1.

INTRODUCTION TO DRUGS

a. Drug Abuse

Drug abuse or substance abuse refers to the use of certain chemicals for the purpose of creating
pleasurable effects on the brain. There are over 190 million drug users around the world and the
problem has been increasing at alarming rates, especially among young adults under the age of
30. Drug abuse is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods which are harmful to the individual
or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Drug is a condition characterized by a self-
destructive pattern of using a substance that leads to significant problems and distress, which
may include tolerance to or withdrawal from the substance. Apart from the long term damage to
the body drug abuse causes, drug addicts who use needles are also at risk of contracting HIV and
hepatitis B and C infections.

Iisa ang kahulugan ng pag-abuso sa droga: Ito ay ang maling paggamit ng tinatawag na mood-
change substance para sa kanilang kasiyahan. Ang maling paggamit ang nagiging daan para
maging addict sa substance. Ilan sa mga pinakakaraniwang substances na ginagamit ay ang
nicotine, alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, cocaine, opium alkaloids, glues, solvents,
cannabis at psychedelic drugs. Ang droga ay maaari ring gamitin ng mga atleta bilang stimulants
o anabolic steroids upang ma-improve ang kanilang performance.

Causes of drug use

Drugs of abuse are usually psychoactive drugs that are used by people for various different
reasons which may include:

Curiosity and peer pressure, especially among school children and young adults

The use of prescription drugs that were originally intended to target pain relief may have turned
into recreational use and become addictive

Chemicals may be used as part of religious practices or rituals

Recreational purposes

As a means of obtaining creative inspiration

Ang mga sintomas ng pag-abuso sa droga ay depende sa substance na ginamit, pero iisa ang
karaniwang makikita sa umaabuso, ito ay ang pagbabago ng kanilang ugali. Ang isang umaabuso
sa droga ay nagkakaroon ng mataas na sensitivity sa sights and sounds. May mga unpleasant
symptoms naman na nangyayari kapag nag-withdrawn sa paggamit ng substance. The use of
heroine and cocaine makes the pupils of the eyes contract to pinpoints.

Drug categories

Drugs of abuse fall into three groups and these include:

Depressants: These cause depression of the brain's faculties and examples include sleeping pills
(barbiturates) and heroin.

Stimulants: These cause stimulation of the brain, giving rise to alertness and increased bursts of
activity. A rapid heart rate, dilated pupils, raised blood pressure, nausea or vomiting and
behavioral changes such as agitation, and impaired judgment may also result. In severe cases,
there may be delusional psychosis which can occur with the use of cocaine and amphetamines.

Hallucinogens: These cause hallucinations and an "out of this world" feeling of dissociation from
oneself. Hallucinogens may cause distorted sensory perception, delusion, paranoia and even
depression. Examples include ecstasy, mescaline and LSD. Cannabis, marijuana and hashish are
the most widely abused drugs in the world. Around 141 million people worldwide consume
cannabis. The use of stimulants such as amphetamine and ecstasy is also widespread, with nearly
30 million people abusing these drugs. Cocaine is used by around 13 million people across the
globe, with the highest number of users in the United States. Abuse of heroin and other opioids is
less common than with other drugs and is taken up by around 8 million people worldwide,
mainly in South-East and South-West Asia and Europe. Drug abuse is seen in various different
age groups and in individuals from nearly all walks of life and socioeconomic strata. However,
men are more likely to abuse drugs than women, single people are more likely than married
individuals and urban dwellers more likely than rural dwellers. Prisoners, street children and
younger individuals are also more likely to abuse drugs.

Ang unang hakbang para magamot ang isang umaabuso ay ang kanaisan o kagustuhan ng addict
na tumigil sa paggamit ng substance. Mahalaga rin ang tulong ng mga professional upang
magbigay ng counselling. Sa mga kaso ng pag-abuso sa narcotic drugs, maaaring mag-prescribe
ang doktor ng methadone. Ito ay less potent drug para mabawasan ang severity ng withdrawal
symptoms.

b. Drug Addiction

Addiction is a disease that affects your brain and behavior. When you’re addicted to drugs, you
can’t resist the urge to use them, no matter how much harm the drugs may cause. The earlier you
get treatment for drug addiction, the more likely you are to avoid some of the more dire
consequences of the disease.

Ang pagkalulong sa droga ay tinatawag na pagkagumon sa droga . Tulad nito, ang pagkagumon
sa droga ay nagsasangkot sa paulit-ulit, mapang-abuso at mapanirang pagkonsumo ng sarili ng
mga sangkap na may isang nakapagpapasigla, nalulumbay, narcotic o hallucinogenic na epekto,
na may malubhang kahihinatnan para sa pisikal at kalusugan ng indibidwal ng indibidwal. Ang
salita ay nagmula sa English expression drug addiction , inangkop sa Espanyol.

Drug addiction isn’t about just heroin, cocaine, or other illegal drugs. You can get addicted
to alcohol, nicotine, sleep and anti-anxiety medications, and other legal substances.

You can also get addicted to prescription or illegally obtained narcotic pain medications, or

opioids. This problem is at epidemic levels in the United States. In 2018, opioids played a role in
two-thirds of all drug overdose deaths.

Nahaharap sa mga aksidente ang isang umaabuso sa droga. Nahaharap sila sa panganib ng
impeksiyon kapag gumamit ng mga non-sterile needles na kanilang ipinang-iinject ng drugs.
Maaari silang magkaroon ng hepatitis, blood poisoning at HIV. Maaari silang mamatay dahil sa
pagka-overdose at mapipinsala ang kanilang body organs.

At first, you may choose to take a drug because you like the way it makes you feel. You may
think you can control how much and how often you use it. But over time, drugs change how your
brain works. These physical changes can last a long time. They make you lose control and can
lead to damaging behaviors.

Drug Addiction is a disease that affects a person's brain and behavior and leads to an inability to
control the use of a legal or illegal drug or medication. Substances such as alcohol, marijuana
and nicotine also are considered drugs. Addiction is a disease that affects your brain and
behavior. When you’re addicted to drugs, you can’t resist the urge to use them, no matter how
much harm the drugs may cause. The earlier you get treatment for drug addiction, the more
likely you are to avoid some of the more dire consequences of the disease.

Ang pag-abuso sa droga o paggamit ng droga ay isang pattern ng pag-uugali na kung saan ang
isang tao ay gumagamit ng mga gamot ng isang klase ng mga narkotiko, psychotoprika, at mga
additives na hindi tumutugma sa kanilang pag-andar. Ang pag-abuso sa droga sa pangkalahatan
ay nangyayari dahil sa mataas na pag-usisa, na kung saan pagkatapos ay nagiging isang ugali.
Bilang karagdagan, ang pag-abuso sa droga sa isang tao ay maaari ring ma-trigger ng mga
problema sa kanyang buhay o makipagkaibigan sa mga adik sa droga.
Drug addiction isn’t about just heroin, cocaine, or other illegal drugs. You can get addicted
to alcohol, nicotine, sleep and anti-anxiety medications, and other legal substances.

You can also get addicted to prescription or illegally obtained narcotic pain medications, or

opioids. This problem is at epidemic levels in the United States. In 2018, opioids played a role in
two-thirds of all drug overdose deaths.

Ang bawal na gamot , na tinatawag ding bawal na gamot pagpapakandili o bawal na gamot , ay

isang sakit na nailalarawan sa pamamagitan ng isang malakas na relasyon ng pagtitiwala sa
addictive sangkap na maaaring makaapekto sa central nervous system at mga function ng utak,
na kung saan leads sa mga pagbabago sa pag-uugali ng mga indibidwal at ang kanilang mga
damdamin at sa iyong pang-unawa at paghatol. Ang mga sangkap na ito ay maaaring maging
parehong iligal (ipinagbabawal, ayon sa batas ng bansa), at ligal, kapag mayroon silang
aplikasyon sa panggagamot (na inireseta man o sa counter).

Ang mga epekto ng mga gamot ay nag-iiba ayon sa kanilang kemikal na komposisyon, pati na
rin ang halaga at dalas kung saan natupok ang mga ito. Sa pangkalahatan, maaari silang
makagawa ng mga guni-guni, patalasin o hadlangan ang mga pandama, pati na rin mapukaw ang
damdamin ng sobrang pagkasubo at kagalakan o pangangati at kawalan ng pag-asa.

c. Drug Dependency

Drug Dependence is defined as a psychic and physical state of the person characterized by
behavioral and other responses resulting in compulsions to take a drug, on a continuous or
periodic basis in order to experience its psychic effect and at times to avoid the discomfort of its
absence. It refers to when a person requires one or more drugs in order to function. Abruptly
stopping the substance may cause physical symptoms of withdrawal. Although this can refer to
dependence on medications that control health conditions, it can also be a symptom of addiction,
which is different from physical dependence.

