gravity is 2.70, find the void
ratio after and before consolidation.
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2. Two points on a curve for a normally consolidated clay have the following
coordinates:

If the average overburden pressure on a 20 ft thick clay layer is 313 3 lb/ft2,

how much settlement will the clay layer experience due to an induced stress
of 3340 lb/ft2 at its mid depth?
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4.3 Additional Reading Material and Video Lesson

 Soil Consolidation Lecture

http://www.gerd.eng.ku.ac.th/Graduate/Downloads/warakorn/Adv_Soil0
3_Colour.pdf

 1D Consolidation Test - Bing video

https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=soil+consolidation+test+video&&
view=detail&mid=5DB56D9D18B38128F88F5DB56D9D18B38128F88F&&FOR
M=VRDGAR

4.4 Student’s Exercise

1. A soil sample has a compression index of 0.3. If the void ratio at a stress of
2940 Ib/ft2 is 0.5,compute (i ) the void ratio if the stress is increased to 4200
Ib/ft2, and (ii) the settlement o f a soil stratum 1 3 ft. thick.

2. Soil investigation at a site gave the following information. Fine sand exists
to a depth of 10.6 m and below this lies a soft clay layer 7.60 m thick. The
water table is at 4.60 m below the ground surface. The submerged unit
weight of sand is 10.4 kN/m3, and the wet unit weight above the water
table is 17. 6 kN/m3. The water content of the normally consolidated clay
w n = 40%, its liquid limit wt = 45%, and the specific gravity of the soli d
particle s is 2.78. The proposed construction will transmit a net stress of 120
kN/m2 at the center of the clay layer. Find the average settlement of the
clay layer.

4. 5 Assessment Instruction and Rubric

 Write your solution in short or A4 size paper. Put in a brown envelop and
submit at the SSU guard house or at the LGU Kiosk near you.
 As possible, you may opt to submit only a soft copy online.
 The following is the rating rubric for exercise 1.4:
o Item 1 (Accuracy of solution) - 40%
o Item 2 (Accuracy of solution) - 60%
100%
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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

5.0 Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to discuss soil shear strength
determination procedure by different methods and interpret results. Specifically, to
be able to determine the shear strength of soils, understand the difference between
drained and undrained shear strength, determine the type of shear test that best
simulates field conditions and as possible, conduct laboratory exercises and interpret
laboratory and field test results to obtain shear strength parameters.

5.1 Introduction
In the case of foundation design, shear strength is the most important
engineering properties of soil. Shear strength is the ability to resist sliding along
internal surfaces within a mass. The stability of a cut, the slope of an earth dam, the
foundations of structures, the natural slopes of hillsides and other structures built on
soil depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil along the probable surface
s of slippage.

. The stability of a cut, the slope of an earth dam, the foundations of structures,
the natural slopes of hillsides and other structures built on soil depend upon the
shearing resistance offered by the soil along the probable surface s of slippage. There
is hardly a problem in the field of engineering which does not involve the shear
properties of the soil in some manner or the other.

The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil.
If the soil fails, a structure founded on it can collapse, endangering lives and causing
economic damages. Soils fail either in tension or in shear. However, in the majority of
soil mechanics problems (such as bearing capacity, lateral pressure against retaining
walls, slope stability, etc.), only failure in shear requires consideration. The shear
strength of soils is, therefore, of paramount importance to geotechnical engineers. The
shear strength along any plane is mobilized by cohesion and frictional resistance to
sliding between soil particles. The cohesion c and angle of friction φ of a soil are
collectively known as shear strength parameters.
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5.2 Shear Strength of Soil

5.2.1. Coulomb’s Frictional Law

H = µW

Where µ is the coefficient of static friction between the block and the horizontal
plane. The coefficient of friction µ is independent of the area of contact. It is, however,
strongly dependent on the nature of the surface in contact – the type of material, the
condition of the surface, and so on. Furthermore, in most materials the coefficient of
static friction is larger than the kinetic coefficient. The angle between the resultant
force R and the normal force N is called the friction angle, φ = tan-1µ.

Figure 5o- Slip plane of a block. (b) A slip plane in a soil mass

In terms of stresses, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:

τf = σntanφ
Where τf (= T/A, where T is the shear force at impending slip and A is the area
of the plane parallel to T) is the shear stress when slip is initiated, and σ n (= N/A) is
the normal stress on the plane on which slip is initiated. Coulomb’s law requires the
existence or the development of a critical sliding plane, also called slip plane or failure
plane. In the case of the block the slip plane is at the interface between the block and
the horizontal plane.

