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ME 212 Thermodynamics Sessional

For the Undergraduate students of Mechanical Engineering

Name of the Experiments
❖ Determination of Calorific value by bomb calorimeter
❖ Measurement of viscosity of lubricants (Calibration of thermocouple)
❖ Distillation of petroleum fuel
❖ Determination of flash and point of fuel
❖ Determination of specific humidity, relative humidity and dew point
❖ Analysis of exhaust gas by Orsat apparatus
❖ Usage and calibration of various speed and wind velocity measuring instruments
❖ Determination of volatile materials and moisture content in coal
❖ Experiments on heat pump and Air cooler
 Experiment # 1: Determination of Calorific value by bomb calorimeter

Theory:

A Bomb Calorimeter will measure the amount of heat generated when matter is burnt in a sealed
chamber (Bomb) in an atmosphere of pure oxygen gas.

The amount of heat given out by the LCV = HCV - heat of steam formed
complete combustion of 1 kg solid or liquid during combustion (9H2 x 2466) kJ/kg
fuel or 1 cubic meter gaseous fuel is called
the calorific value of that fuel. Dulong's Formula: HCV = 33800C +
144000 (H2 - 1/8 O2) + 9270 S
Higher calorific value means the total
quantity of heat liberated from combustion where, C, H2, S,O2 is the amount in 1 kg
of unit mass or unit volume of a given fuel fuel.
when the by products are allowed to cool
at room temperature.

Lower calorific value means the total

quantity of heat liberated from combustion
of unit mass or unit volume of a given fuel
when the by products are NOT cooled.
The heat absorbed or carried away by the
products of combustion is not recovered
and the steam formed during combustion
is not condensed.

Figure: Bomb Calorimeter [ Khurmi]

Experimental Procedure:

1. Collect the data shown during the experiment

2. Calculate the Calorific value using the data obtained from the experiment.

Data Sheet:

No. of Initial temperature Final temperature

Observations (ºC) (ºC)

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 1

 Experiment # 2: Measurement of viscosity of lubricants

Objectives:

• To determine the kinematic and dynamic viscosity of a lubricating oil sample

• To study the variation of viscosity with temperature

• To estimate the viscosity index of the given sample

Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane
with respect to another plane- at a unit velocity - when maintaining a unit distance apart in the fluid.
Theory:

Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to shear. Kinematic
and dynamic viscosities are very important properties of lubricating oil.

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid under the gravity, being
pressure head of a liquid is proportional to its density, for the flow under gravity. The proper
operation of bearing, gears, compressors, hydraulic equipment etc depends on Kinematic
viscosity of the used oil. It is denoted by  and its unit is m2 /s in SI system. Most frequently the
stoke* units is centistrokes, (Stroke =1cm2 / s; Centistroke =1mm 2/s)
No external force is involved in kinematics viscosity.
Dynamic viscosity (absolute viscosity) is the ratio between applied shear stress and rate of
shear i.e. a measure of resistance to the flow of the fluid commonly called viscosity. Dynamic
viscosity can be obtained directly by multiplying kinematic viscosity by its density. It is denoted
by μ and the unit is pascal- sec in SI system, In CGS system unit of absolute viscosity is
Dyne.sec/ cm2. It is commonly known as poise.

Viscosity- temperature chart is a convenient means to ascertain the kinematic viscosity of a

petroleum fuel or liquid hydrocarbon at any temperature within limited range, provided that the
kinematic viscosity of two temperature are known. This chart is designed to permit data of
kinematic viscosity of petroleum oil to plot as a straight line.

Viscosity Index (VI) is an arbitrary or empirical number used to characterize the variation of the
kinematic viscosity of a petroleum product with the temperature. A low viscosity index signifies
a relatively large change of viscosity with temperature and the VI of oil can be calculated using
VI =
(L −  ) X 100
following formula. (L − H )

Where,  =Kinematic viscosity at 4oC of the oil sample in centistokes.

L= Kinematic viscosity at 40C of an oil of O viscosity index having the same at 1000c of the
oil, sample in CST.

H= Kinematic viscosity at 40C of an oil of 100 viscosity index having the same at 100C of the
oil sample in centistokes.

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 2

H and L are determined from the table when the viscosity of the oil at 100C is less than or
equal to 70 centistokes and are calculated using the following equations for above than 70
centistokes.

L = 0.8353Y +14.67Y-216

H = 0.1684Y+11.85Y-97

Where, Y = Kinematic viscosity of oil

0
sample at 100 c in centistokes

The American society of automotive engineers used a number named as SAE number which
grade motor oils in terms of viscosity at a particular temperature. SAE can be estimated from the
chart.