Dahil sa pag-abuso sa droga, maaaring mawalan ng trabaho, kaibigan, tahanan at mawawasak

ang pamilya. Iwasan sana, lalo na ng mga kabataan ang pag-abuso sa droga.

The term physical dependence Trusted Source refers to being physically dependent on a

substance but not meeting the criteria for addiction. For example, a person receiving pain
medication during cancer treatment may be dependent on the medication, but that does not mean
that they have an addiction to it. Physical dependence refers to the reliance on a substance to help
a person get through the day. People may also refer to it as withdrawal syndrome, dependence
syndrome Trusted Source, or abstinence syndrome, and it occurs when symptoms of withdrawal
appear after a person stops taking a substance abruptly.

Ang panlibangang paggamit ng inireresetang mga droga ay isang malalang problema sa mga
kabataan at mga nakababatang mayor-de-edad. Ipinapakita ng mga pambansang pag-aaral na ang
isang kabataan ay mas malamang na umabuso ng inireresetang gamot kaysa sa isang ilegal na
drogang nakukuha sa lansangan.

However, physical dependence does not equal addiction. People can experience physical
dependence on prescription opioids, antidepressants, anti-epileptics, or benzodiazepines without
having an addiction to them.

Dependence refers to the physical symptoms of withdrawal and tolerance, while SUD refers to
long-term behavioral, social, and physical changes.

It is possible for a person to experience dependence without SUD. This can often occur when the
person requires long-term pain medications for chronic pain. These individuals may become
dependent on pain medications to function, but they may not have an addiction to pain
medication. Physical dependence usually developsTrusted Source as a result of repeatedly
consuming a given substance over a period of time. Although researchers do not fully understand
the precise mechanisms, it is possible that the substances cause changes to occur in the brain and
central nervous system.

Repeated exposure to a substance alters a person’s brain structure and brain chemicals to
accommodate a drug. This results in alterations in homeostasis. This is the state that the body
maintains for optimal functioning.

Abruptly stopping this substance disrupts homeostasis, and the body must adapt to not having the
drug in the body. This may result in withdrawal symptoms.

Substance abuse is a pattern of using alcohol or drugs that leads to problems in a person’s life.
These problems can:

• Put others at risk for harm when driving, working with tools or watching children

• Cause problems with family or friends

• Cause trouble with the law, or at work or school Substance dependence is the need for alcohol
or drugs. A person continues to drink or use drugs in spite of problems in his or her life. The
person often needs more alcohol or drugs over time to get the same effect. As dependence grows,
the person slips further away from family and friends. Performance at work or school drops and
health problems occur. This person may not be able to see how alcohol or drug use is affecting
his or her life. There may be signs of physical or emotional distress when the person cuts back or
stops use. This is called withdrawal. Substances Most Often Abused Alcohol is the most often
abused drug. Substance abuse can be the use of legal or illegal substances. Substances most often
abused include:

• Alcohol such as beer, wine and liquor

• Nicotine in cigarettes and chewing tobacco

Ang pag-abuso sa paggamit ng mga bagay ay ang paulit-ulit na paginom ng alak o paggamit ng
mga droga na nauuwi sa mga problema sa buhay ng isang tao. Ang mga problemang ito ay
maaaring:

• Malagay ang iba sa peligro ng pinsala habang nagmamaneho, nagtatrabaho na may mga
kasangkapan o nag-aalaga ng mga bata

• Magdulot ng mga problema sa pamilya at mga kaibigan

• Magdulot ng paglabag sa batas, o sa trabaho o paaralan Ang dependensya sa bagay ay ang

pangangailangan ng alak o mga droga. Patuloy na umiinom ng alak o gumagamit ng mga droga
ang isang tao sa kabila ng mga problema sa kanyang buhay. Madalas na nangangailangan ang tao
nang mas maraming alak o mga droga sa paglipas ng panahon upang makamtan ang parehong
epekto ng mga ito. Habang lumalala ang dependensya, lalong lumalayo ang tao sa kanyang
pamilya at mga kaibigan. Sumasama ang pagganap sa trabaho o paaralan at nagkakaroon ng mga
problema sa kalusugan. Maaaring hindi nakikita ng taong ito kung paano naaapektuhan ng alak
at paggamit ng droga ang kanyang buhay. Maaari ring magkaroon ng mga palatandaang pisikal o
emosyonal na paghihirap kapag ang tao ay nagbawas o tumigil sa paggamit. Ang tawag dito ay
widrowal.

Symptoms

According to the DSM-5, the characteristic symptom of physical dependence is withdrawal.

Although not all people will experience the same symptoms of withdrawal, some of the more
common symptoms may include:

aching muscles

muscle spasms

anxiety or agitation

increased heart rate

difficulty concentrating

detachment from reality

nausea and vomiting

diarrhea

depression

hallucinations or delusions

It is often difficult for people to recognise that they have become dependent on alcohol or other
drugs. They may see it as a temporary situation because they are in physical pain or because they
are dealing with a difficult situation such as grief, loss, anxiety or trauma. 

Asking for help when you first suspect you have a problem is important so that you can get
support to make changes. The earlier you reach out the better – but it’s never too late.

There is no particular type of person who becomes dependent on alcohol or other drugs. It can
happen to anyone.

What starts as occasional use of a drug or one prescription of pain-relieving medication, for
example, can get out of control as time passes – especially in times of pain or stress. You may
find you need bigger doses to get the same feeling or to lessen the pain. Eventually, you may
depend on the drug to feel good or to get through your day. 

Other signs that you are becoming dependent on alcohol or other drugs include: 

having intense urges for the substance – this could be once a day or several times a day 

needing more of a substance to get the same effect 

fixating about making sure you have a constant supply of the substance 

spending money on the substance, even when you cannot afford it 

cutting back on social or other activities 

not meeting your work, family or study responsibilities 

lying to people about your alcohol or drug use when they ask 

doing things that are illegal so you can get the substance, such as stealing 
taking risks such as driving when you are under the influence of the substance 

trying but failing to stop using the substance 

experiencing withdrawal symptoms when you try to stop taking the substance. 

2. PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

Chemical similarities classify drugs because they often have the same impact and risks. A drug-
dependent person is also likely to misuse drugs with chemical similarities. Additionally,
chemically similar drugs often have the same effects in treatment.

Iniisip ng maraming kabataang ang inireresetang mga droga ay mas ligtas dahil inireseta ito ng
isang doktor. Ngunit ang paggamit sa mga ito para sa hindi medikal na dahilan para maging
bangag o para “gamutin ang sarili” ay maaaring maging-kasing mapanganib at nakaaadik tulad
ng paggamit sa ilegal na drogang nakukuha sa lansangan.

a. Stimulant

Stimulants are a class of drugs that speed up messages travelling between the brain and body.
They can make a person feel more awake, alert, confident or energetic.

Stimulants include caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines and cocaine. Large doses can cause over-
stimulation, resulting in anxiety, panic, seizures, headaches, stomach cramps, aggression and
paranoia. Long-term use of strong stimulants can have adverse effects.

There is no safe level of drug use. Use of any drug always carries some risk. It’s important to be
careful when taking any type of drug.

Stimulants affect everyone differently, based on:

size, weight and health

whether the person is used to taking it

whether other drugs are taken around the same time

the amount taken

the strength of the drug (varies from batch to batch with illegally produced drugs.

For lower doses, the following effects may be experienced:

euphoria

heightened feelings of wellbeing

increased heart rate and blood pressure

increased alertness

talkativeness

reduced appetite.

Higher doses may result in: 

anxiety

tension

increased body temperature

nausea

tremor

seizures

coma

death.

Using stimulants with other drugs

Mayroong napakatitinding panganib na pangkalusugan sa paggamit ng inireresetang mga droga.

Ito ang dahilan kung bakit ang mga ito ay ginagamit lamang sa pangangalaga ng isang doktor. At
kahit ganoon pa man, ang mga ito ay kailangang bantayang mabuti para maiwasan ang adiksyon
at ibang
mga problema.