5.2.2 Mohr’s Circle for Stress

The stress states at a point within a soil mass can be represented graphically by
a very useful and widely used devise known as Mohr’s circle for stress. The stress
state at a point is the set of stress vectors corresponding to all planes passing through
that point. For simplicity, we will consider a two-dimensional element with stresses
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as shown in Fig 5b. Let’s draw Mohr’s circle. First, we have to choose a sign convention. In soil
mechanics, compressive stresses and clockwise shear are generally assumed to be positive. We will
also assume that σz > σx.

Figure 5a-b- Stresses on a two-dimensional element and Mohr’s circle

The two coordinates of the circle are (σz ,τzx) and (σx, −τzx). Recall from your
strength of materials course that, for equilibrium τxz = −τzx. Plot these two coordinates
on a graph of shear stress (ordinate) and normal stress (abscissa) as shown by A and
B in Fig. 5b. Draw a circle with AB as the diameter. The circle crosses the normal stress
axis at 1 and 3, where shear stresses are equal to zero. The stresses at these points are
the major principal stress, σ1, and the minor principal stress, σ3. The principal stresses
are related to the stresses σx, σz and τzx by the following relations:

The angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal plane (ψ)
is:
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The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle θ to the major principal stress

plane are:

In the above equations θ is positive for clockwise orientation. The maximum

shear stress is at the top of the circle with magnitude:

5.2.3 Drained and Undrained Shear strength

Drained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure developed
during loading of a soil dissipates, i.e. ∆u = 0 , resulting in volume changes in the soil.
Loose sands, normally consolidated clays and lightly overconsolidated clays tend to
compress or contract, whilst dense sands and heavily overconsolidated (OCR > 2)
clays tend to expand during drained condition.
Undrained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure cannot drain,
at least quickly from the soil, i.e. ∆u ≠ 0 . During undrained shearing, the volume of
the soil remains constant. Consequently, the tendency towards volume change
induces a pressure in the pore water. If the specimen tends to compress or contract
during shear, then the induced pore water pressure is positive. It wants to contract
and squeeze water out of the pores, but it can not. Positive pore water pressures occur
in loose sands, normally consolidated clays and lightly overconsolidated clays. If the
specimen tends to expand and swell during shear, the induced pore water pressure is
negative. It wants to expand and draw water into the pores, but it can not. Negative
pore water pressures occur in dense sands and heavily overconsolidated (OCR > 2)
clays.
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5.2.4 Laboratory Shear Strength Tests

Different methods are available for testing shear strength of soils in a
laboratory. The following are the more commonly used testing methods:
1. Direct shear test
2. Triaxial compression test
3. Unconfined compression test

5.3 Example
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5.4 Additional Video Lessons

 Intro to Shear Strength and the Direct Shear Test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bgso4L3ekr4

 Triaxial Shear Test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UyATVq8Tn-I

 How to draw Mohrs Circle (Shear strength)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHez2xUjrBQ

5.4 Student’s Exercise

1.

2.

5. 5 Assessment Instruction and Rubric

 Write your solution in short or A4 size paper. Put in a brown envelop and
submit at the SSU guard house or at the LGU Kiosk near you.
 As possible, you may opt to submit only a soft copy online.
 The following is the rating rubric for exercise 1.4:
o Item 1 (Accuracy of solution) - 40%
o Item 2 (Accuracy of solution) - 60%
100%
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References
 P.C. Varghese, Foundation Engineering, PHI Learning, 2012
 Braja M. Das, Principles of Foundation Engineering, 6th Edition, Thompson
Limited, 2007, Downloaded from www.EasyEngineering.net
 C. Venkatramaiah, Geotechnical Engineering, Revised Third Edition, New
Age International (P) Ltd, 2006
 Bengt H. Fellenius, Basics of Foundation Design Electronic Edition, January
2006
 V.N.S, Murthy, Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Electronic Copy, 2020
 Burt G. Look, Handbook of Geotechnical Investigation and Design Tables,
Taylor & Francis Group, 2007
 http://www.abuildersengineer.com/2012

Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and other information contained in this

module were taken from the references cited above.