For petroleum, mass density, f = 0.89 - 0.00063 (T - 15.6)

Experimental procedures: Dynamic viscosity = Kinematic viscosity x mass density
In this experiment Saybolt Universal viscometer will be used for determination of viscosity of
the oil. In this method, standard temperatures for the test are 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75
and 800C. Saybolt universal viscosity if the afflux time in seconds flowing of 60 ml of a sample
through a calibrated Saybolt Universal Orifice under specific condition. The equivalent
kinematic viscosity of the fluid at a given temperature to SUS can be estimated from the
conversion table or may calculated using the following equations or formula.

 = 0.224 t-185/t when, 115>t>34 sec

 = 0.233 t-155/t 215>t>115 sec

 = 0.2158 t t>215 sec

Where t = Say bolt universal viscosity is seconds,

=Kinematic Viscosity in centistoke

• Clean the viscometer and the receiving flask thoroughly with an appropriate solvent of low
toxicity, then remove all solvent from the viscometer and its gallery.

• Set the viscometer and bath in an area where they will not exposed to draft, of rapid change
in air temperature and dust or vapors that might contaminate a sample.

• Place the receiving flask beneath the viscometer so that the stream of oil will just strike the
neck of the flask.

• Fill the bath at least 6 mm above the over flows run of the viscometer with a ready to
operate.

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 3

• Insert a cork stopper tightly into the air chamber at the viscometer so that no air leakage can
occur.

• Stir the sample well and pour it through the filter directly into the viscometer until the level
is above the overflow rim.

• Place the thermometers into the viscometer and in bath.

• Switch on the heater and stirrer and then establish the bath temperature at the test
temperature controlling by thermostatic control and the stirrer.

• As soon as thermal equilibrium reached, remove the thermometer and withdraw the
thermometer and withdraw the surplus oil until its level in the gallery is below the overflow
rim.

• Be sure that receiving flask is in correct position then snap the cork from the viscometer ant
start the timer at the same instant.

• Stop the timer when the oil meniscus reaches the graduation mark on the receiving flask,
record the afflux time in seconds the nearest 0.1 second.

• Perform the test for the temperatures of 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 and 800c.

Experimental data sheet

Saybolt Universal Kinematic

No of Temp Density Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity Viscosity
Observ o
C Kg/m3 (mPa.s)
(sec) (cst)

Please plot Kinematic viscosity versus temperature in a log-log graph paper.

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 4

Experiment # 2(s): Calibration of thermocouple

Objectives:

• To calibrate a thermocouple

• To derive a quadratic formula by least square method applying the observed data in the
experiment for the given thermocouple

Theory:

Thermocouple is a temperature measuring device which is developed based on the principle

called ’ See beck effect’: a thermoelectric effect caused by the uneven heating of the junctions of
two dissimilar metals as emf is produced that causes a flow of current in the circuit. This emf is
almost directly proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions.
The emf of a thermocouple depends upon:

- Metal of the couple

- Temperature difference of the junctions

A thermocouple consists of a pair of two dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end (hot
junction), is placed at the point whose temperature is to be measured and terminated at the other
end (reference cold junction) which is maintained at known reference temperature. Connecting a
sensitive milivoltmeter does the simplest temperature measurement using thermocouple directly
across the cold junction. The milivoltmeter reading can by interpreted to temperature with the
help of conversion table or directly by connecting potentiometer instead of milivoltmeter .

Although many dissimilar metals may be used for a thermocouple, but some combinations are
unsatisfactory due to the low emf development and due to changing properties with temperature
increases.

Desirable properties of the thermocouple materials are as follows:

• Oxidation and corrosion resisting capacity

• Relatively large emf development

• Continuous increases of emf with the increases of temperature and vice versa

• Stable with respect to the temperature

• Reproducible material

Some important thermocouple combinations are as follows:

1) T-Type[ Copper-constantan (60% Cu, 40% Ni) -satisfactory within 325 oF to 650 0F]

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 5

 2) J Type [ Iron-constantan (Fe ) –-satisfactory upto 1500 0F]

3) K-Type[Chromel– Alumel ((10% Cr, 90% Ni) - ( 2% Al, 30% Ni, reminder Si & Mn.) -
satisfactory upto 23000F]

4) Platinum-platinum with rhodium 10%- satisfactory upto 28750F.