The effects of taking stimulants with other drugs − including over-the-counter or prescribed
medications − can be unpredictable and dangerous, and could cause:

Amphetamines + some antidepressants: elevated blood pressure, which can lead to irregular
heartbeat, heart failure and stroke.4
Amphetamines + alcohol, cannabis or benzodiazepines: the body is placed under a high degree
of stress dealing with the conflicting effects of each drug, which can lead to an overdose.4

Ice + speed or ecstasy: enormous strain on the heart and other parts of the body, which can lead
to stroke.5

Ice + alcohol, cannabis or benzodiazepines: enormous strain on the body, and more likely to
overdose. The stimulant effects of ice may mask the effects of depressant drugs like
benzodiazepines and can increase the risk of overdose.5

Use of stimulants is likely to be more dangerous when:

combined with alcohol or other drugs

driving or operating heavy machinery

judgement or motor coordination is required

the person is alone (in case medical assistance is required)

the person has a mental health problem

the person has an existing heart problem.

People who use stimulants regularly can develop dependence and tolerance to them. Tolerance
means they need to take larger amounts of stimulants to get the same effect.

Dependence on stimulants can be psychological, physical, or both. People who are dependent on
stimulants find that using the drug becomes far more important than other activities in their life.
They crave them and find it very difficult to stop using.

People who are psychologically dependent on stimulants may feel an urge to use them when they
are in specific surroundings or socialising with friends.

Physical dependence occurs when a person’s body adapts to the stimulants and gets used to
functioning with the stimulant present.

b. Depressants

Depressant substances reduce arousal and stimulation. They do not necessarily make a person
feel depressed. They affect the central nervous system, slowing down the messages between the
brain and the body. They can affect concentration and coordination. They slow down a person’s
ability to respond to unexpected situations. In small doses they can cause a person to feel more
relaxed and less inhibited. In larger doses they can cause drowsiness, vomiting, unconsciousness
and death.

Maraming pildoras ang pare-pareho ang hitsura. Napakamapanganib na uminom ng anumang

pildoras na hindi ka tiyak o hindi inireseta para sa iyo. Maaari ring magkaroon ng magkakaibang
reaksiyon sa mga droga ang mga tao dahil sa mga pagkakaiba sa kimika ng katawan ng bawat
tao. Ang isang drogang mabuti para sa isang tao ay maaaring napakamapanganib, at maaaring
nakamamatay pa, para sa ibang tao.

Sometimes called “downers,” these drugs come in multicolored tablets and capsules or in liquid
form. Some drugs in this category, such as Zyprexa, Seroquel and Haldol, are known as “major
tranquilizers” or “antipsychotics,” as they are supposed to reduce the symptoms of mental
illness. Depressants such as Xanax, Klonopin, Halcion and Librium are often referred to as
“benzos” (short for benzodiazepines1). Other depressants, such as Amytal, Numbutal and
Seconal, are classed as barbiturates—drugs that are used as sedatives and sleeping pills.

DEPRESSANTS: SHORT-TERM EFFECTS

Slow brain function Fever

Slowed pulse and breathing Sluggishness

Lowered blood pressure Visual disturbances

Poor concentration Dilated pupils

Confusion Disorientation, lack of coordination

Fatigue2 Depression

Dizziness Difficulty or inability to urinate

Slurred speech Addiction

Higher doses can cause impairment of memory, judgment and coordination, irritability,
paranoia,3 and suicidal thoughts. Some people experience the opposite of the intended effect,
such as agitation or aggression.

Using sedatives (drugs used to calm or soothe) and tranquilizers with other substances,
particularly alcohol, can slow breathing and the heart rate and even lead to death.
Tolerance to many depressants can develop rapidly, with larger doses needed to achieve the
same effect. The user, trying to reach the same high, may raise the dose to a level that results in
coma or death by overdose.

Long-term use of depressants can produce depression, chronic fatigue, breathing difficulties,
sexual problems and sleep problems. As a dependency on the drug increases, cravings, anxiety or
panic are common if the user is unable to get more.

Withdrawal symptoms include insomnia, weakness and nausea. For continual and high-dose
users, agitation, high body temperature, delirium, hallucinations and convulsions can occur.
Unlike withdrawal from most drugs, withdrawal from depressants can be life-threatening.

c. Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are a type of drug that changes a person’s perception of reality. Also known as
‘psychedelic drugs’, hallucinogens make a person see, feel and hear things that aren’t real, or
distort their interpretation of what’s going on around them. Some are quick acting, others take
longer to take effect. 

Hallucinogens are a type of drug that changes a person’s perception of reality. Also known as
‘psychedelic drugs’, hallucinogens make a person see, feel and hear things that aren’t real, or
distort their interpretation of what’s going on around them. Some are quick acting, others take
longer to take effect. Being under the influence of a hallucinogen is commonly called
‘tripping’.Some hallucinogens are manufactured, like LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), PCP
(phencyclidine, or ‘angel dust’) and ketamine. Others are naturally occurring compounds found
in particular plants. For instance, the peyote cactus produces the hallucinogen mescaline, while
psilocybin is found in certain mushrooms, known as ‘magic mushrooms’. 

Hallucinogens come in a number of different forms. For example: 

LSD is a powerful drug – typically, small squares of blotting paper or gelatine are soaked in
LSD, which are then swallowed, although it may also come in tablets or capsules. 

PCP usually comes in the form of tablets, capsules or powders of various colours. It is usually
swallowed, sniffed or injected, but is sometimes smoked.

Ketamine is used by medical practitioners and veterinarians as an aesthetic. It is often used

illegally as a hallucinogenic drug. It can be made into tablets or pills, or dissolved in liquid. It is
usually swallowed, snorted or injected.

Magic mushrooms can be cooked, boiled into a drink or eaten raw. 

Mescaline from the peyote cactus can be found as a white powder, while dried, ground peyote
buttons can be found as capsules. It is usually swallowed, but can be chewed or smoked.
Ayahuasca is a plant based hallucinogenic tea. Traditionally used in parts of South America,
Ayahuasca has become popular amongst western travellers.  

3. COMMONLY-ABUSED DRUGS AND THEIR IMMEDIATE AND LONG-TERM

EFFECTS

According to the Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB) (the government agency mandated to formulate
policies on illegal drugs in the Philippines), there are 1.8 million current drug users in the
Philippines, and 4.8 million Filipinos report having used illegal drugs at least once in their lives.
More than three-quarters of drug users are adults (91%), males (87%), and have reached high
school (80%). More than two-thirds (67%) are employed. The most commonly used drug in the
Philippines is a variant of methamphetamine called shabu or “poor man’s cocaine.” According to
a 2012 United Nations report, the Philippines had the highest rate of methamphetamine abuse
among countries in East Asia; about 2.2% of Filipinos between the ages 16–64 years were
methamphetamines users.

Ang inireresetang mga droga ay ligtas lamang para sa mga indibidwal na tunay na mayroong
mga reseta para sa mga ito at wala nang iba.

The drug problem in the Philippines has primarily been viewed as an issue of law enforcement
and criminality, and the government has focused on implementing a policy of criminalization
and punishment. This is evidenced by the fact that since the start of the “war on drugs,” the
Duterte government has utilized punitive measures and has mobilized the Philippine National
Police (PNP) and local government units nationwide. With orders from the President, law
enforcement agents have engaged in extensive door-to-door operations. One such operation in
Manila in August 2017 aimed to “shock and awe” drug dealers and resulted in the killing of 32
people by police in one night

Methamphetamine, a.k.a. Shabu, also goes by the names Crack meth, Ice, Crystal meth, Tik, and
Yaba. 

Sa di-medikal na mundo, maraming pagkalito sa pagitan ng mga kahulugan at kahulugan ng mga

salitang pagkagumon, pagsasarili, pagpaparaya, paggamit, pang-aabuso at maling paggamit may
kinalaman sa mga droga at ipinagbabawal na mga sangkap. Ang mga salitang ito ay kadalasang
ginagamit nang magkakaiba. Gayunman, sa mahigpit na diwa, hindi ito dapat ang kaso dahil
mayroon nang ilang mga manipis na linya sa pagitan ng mga salitang ito, lalong lalo na sa kaso
ng maling paggamit at pang-aabuso.
Methamphetamine belongs to a group of drugs called amphetamine-type stimulants. Like
ecstasy, it is manufactured in illegal laboratories and sold in powder, tablet or crystal form. It
could be swallowed, sniffed, smoked or injected.  

The UNODC says meth produces a feeling of physical and mental wellbeing, euphoria, and
exhilaration. Users experience a temporary boost in energy, often perceived to improve their
performance of manual or mental tasks, along with delayed hunger and fatigue. At times, they
become more aggressive and violent. 

Over the short term, users tend to lose their appetite, start to breathe faster, and sweat due to
increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature.

Taking in large doses would make users feel restless and irritable and could induce panic attacks.
Taking in excessive doses could result in convulsions, seizures, and death from respiratory
failure, stroke or heart failure.

Long-term use could also lead to malnutrition, weight loss, and psychological dependence. 

Stopping its use results in a long period of sleep, followed by depression.

Ecstasy 

Ecstasy goes around by the names E, Snackies and New Yorkers. The drug, usually made in
illegal laboratories, consists of a range of substances that make it dangerous to consume. It
comes in the form of tablet, powder or capsule and is usually swallowed, but could also be
snorted or injected. 

Ecstasy increases users’ empathy levels and induces a feeling of closeness to people around
them. It makes them feel more sociable and energetic. Short-term use of ecstasy prompts the
body to ignore distress signals such as dehydration, dizziness, and exhaustion, and interferes with
the body's ability to regulate temperature. It could also severely damage the liver and kidneys
and could cause convulsions and heart failure. 

In large doses, ecstasy could cause restlessness, anxiety and severe hallucinations. Long-term use
damages certain parts of the brain, bringing about serious depression and memory loss.

Cannabis 

Cannabis is known by many names -- Bongo, Ganja, Grass, Pot or Thai sticks. Its most famous
name, however, is Marijuana, or Mary Jane.

Cannabis, a tobacco-like greenish or brownish substance made of dried flowering tops and leaves
of the cannabis plant, is usually smoked, but its resin and oil could also be swallowed or brewed
in tea. 

According to the UNODC, cannabis smoke contains 50 percent more tar than high-tar cigarettes,
putting users at an increased risk of lung cancer and other respiratory diseases.

After taking cannabis, users feel relaxed and sometimes euphoric, with an intensified sense of
sight, smell, taste, and hearing. 

Short-term use makes them experience increased appetite and pulse rate, and an impaired ability
to perform physical and mental tasks, such as driving a car and thinking logically. 

With large doses, users’ thinking slows down and they become confused and have bouts of
anxiety, panic, and psychotic episodes.

The UNODC said that regular users of cannabis run the risk of developing psychological
dependence to the point that they lose interest in all other activities, such as work and personal
relationships.
 

Cocaine 

Cocaine is known as Crack, Bazooka, Blanche, Cake, Coke or Lady. It is a fine white or off-
white powder extracted from the leaves of the coca plant. 

The UNODC said that on the street, cocaine is diluted with other substances, such as ammonia or
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), to increase its quantity and produce crack.

Cocaine is usually sniffed or injected, while crack is usually smoked. After snorting cocaine,
users feel exhilarated and euphoric, leading to increased energy levels and alertness, along with
delayed hunger and fatigue. 

Short-term use results in loss of appetite, faster breathing, increased body temperature and heart
rate. Users may act strangely, erratically and at times violently. 

Ingesting large doses of cocaine could cause convulsions, seizures, stroke, cerebral hemorrhage
or heart failure. Long-term use of cocaine damages the nose tissue and leads to respiratory
problems, abscesses, and infectious diseases.

Other risks include strong psychological dependence, malnutrition, weight loss, disorientation,
apathy and a state similar to paranoid psychosis.  Mixing cocaine with alcohol is dangerous and
could lead to sudden death.

Heroin

Heroin is also called Smack, H, Horse, Junk, Harry and White Lady. Heroin is a painkiller
processed from morphine, which comes from the opium poppy plant.

Pure heroin is a white powder, but street heroin is brownish white. This highly addictive drug is
usually injected, but could also be snorted, smoked or inhaled. 
 

Heroin could relieve tension, anxiety, and depression, including physical distress or pain. 

According to the UNODC, its short-term effects include constricted pupils, nausea, vomiting,
drowsiness, inability to concentrate and apathy.

Long-term effects, meanwhile, include severe weight loss, malnutrition, constipation, menstrual
irregularity, sedation and chronic apathy. Users could develop a tolerance for the drug, making
them ingest more to achieve the effect they want.

Overdosing on heroin could lead to coma and death through respiratory depression. Abruptly
quitting heroin leads to severe withdrawal symptoms, such as cramps, diarrhea, tremors, panic,
runny nose, chills, and sweats.

LSD 

Also known as Acid or Hippie, LSD is a semi-synthetic drug made from lysergic acid, which is
found in a fungus that grows on rye and other grains. 

Dealers often sell it in squares of blotting paper with drops containing the drug, but also in the
form of tablets, capsules, and liquid. The colorless and odorless drug is often swallowed and has
a slightly bitter taste.

According to the UNODC, LSD use leads to strong changes in thought, mood, and senses, along
with feelings of empathy and sociability. Its exact effects, however, vary, depending on the
mental state of the user and the environment when taking the drug. 

Over the short term, users experience delusions and distorted perceptions in terms of time and
color, severe and terrifying thoughts and feelings, such as fear of losing control, insanity, death,
and despair.  Users manifest dilated pupils, increased heart rate and blood pressure, dry mouth
and tremors. They lack appetite and are sleepless. (PNA)
Barbiturates

These are sedatives like phenobarbital, pentobarbital (Nembutal), and secobarbital (Seconal).

They help with anxiety, sleep problems, and some seizures. But if you take more than prescribed,
you can get addicted. High doses can cause trouble breathing, especially if you use them when
you drink alcohol. If you can’t function without barbiturates, get help. Going into withdrawal can
be dangerous.

Benzodiazepines

Alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin) and diazepam (Valium) are two examples of
benzodiazepines -- another type of sedative that can help with anxiety, panic attacks, and sleep
problems. They work well and they're safer than barbiturates. But overused, and even used as
prescribed, they can also lead to physical dependence and addiction. Stopping these medications
abruptly can be dangerous.  If you feel you depend on these medications, talk to your
doctor. Prescription drugs shouldn't be shared. They are only for the person with the
prescription. 

Sleep Medicines

If you have trouble sleeping, drugs like zolpidem (Ambien), eszopiclone (Lunesta),

and zaleplon (Sonata) can help you get the rest you need. But if you use them longer than your
doctor suggests, you may become dependent and need them to sleep. Practicing sleep hygiene
skills is the best way to deal with sleep problems. Although they're not as addictive as some
sleeping pills, doctors are concerned about abuse if they're not taken as prescribed.

Codeine and Morphine

Some of the most commonly abused prescription meds are painkillers -- specifically, opioids.
These drugs dull pain, but in large doses they can also cause a euphoric high -- and dangerous
side effects. Doctors usually prescribe morphine for severe pain and codeine for milder pain or
coughing. Brands of morphine include Avinza,Kadian, and MS Contin.

OxyContin, Percocet

Another opioid painkiller is oxycodone. It's in drugs like OxyContin, Percocet,Percodan,

and Roxicodone. People who abuse oxycodone sometimes crush it and snort it or inject it --
greatly raising the risk of overdose. Street names include "oxy," "O.C.," and "oxycotton" for
OxyContin and "percs" for Percocet or Percodan.
Vicodin, Lortab, Lorcet

These drugs contain the opioid hydrocodone plus acetaminophen. Opioids cause drowsiness and
constipation. High doses can cause dangerous breathing problems. Vicodin's street names
include "vike" and "Watson-387." If you feel sick, like you're having the flu, after stopping any
of these opioid medications, your body may have become dependent.  Talk to you doctor if you
feel you need these medications for more than pain relief.

Amphetamines

When prescribed, stimulants like the amphetamines Adderall,Adderall XR, Dextroamphetamine,

and Mydasis can help people with ADHD. But some people use amphetamines to get high, to
boost energy and alertness, or to keep their weight down. You can get addicted to stimulants.
High doses can cause a dangerous rise in body temperature, irregular heartbeat, and even cardiac
arrest. Nicknames for amphetamines include "bennies," "black beauties," and "speed."