Assume the quadratic formula will in the form as

Tcal = a + b(T) + c(T)2 ,

Where Tcal = Calibrated temperature (0C), T = Corresponding measured temperature (0C) and
a, b,c are the constants to be determined by least square method.

The constants of the quadratic equation can be determined by least square method from the
experiment data solving the following equations.
m
ma + b T i + c  Ti 2 =  Tac
i =1

a  Ti + b Ti + c  Ti =  Ti Tac
2 3

a  Ti 2 + b Ti 3 + c  Ti 4 =  Ti 2Tac

Here, m = the no of observations, Ti = The corresponding temperature for different actual

temperatures Tac.

Experimental procedures:

1. Place the hot junction of thermocouple into oil bath, which is provided with an electric
heater controlled by a rheostat

2. Connect the cold junction with the milivoltmeter terminals

3. Supply power to the heater and maintained uniform temperature in the bath by stirring
control the heat supply rate in the bath by rheostat

4. Take a milivoltmeter reading at the steady state for the thermometer readings 35, 40, 45,
50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 ºC

5. Make necessary correction for the cold junction temperature adding milivoltmeter to the
room temperature from the conversion table with the help of observed reading

6. Find the corresponding temperature for each corrected mv reading from the conversion
table

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 6

Experimental data sheet

Actual temp Mv reading Corrected Corresponding Calibrated Error

temp ( ºC) temp (ºC)
(ºC) mv reading %

Plot the following curves:

A. Actual temperature versus corrected mv readings

B. Actual temperature versus corresponding temperatures

C. Actual temperature versus calibrated temperatures

Experiment # 3: Distillation of petroleum fuel

Fractional Distillation tower [Wikimedia Commons. (May 25, 2015). Crude Oil Distillation
Tower]

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 7

Experiment # 4: Determination of flash and fire point of fuel

Objectives
• To find the flash and fire point of a liquid fuel.

Theory
Flash point and fire point are the physical properties of a liquid fuel. Flash point is the lowest
temperature connected to a pressure of 760m Hg (101.3 kpa) at which application of an ignition
source causes the vapor of the specimen to ignite under specific condition of test (room
temperature 24 +/- 30c). Flash point measures the tendency of sample to form flammable
mixture with air under laboratory condition. Flash point is a signal of fire that may take place
within the oil. Fire point is the lowest temperature at which specimen oil sustains burning for
minimum five seconds Fire point measures the characteristics of a sample to support
combustion.

When the pressure at the time of test differs from 760mm of Hg flash or Fire or both are
corrected using the following equation.

Corrected flash or fire point = C + 0.03(760-P)

C = Measured flash or fire point

P = Barometric pressure in mm of Hg

Both flash and fire points are important in order to avoid any fire within the stored oil.

Experimental procedures:

1. The test is carried out using Pensky Marten’s Apparatus.

2. Wash the test cup with an appropriate solvent to remove any oil or traces of gum or
residue remaining from the previous test and place the cup on its seat.
3. Support the thermometer in the vertical position with the bottom of the bulb 6.4mm from
the bottom of the cup.
4. Fill the cup at any convenient temperature to the specified level with the sample.
5. Light the test flame.
6. Switch the heater and apply heat at any low constant rate. Record the temperature of oil
every minute with simultaneous introducing of flame. When the temperatures become to
rise rapidly record the temperature in an internal of 30 seconds with simultaneous
application of the test flame.

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 8

 7. Marks are observed flash point from the thermometer when a flash appears at any point
of the surface of the oil but do not confuse with the bluish halo sometimes surrounds the
test flame.
8. Continue the test as above and record the temperature in every 15 seconds until
application of the test flame causes the oil to ignite and bum at least for 5 seconds. Mark
the temperature at this point as the observed fire point of the oil.
9. Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of test and made the correction of
the observed flash and fire points.

Experimental data sheet

No. of Observed
Time of observation Remarks
Observations Temperature

01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 9

Experiment # 5: Determination of specific humidity, Relative humidity and dew point

Objectives:
• To determine the relative humidity, specific humidity and dew point by Psychrometer
and Pychrometric chart