Methylphenidate

This is a stimulant in ADHD drugs like Concerta, Daytrana, Metadate, Methylin, and Ritalin. Its

nicknames include "MPH," "R-ball," "Skippy," "the smart drug," and "vitamin R." If you take
stimulants, combining them with common decongestants can cause dangerously high blood
pressure or an irregular heartbeat.

Dextromethorphan (DXM)

It's not just prescription drugs that are a problem. Dextromethorphan is a common ingredient in
over-the-counter cold and cough medicines -- it helps stop the cough. But large doses can get
you high and cause hallucinations. It's popular among teens, since cough syrup is so easy to find
in medicine cabinets. High doses also cause vomiting, rapid heart rate, and -- rarely -- brain
damage.

Pseudoephedrine

This is a decongestant in lots of non-prescription cold medicines. While it helps clear up a stuffy
nose, it's also an ingredient in illegal methamphetamine ("meth"). To curb meth abuse, U.S. laws
now control how you buy pseudoephedrine products. That's why some cold medicines are
located behind the counter and why you may have to sign for some. 

Spotting a Suspicious Pill

Found a random pill around the house or in your teen's jacket? Want to know what it is?
WebMD's Pill Identification Tool may help. But because there are hundreds of drugs and
thousands of pills and tablets of all shapes, colors, and sizes, you may need a pharmacist to
identify it.
Drug Abuse: What to Do

Worried that someone you love might be abusing drugs? The best thing to do is ask directly.
Keep an eye out for signs of abuse, like behavior changes or missing medicines.

Many kids assume that common household drugs or even prescription medicines are safer than
street drugs because they're legal. Explain the risks. Head off problems -- and clean out your
medicine cabinet. Get rid of the drugs you don't need, and keep track of the ones you do. 

Marijuana

Marijuana (cannabis) refers to the dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds from the Cannabis
sativa or Cannabis indica plant and is the most commonly used illicit substance. It is now legal in
some states for medical and recreational use. Some people use marijuana for its pleasurable high,
but this drug also impairs short-term memory and learning, the ability to focus, and coordination.
It also increases heart rate, can harm the lungs, and can increase the risk of psychosis in
vulnerable people. Data suggest that 30 percent of those who use marijuana may have some
degree of marijuana use disorder.

Medical Marijuana

Although many states have legalized marijuana for medical use, the scientific evidence to date is
not sufficient for it to gain U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval, for two main
reasons.

First, there have not been enough clinical trials showing that marijuana’s benefits outweigh its
health risks. The FDA requires carefully conducted studies (clinical trials) in hundreds to
thousands of patients to determine benefits and risks.

Second, to be considered a legitimate medicine, a substance must have well-defined and

measurable ingredients that are consistent from one unit to the next (such as a pill or injection).
This consistency allows doctors to determine the dose and frequency. As the marijuana plant
contains hundreds of chemical compounds that may have different effects and that vary from
plant to plant, evaluating the whole plant as a medicine is difficult.

However, synthetic THC-based drugs to treat nausea caused by chemotherapy and increase
appetite in patients with extreme weight loss caused by AIDS are already FDA-approved and
prescribed. In addition, the FDA recently approved Epidiolex®, the first medicine derived from
the marijuana plant itself.  

Cocaine and Crack Cocaine

Approximately 2.1 million people in the U.S. use cocaine, making it the third most abused
category of drug. Cocaine can be snorted, injected and even smoked in some forms of the drug.
In all cases, cocaine is a strong central nervous system stimulant which affects the brain.

Hallucinogens

Each month, more than a million people in the U.S. use hallucinogens such as LSD, PCP,
Ketamine, and DXM, according to NSDUH. Hallucinogens disrupt a person's ability to think and
communicate rationally, or even to recognize reality, sometimes resulting in bizarre or dangerous
behavior.

4. SIGNS OF DRUG ABUSE

It’s important to know the signs and symptoms of drug addiction. Alcohol or drug addiction
changes the way a person looks, acts and feels. The symptoms of substance use disorders are
linked to changes in the body, behavior and emotions. Thankfully, you can discover when a
friend or family member has become addicted to drugs by observing the following signs of
substance abuse in adults.

1.    SMALL PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS:

Side effects can include slight alterations to physical appearance that may start to become
noticeable. Bloodshot or red eyes and pinpoint or dilated pupils are all telling signs of many
types of drug abuse.

2.    OVERALL APPEARANCE:

Long-term abuse of drugs and alcohol can result in drastic changes to physical appearance. Many
drugs have appetite suppressing or other altering side effects, meaning abuse often results in
visible weight changes.

3.    PARAPHERNALIA:

It can be an obvious indicator if you find equipment in someone’s room or among their things.
Some common items include:

Cigarette wrapping papers

Pipes

Syringes
Rolled up banknotes

Cut-up straws

Soiled cotton swabs

Lighters

Burnt spoons or bottle caps

Bongs

Razor blades

“Cutting” surfaces like mirrors or glass

Behavioral Signs of Drug Abuse

1.    STRUGGLING WITH LIMITS:

This can manifest as urges to take a prescription drug at a higher dose than prescribed or
continuing after the health problem it treats has ended.

2.    LOSS OF INTEREST:

Substance dependency takes over the mind’s reward system. Take note if someone is becoming
complacent in realms they used to take great pride in or apathetic towards the people or hobbies
they usually cherish.

3.    MOOD SWINGS:

Many substances, especially when used heavily, impair the user’s ability to manage emotional
input. This can appear as sudden misery, extreme upset, irritation, or anger in situations when
they could previously handle their moods well. 

4.    RECLUSIVE AND PRIVATE BEHAVIOR:

Substance abuse disorders are incredibly isolating. A user often experiences shame and fears
social stigma, and some drugs also can induce paranoia. 

5.    DEFENSIVENESS:

Withdrawn behavior and responding with hostility or wariness when uncomfortable topics arise
can be a sign of defensiveness.

6.    ERRATIC BEHAVIOR:

This trait is usually very evident and a symptom of most substance addictions. Depending on the
drug, the high could be associated with euphoria, paranoia, feelings of power, or invulnerability.

7.    CHANGES IN SLEEP HABITS:

Drug abuse tends to wreak havoc on users’ sleep habits. Both stimulants and depressants alter the
activity of hormones responsible for tiredness and wakefulness. 

Use of recreational drugs, over the counter medications or prescription drugs can lead to
substance use issues. It can frequently lead to problems at work, home, school, and in
relationships, and leave the user feeling isolated, helpless, or shamed. If you’re worried about
your own or a loved one’s drug use, it’s helpful to know the warning signs and more importantly,
that help is available and treatment works.

Common signs and symptoms of drug abuse

Risk taking when you’re using, such as driving, having unprotected sex

Neglecting responsibilities at school, work,or homr

Legal trouble, such as arrests for disorderly conduct, driving under the influence 

Physical warning signs of drug abuse

Bloodshot eyes, pupils larger or smaller than usual

Changes in appetite, sleep patterns, physical appearance

Unusual smells on breath, body, or clothing, or impaired coordination

Behavioral signs of drug abuse

Drop in attendance and performance at work or school

Engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviors

Sudden change in friends, favorite hangouts, and hobbies

Psychological warning signs of drug abuse

Unexplained change in personality or attitude

Sudden mood swings, irritability, spaced-out, or angry outbursts

Appears fearful, anxious, or paranoid, with no reason

Recognizing there’s a problem is the first step on the road to recovery, which often takes
tremendous courage and strength.  If you’re ready to face your addiction and are willing to seek
help, you have the opportunity to build a satisfying, drug-free life for yourself.

Signs that someone has a drug problem include:

Changing friends a lot

Spending a lot of time alone

Losing interest in favorite things

Not taking care of themselves - for example, not taking showers, changing clothes, or brushing
their teeth

Being really tired and sad

Eating more or eating less than usual

Being very energetic, talking fast, or saying things that don't make sense

Being in a bad mood

Quickly changing between feeling bad and feeling good

Sleeping at strange hours

Missing important appointments

Having problems at work or at school

Having problems in personal or family relationships

Signs you may have a drug problem:

You keep taking a drug after it's no longer needed for a health problem.

You need more and more of a substance to get the same effects (called "tolerance"), and you can
take more before you feel an effect.

You feel strange when the drug wears off. You may be shaky, depressed, sick to your stomach,
sweat, or have headaches. You may also be tired or not hungry. In severe cases, you could even
be confused, have seizures, or run a fever.

You can't stop yourself from using the drug, even if you want to. You are still using it even
though it's making bad things happen in your life, like trouble with friends, family, work, or the
law.

You spend a lot of your time thinking about the drug: how to get more, when you'll take it, how
good you feel, or how bad you feel afterward.

You have a hard time giving yourself limits. You might say you'll only use "so much" but then
can't stop and end up using twice that amount. Or you use it more often than you meant to.

You've lost interest in things you once liked to do.

You've begun having trouble doing normal daily things, like cooking or working.

You drive or do other dangerous things (like use heavy machines) when you are on the drug.

You borrow or steal money to pay for drugs.

You hide the drug use or the effect it is having on you from others.

You're having trouble getting along with co-workers, teachers, friends, or family members. They
complain more about how you act or how you've changed.

You sleep too much or too little, compared with how you used to. Or you eat a lot more or a lot
less than before.

You look different. You may have bloodshot eyes, bad breath, shakes or tremors, frequent
bloody noses, or you may have gained or lost weight.

You have a new set of friends with whom you do drugs and go to different places to use the
drugs.

You go to more than one doctor to get prescriptions for the same drug or problem.

You look in other people's medicine cabinets for drugs to take.

You take prescribed meds with alcohol or other drugs.

Changes in personality and behavior like a lack of motivation, irritability, and agitation

Bloodshot eyes and frequent bloody noses

Shakes, tremors, or slurred speech

Change in their daily routines

Lack of concern for personal hygiene

Unusual need for money; financial problems

Changes in friends and activities

5. DRUG PREVENTION AND PDEA'S PROGRAM

Ang maling paggamit ay ang hindi wastong paggamit ng alinman sa di-inireseta o iniresetang
mga gamot. Ito ay naaangkop sa mga sitwasyon kung saan ang gamot ay nakuha para sa mga
therapeutic layunin lamang at hindi para sa ecstasy, kasiyahan at makaramdam ng sobrang tuwa.
Gayunpaman, ang ilang mga pinagmumulan ay nagsasabi na ang maling paggamit ng droga ay
mas karaniwang ginagamit sa mga sitwasyon kung saan ang mga gamot sa reseta ay kasangkot.
Ang mga ito ay mga lisensyadong gamot na nangangailangan ng mga reseta para sa mga ito na
bilhin sa mga tindahan ng gamot (kabaligtaran ng over-the-counter na gamot). Ang ilan sa mga
pinaka-popular na hindi ginagamot na gamot ay ang mga psychoactive na gamot na humantong
sa ilang mga emosyonal at mental na mga salungat na epekto sa gumagamit.

Parental monitoring and supervision are critical for drug abuse prevention. These skills can be
enhanced with training on rule-setting; techniques for monitoring activities; praise for
appropriate behavior; and moderate, consistent discipline that enforces defined family rules.

Drug education and information for parents or caregivers reinforces what children are learning
about the harmful effects of drugs and opens opportunities for family discussions about the abuse
of legal and illegal substances.

Brief, family-focused interventions for the general population can positively change specific
parenting behavior that can reduce later risks of drug abuse.

self-control;
emotional awareness;

communication;

social problem-solving; and

academic support, especially in reading.;

study habits and academic support;

communication;

peer relationships;

self-efficacy and assertiveness;

drug resistance skills;

reinforcement of anti-drug attitudes; and

strengthening of personal commitments against drug abuse.

PDEA LEADS UNIFORM ANTI-DRUG PREVENTIVE EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR

SANGGUNIANG KABATAAN, YOUTH - The Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA)
is leading the newly institutionalized uniform preventive education program intended for
Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) and their youth constituents.

Known as “Sangguniang Kabataan Standard Training in Extensive Anti-Drug Preventive

Education – A Uniform Program for Youth Leaders (SK-STEP-UP), the program was approved
and adopted on June 27, 2019, under Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB) Board Regulation No. 5
Series of 2019.

Kung ang isang pasyente ay magpapasya na huwag kunin ang kanyang regular na dosis ng
antibyotiko hanggang ang kanyang 'bilang kinakailangan' dosis ng mga killer ng sakit ay
magkakaroon ng epekto pagkatapos ito ay maaaring ikategorya bilang paggamit ng droga. Ang
simpleng pag-iisip ng pagkuha ng higit pa sa iniresetang halaga ng meds ay maaari ring tawaging
maling paggamit ng droga kahit na ito ay para sa isang isang beses na hindi paulit-ulit na batayan
lamang kumpara sa pang-aabuso sa droga.

Ang pang-aabuso, sa kabilang banda, ay isang kataga na nagpapahiwatig ng paulit-ulit at totoong

paggamit ng mga droga para sa isa pang dulo bukod sa orihinal nito o inireseta na layunin o
paggamit. Gumamit ito ng gamot o sangkap sa isang paraan bukod sa layunin ng panlipunan na
ito. Ang isa sa mga pinaka-karaniwang inabuso na sangkap ay alkohol. Gayunpaman, ang
kahulugan ng pang-aabuso sa droga ay itinuturing ng lipunan sa bawat konteksto kung saan ang
isang tao ay maaaring magbigay-kahulugan sa pag-uugali ng isang menor de edad ng pag-inom
ng 6 na bote ng beer upang maging mali kumpara sa isang 22 taong gulang na uminom ng mas
maraming alak na sa kasong ito ay magiging itinuturing na angkop.

Drug abuse has a pervasive effect on an entire community. Understanding drug use risk
factors and spreading the word through prevention programs is the best defense against drug
abuse.

Parental monitoring has been the most effective way to slow the expansion of drugs in family
situations.

School drug prevention programs serve a valuable purpose in first time users aged 12-17.

Schools with strict compliance rules and counseling support have been successful at reducing
usage.

The National Institute Against Drug Abuse (NIDA) has found that gains resulting from
community drug prevention programs far outweigh the financial investment by the community.

Programs should make sure to address all aspects of drug abuse. This includes underage use of
legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco, illicit street drugs, inhalants and the inappropriate use of
legal drugs such as prescription and over the counter drugs.

These programs must also be tailored to the specific needs of the audience. Having specialized
programs for different genders, ages, cultures and ethnicities only make the programs more
effective.

Drug prevention programs are designed to provide the education and support necessary to
diminish drug dependency in communities, schools and the workplace. Drug abuse prevention
has become an important first step in informing specific individuals about the dangers of
addiction, prevention techniques and where to find recovery help if it should be deemed
necessary.
Drug abuse prevention begins with education, spreading the word regarding the dangers of drugs
to oneself and to the community. These programs are just the beginning. The information
provided is most effective when it is followed up with continued support. Drug prevention
programs seek to involve the family, community or workplace in the prevention process. To be
effective, communities need to sustain the progress. This often requires continued leadership and
financial support.

Drug abuse has a pervasive effect on an entire community. Understanding drug use risk
factors and spreading the word through prevention programs is the best defense against drug
abuse.

Parental monitoring has been the most effective way to slow the expansion of drugs in family
situations.

School drug prevention programs serve a valuable purpose in first time users aged 12-17.

Schools with strict compliance rules and counseling support have been successful at reducing
usage.

The National Institute Against Drug Abuse (NIDA) has found that gains resulting from
community drug prevention programs far outweigh the financial investment by the community.

Programs should make sure to address all aspects of drug abuse. This includes underage use of
legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco, illicit street drugs, inhalants and the inappropriate use of
legal drugs such as prescription and over the counter drugs.

These programs must also be tailored to the specific needs of the audience. Having specialized
programs for different genders, ages, cultures and ethnicities only make the programs more
effective.

As previously mentioned, drug prevention begins with education. This education can take place
at a number of levels including:

Family Based Drug Prevention. The prevention of drug abuse should start inside the family unit
as early as possible. There are many obvious benefits of home based drug prevention education
including self-awareness, and the enhancement of parent-child communication skills and family
bonding. Parental supervision and involvement are critical in adolescents. Parents must not only
have a plan to educate their children on the dangers of drug use and abuse, but they must also
establish and enforce family rules. This includes creating an effective system of monitoring their
children’s activities.

School Based Drug Abuse Prevention Programs. Drug abuse prevention should be addressed as
early as preschool. Preschool children can benefit from learning how to handle aggression, solve
problems, and communicate better so that they can avoid putting themselves at risk for drug
abuse later in life. Middle and high school programs should focus on peer relationships,
communication, assertiveness, drug resistance skills and developing anti-drug attitudes. School
based prevention programs should be repeated often for the best level of success.