Theory:
Relative humidity: The ratio of the amount of water vapor actually present in a given volume of
air to the amount of water vapor that would be present in the same volume to saturate that air at
the same temperature.
pv vv
m RTv
Relative humidity,  = v =
ms ps vs
RTs
p
From definition vv = vs and Tv= Ts So  = v
ps
Where, Ps= Saturation pressure of water vapor (from steam table) corresponding to the mixture
temperature (N/m2) and Pv = Partial pressure of water vapor in mixture (N/m2)
Again Partial pressure, Pv may be obtained from Carriers Equation

pv = ( ps ) twb −
 p − ( ps )twb (tdb − t wb )
1532.44 − 1.3t wb
Where, ( Ps)twb= Saturation pressure of water vapor corresponding to the wet bulb temperature
(N/m2)
P = Total pressure (barometric pressure) of the mixture, 101325 (N/m2)
tdb= Dry bulb temperature ºC
twb= Wet bulb temperature ºC
Dew point: When the water vapor in the air starts condensing at a particular temperature, called
the dew point temperature. Dew point temperature is the saturation temperature corresponding to
the partial pressure of the water vapor i.e. at Pv(use steam table).
Specific humidity (humidity ratio): The ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air
in a given volume of air-water vapor mixture.
pv
 = 0.622 . (kg water vapor / kg dry air)……………………………(1)
p − pv

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 10

Water from the wet cloth evaporates as it absorbs heat from the wet bulb thermometer. The lower the
humidity, the higher the evaporation rate, and thus, lower the temperature of the wet bulb thermometer.

Procedures:
1. The instrument will be used to perform this experiment is Sling hygrometer
2. Record the dry bulb temperature.
3. Wet the cloth on the bulb of the wet bulb thermometer of the psychrometer. The
temperature of the two thermometers will be equal initially.
4. Drive the fan at the top and observe mercury level on the wet bulb thermometer, it will
come down gradually, continue the observation until the mercury level becomes still.
5. Record the temperature that is wet bulb temperature.
6. Repeat the procedures to have another reading for the wet bulb temperature.
7. Use psychometric chart to find the relative humidity, specific humidity and dew point
Temperature.
8. Find the relative humidity, specific humidity and dew point temperature using Carriers
Equation, steam table and equation (1) and compare the values that obtained from
Psychometric chart.

Experimental Setup:

Air flow Air flow

Figure 1: Psychrometer

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 11

 Experimental data sheet

Roll No: Date:

Table-1

No. of Obs. tdb(°C) twb(°C)

Average

Atmospheric Pressure, i.e. Barometric Pressure, P = 101325 N/m2

Table-2

Relative humidity Specific humidity Dew point

Method
(%) (Kg moisture/kg dry air) C

Steam table,

Equations

Psychometric

Chart

Signature of the course teacher

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 12

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 13
Experiment # 6: Determination of volatile materials and moisture content in coal

6(b) Determination of moisture content in coal (O. P. Gupta)

Procedure:

1) Collect about 5 gm of the sample of coal & crush to 20 mesh

2) Take the sample in a wash glass

3) Transfer the sample to suitable furnace and heat to a temperature of 100-105 oC for about
1-1.5 hrs

4) Allow to cool it in the furnace to a satisfactory low temperature and transfer it to a

desiccator to cool there to room temperature

5) Weigh the coal sample in a balance and note the difference in weight

6) Repeat the process until the final weight becomes constant

𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

% Moisture in coal = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

Experiment # 7: Analysis of exhaust gas by Orsat apparatus

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 14

Experiment # 8: Usage and calibration of various speed and wind velocity measuring
instruments
Tachometer = measures RPM of a shaft
Anemometer = measures wind velocity
Objective:
• To learn the usage of various types of anemometer and tachometer
Experimental Procedure:
1. Record the data using the instruments
2. Analyze the errors of the values obtained using the following equation
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒− 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
3. Check the reasons why the errors are commencing

Data Sheet:

Tachometer

No of Analogue Digital
observations

01

02

03

04

05

Anemometer

No of Analogue Digital
observations

01

02

03

04

05

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 15

Experiment # 9: Experiments on heat pump and Air cooler

Objectives:

• To determine the coefficient of performance of heat pump and air cooler

Theory:

Heat Pump: A device that transfers heat from a low temperature (Source) to high temperature
(Sink) where high temperature is the desired output.

QH
COPHP =
W

Air Cooler: A device that transfers heat from a low temperature (Source) to high temperature
(Sink / Surroundings) where Low temperature is the desired output.
𝑸𝑳
𝑪𝑶𝑷𝑨𝑪 = 𝑾

Experimental Procedure:

1. Collect the data shown during the experiment

2. Calculate the COP using the data obtained from the experiment.

Data Sheet:

No of Heat Pump Air Cooler

observations

01

02

03

04

05

**The experiments 3 & 7 will be conducted depending upon the availability of the
apparatus**

Prepared and modified by: M. A. Islam 16