Community Based Drug Abuse Prevention Programs. Communities that make an effort to come
together in the fight against drugs are sure to make an impact in the prevention of drug abuse.
There are many places to establish these prevention programs including schools, churches and
community based clubs.

While there is no one way or guaranteed way to prevent someone from abusing drugs and
alcohol, there are things that everyone can do to prevent substance abuse.

Here are the top five ways to prevent substance abuse:

1. Understand how substance abuse develops. Substance abuse starts by:

Using addictive drugs (illicit or prescribed) for recreational purposes

Seeking out intoxication every time you use

Abusing prescription medication

2. Avoid Temptation and Peer Pressure. Develop healthy friendships and relationships by

avoiding friends or family members who pressure you to use substances. It’s often said “we
become most like those we surround ourselves by,” meaning if you surround yourself with
people who abuse drugs and alcohol you are more likely to as well. Peer pressure is a major part
of life for teens and adults. If you are looking to stay drug free develop a good way to just say
no, prepare a good excuse or plan ahead of time to keep from giving into peer pressure.

3. Seek help for mental illness. Mental illness and substance abuse often go hand in hand. If you
are dealing with a mental illness such as anxiety, depression or post-traumatic stress disorder you
should seek professional help from a licensed therapist or counselor. A professional will provide
you with healthy coping skills to alleviate your symptoms without turning to drugs and alcohol.

4. Examine the risk factors. Look at your family history of mental illness and addiction, several
studies have shown that this disease tends to run in the family, but can be prevented. The more
you are aware of your biological, environmental and physical risk factors the more likely you are
to overcome them.
5. Keep a well-balanced life. People often turn to drugs and alcohol when something in their life
is missing or not working. Practicing stress management skills can help you overcome these life
stressors and will help you live a balanced and healthy life.

Develop goals and dreams for your future. These will help you focus on what you want and help
you realize that drugs and alcohol will simply get in the way and hinder you from achieving your
goals.

Share these tips for avoiding and preventing substance abuse with your friends and family and
help promote a healthier lifestyle free from addiction.

UNODC Prevention, Treatment, and Rehabilitation Section supports Member States in

addressing drug use and drug use disorders as any other health condition, that is by implementing
drug use prevention strategies and providing treatment, health care, social protection and
rehabilitation services, including for children and adolescents, based on scientific evidence,
human rights and gender considerations. Another area of work is promoting access to controlled
drugs for medical purposes, whilst preventing diversion and abuse. 

Teen drug abuse: Help your teen avoid drugs

Teen drug abuse can have a major impact on your child's life. Find out how to help your teen
make healthy choices and avoid using drugs.

Teens who experiment with drugs put their health and safety at risk. Help prevent teen drug
abuse by talking to your teen about the consequences of using drugs and the importance of
making healthy choices.

Why teens use or misuse drugs

Various factors can contribute to teen drug use and misuse. First-time use often occurs in social
settings with easily accessible substances, such as alcohol and cigarettes.

Continued use might be a result of insecurities or a desire for social acceptance. Teens may feel
indestructible and might not consider the consequences of their actions, leading them to take
dangerous risks with drugs.

Common risk factors for teen drug abuse include:

A family history of substance abuse

A mental or behavioral health condition, such as depression, anxiety or
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Impulsive or risk-taking behavior

A history of traumatic events, such as experiencing a car accident or being a victim of abuse

Low self-esteem or feelings of social rejection

Consequences of teen drug abuse

Negative consequences of teen drug abuse might include:

Drug dependence. Teens who misuse drugs are at increased risk of serious drug use later in life.

Poor judgment. Teenage drug use is associated with poor judgment in social and personal
interactions.

Sexual activity. Drug use is associated with high-risk sexual activity, unsafe sex and unplanned
pregnancy.

Mental health disorders. Drug use can complicate or increase the risk of mental health disorders,
such as depression and anxiety.

Impaired driving. Driving under the influence of any drug can impair a driver's motor skills,
putting the driver, passengers and others on the road at risk.

Changes in school performance. Substance use can result in a decline in academic performance.

Health effects of drugs

Drug use can result in drug addiction, serious impairment, illness and death. Health risks of
commonly used drugs include the following:

Cocaine — Risk of heart attack, stroke and seizures

Ecstasy — Risk of liver failure and heart failure

Inhalants — Risk of damage to heart, lungs, liver and kidneys from long-term use

Marijuana — Risk of impairment in memory, learning, problem solving and concentration; risk
of psychosis — such as schizophrenia, hallucination or paranoia — later in life associated with
early and frequent use

Methamphetamine — Risk of psychotic behaviors from long-term use or high doses

Opioids — Risk of respiratory distress or death from overdose

Electronic cigarettes (vaping) — Exposure to harmful substances similar to exposure from
cigarette smoking; risk of nicotine dependence

Talking about teen drug use

You'll likely have multiple conversations with your teen about drug and alcohol use. Choose
times when you're unlikely to be interrupted — and set aside phones. It's also important to know
when not to have a conversation, such as when you're angry with your child, you aren't prepared
to answer questions, or your child is drunk or high.

To talk to your teen about drugs:

Ask your teen's views. Avoid lectures. Instead, listen to your teen's opinions and questions about
drugs. Assure your teen that he or she can be honest with you.

Discuss reasons not to use drugs. Avoid scare tactics. Emphasize how drug use can affect the
things that are important to your teen — such as sports, driving, health and appearance.

Consider media messages. Social media, television programs, movies and songs can glamorize
or trivialize drug use. Talk about what your teen sees and hears.

Discuss ways to resist peer pressure. Brainstorm with your teen about how to turn down offers of
drugs.

Be ready to discuss your own drug use. Think about how you'll respond if your teen asks about
your own drug use. If you chose not to use drugs, explain why. If you did use drugs, share what
the experience taught you.

Other preventive strategies

Consider other strategies to prevent teen drug abuse:

Know your teen's activities. Pay attention to your teen's whereabouts. Find out what adult-
supervised activities your teen is interested in and encourage him or her to get involved.

Establish rules and consequences. Explain your family rules, such as leaving a party where drug
use occurs and not riding in a car with a driver who's been using drugs. If your teen breaks the
rules, consistently enforce consequences.

Know your teen's friends. If your teen's friends use drugs, your teen might feel pressure to
experiment, too.

Keep track of prescription drugs. Take an inventory of all prescription and over-the-counter

medications in your home.
Provide support. Offer praise and encouragement when your teen succeeds. A strong bond
between you and your teen might help prevent your teen from using drugs.

Set a good example. If you drink, do so in moderation. Use prescription drugs as directed. Don't
use illicit drugs.

Recognizing the warning signs of teen drug abuse

Be aware of possible red flags, such as:

Sudden or extreme change in friends, eating habits, sleeping patterns, physical appearance,
coordination or school performance

Irresponsible behavior, poor judgment and general lack of interest

Breaking rules or withdrawing from the family

The presence of medicine containers, despite a lack of illness, or drug paraphernalia in your
teen's room

Seeking help for teen drug abuse

If you suspect or know that your teen is experimenting with or misusing drugs:

Talk to him or her. You can never intervene too early. Casual drug use can turn into excessive
use or addiction and cause accidents, legal trouble and health problems.

Encourage honesty. Speak calmly and express that you are coming from a place of concern.
Share specific details to back up your suspicion. Verify any claims he or she makes.

Focus on the behavior, not the person. Emphasize that drug use is dangerous but that doesn't
mean your teen is a bad person.

6. RA 9165

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9165      

AN ACT INSTITUTING THE COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUGS ACT OF 2002,

REPEALING REPUBLIC ACT NO. 6425, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS THE DANGEROUS
DRUGS ACT OF 1972, AS AMENDED, PROVIDING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress

Section 1. Short Title. – This Act shall be known and cited as the "Comprehensive Dangerous
Drugs Act of 2002".

Section 2. Declaration of Policy. Patakaran ng Estado na pangalagaan ang integridad ng teritoryo

nito at ang kapakanan ng mga mamamayan nito partikular na ang mga kabataan, mula sa mga
mapaminsalang epekto ng mga mapanganib na droga sa kanilang pisikal at mental na kagalingan,
at ipagtanggol ito laban sa mga aksyon. o mga pagkukulang na nakapipinsala sa kanilang pag-
unlad at pangangalaga.

In view of the foregoing, the State needs to enhance further the efficacy of the law against
dangerous drugs, it being one of today's more serious social ills.

SEC. 3. Definitions. — As used in this Act, the following terms shall mean:

(a) Administer. ------ Anumang gawain ng pagpasok ng anumang mapanganib na gamot sa

katawan ng sinumang tao, mayroon man o wala ang kanyang kaalaman, sa pamamagitan ng pag-
iniksyon, paglanghap, paglunok o iba pang paraan, o ng paggawa ng anumang pagkilos ng
kailangang-kailangan na tulong sa isang tao sa pagbibigay ng mapanganib na gamot sa kanyang
sarili maliban kung pinangangasiwaan ng isang nararapat na lisensyadong practitioner para sa
mga layunin ng gamot.

(b) Board. — Refers to the Dangerous Drugs Board under Section 77, Article IX of this Act.

(c) Centers. — Any of the treatment and rehabilitation centers for drug dependents referred to in
Section 75, Article VIII of this Act.

d) Chemical Diversion. — Ang pagbebenta, pamamahagi, supply o transportasyon ng mga

lehitimong inangkat, in-transit, ginawa o binili na kinokontrol na mga precursor at mahahalagang
kemikal, sa diluted, mixtures o concentrated form, sa sinumang tao o entity na nakikibahagi sa
paggawa ng anumang mapanganib na gamot, at dapat isama ang packaging, repackaging, label,
relabeling o pagtatago ng naturang transaksyon sa pamamagitan ng pandaraya, pagsira ng mga
dokumento, mapanlinlang na paggamit ng mga permit, misdeclaration, paggamit ng front
companies o panloloko sa koreo.

(e) Clandestine Laboratory. — Any facility used for the illegal manufacture of any dangerous
drug and/or controlled precursor and essential chemical.
(f) Confirmatory Test. — Isang analytical test gamit ang isang device, tool o equipment na may
ibang kemikal o pisikal na prinsipyo na mas partikular na magpapatunay at magkukumpirma sa
resulta ng screening test.

(g) Controlled Delivery. Ang pamamaraan ng pag-iimbestiga ng pagpayag sa isang labag sa

batas o pinaghihinalaang pagpapadala ng anumang mapanganib na gamot at/o kinokontrol na
pasimula at mahahalagang kemikal, kagamitan o kagamitan, o ari-arian na pinaniniwalaang
nagmula nang direkta o hindi direktang mula sa anumang pagkakasala, na makapasok, sa
pamamagitan o labas ng bansa sa ilalim ng pangangasiwa ng isang awtorisadong opisyal, na may
layuning mangalap ng ebidensya upang matukoy ang sinumang taong sangkot sa anumang
pagkakasala na may kaugnayan sa mapanganib na droga, o upang mapadali ang pag-uusig sa
pagkakasalang iyon.

(h) Controlled Precursors and Essential Chemicals. — Include those listed in Tables I and II of
the 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
as enumerated in the attached annex, which is an integral part of this Act.

(i) Cultivate or Culture. — Any act of knowingly planting, growing, raising, or permitting the
planting, growing or raising of any plant which is the source of a dangerous drug.

(j) Dangerous Drugs. — Include those listed in the Schedules annexed to the 1961 Single
Convention on Narcotic Drugs, as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and in the Schedules annexed
to the 1971 Single Convention on Psychotropic Substances as enumerated in the attached annex
which is an integral part of this Act.

(k) Deliver. — Any act of knowingly passing a dangerous drug to another, personally or
otherwise, and by any means, with or without consideration.

(l) Den, Dive or Resort. — Isang lugar kung saan ang anumang mapanganib na gamot at/o
kinokontrol na precursor at mahahalagang kemikal ay pinangangasiwaan, inihahatid, iniimbak
para sa mga iligal na layunin, ipinamamahagi, ibinebenta o ginagamit sa anumang anyo.

(m) Dispense. — Any act of giving away, selling or distributing medicine or any dangerous drug
with or without the use of prescription.
(n) Drug Dependence. — Batay sa kahulugan ng World Health Organization, ito ay isang
kumpol ng physiological, behavioral at cognitive phenomena na may variable na intensity, kung
saan ang paggamit ng psychoactive na gamot ay may mataas na priyoridad, kaya
kinasasangkutan, bukod sa iba pa, ang matinding pagnanais o isang pakiramdam ng pagpilit.
upang kunin ang sangkap at ang mga kahirapan sa pagkontrol sa pag-uugali sa pagkuha .

7. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Philippine Commission on Women defined Gender and Development as the development

perspective and process that is participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from
violence, respectful of human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human
potentials.  Gender and Development was developed in the 1980’s as an alternative to the
Women in Development (WID) approach.

        Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the
way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities, and expectations to both men and women.

        GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which men and women work together,
presenting results in neutral terms of economics and competence.

       GAD focus primarily on two major frameworks, Gender Roles and Social Relations
Analysis. Gender role focus on social construction of identities within the household, it also
reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’ in their relative access to resources.
Social relations analysis exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations imbedded
in social institutions; also it’s determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women
in society. In an attempt to create gender equality, (denoting women having same opportunities
as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere) GAD policies aim to redefine
traditional gender role expectations.

Gender and Development in Philippines

       Philippine Plan for Gender and Development, 1995-2025, is a National Plan that addresses,
provides and pursues full equality and development for men and women. Approved and adopted
by former President Fidel V. Ramos as Executive No. 273, on September 8, 1995, it is the
successor of the Philippine Development Plan for Women, 1989-1992 adopted by Executive No. 
348 of February 17, 1989.

       Three years after, DENR Administrative Order No. 98 – 15 dated May 27, 1998 came up as
the Revised Guidelines on the Implementation of Gender and Development (GAD) Activities in
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in order to strengthen the DENR
GAD Focal Point System and accomplishing the GAD vision “Partnership of Empowered Men
and Women for Sustainable Development”.
        Republic Act No. 9710, otherwise known as the Magna Carta of Women was approved on
August 14, 2009 which mandates non-discriminatory and pro-gender equality and equity
measures to enable women’s participation in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of
policies and plan for national, regional and local development.

        A Memorandum Circular No. 2011 – 01 dated October 21, 2011 was released addressing to
all Government Departments including their attached agencies, offices, bureaus, State
Universalities and Colleges (SUCs), Government-Owned and Controlled Corporations (GOCCs)
and all other government instrumentalities as their guidelines and procedures for the
establishment, strengthening and institutionalization of the GAD Focal Point System (GFPS).

Sa prinsipyo, ang pangunahing sanhi ng pagkalulong sa droga ay isang pinahiran na pag-access

sa nakakahumaling na sangkap, na maaaring unti-unting humantong sa pagpasok sa isang self-
mapanirang at pag-asa sa pag-asa. Gayunpaman, sa ugat ng pagkalulong sa droga ay
magkakasunod na mga kadahilanan, na nauugnay sa kasaysayan ng buhay ng indibidwal, ang
lakas ng kanilang mga relasyon sa interpersonal (pamilya, lalo na), pati na rin ang kanilang
edukasyon at sikolohikal na tool sa kanilang pagtatapon. Pagpapayag na harapin ang ilang mga
sitwasyon (mga pagkabigo, paghihirap) nang hindi gumagamit ng mga ruta mula sa katotohanan,
tulad ng droga. Ang mga kabataan at kabataan, na may mga problema sa pag-uugali at mababang
pagpapahalaga sa sarili, mula sa may problemang mga bahay, ang pinaka-malamang na mahulog
sa isang sitwasyon ng pag-asa sa droga.

Ang mga kahihinatnan ng pagkalulong sa droga ay magkakaiba at nakakaapekto sa lahat ng mga

aspeto na bumubuo sa buhay ng indibidwal, kabilang ang:

Ang mga problema para sa normal na pag-unlad ng pang-araw-araw na gawain, tulad ng pag-
aaral at pagtatrabaho.Mga relasyon sa interpersonal (pamilya, kaibigan, kasosyo) na apektado ng
kawalan ng katiyakan at hinala.Ang mga potensyal na panganib sa pisikal, kapag ang
pagkonsumo ay nauugnay sa mga sitwasyon na nakakasapanganib sa iyong buhay at ng ang iba
pa, tulad ng pagmamaneho.Mga problema sa antas ng physiological, tulad ng mga seizure, mga
pagbabago sa ritmo ng puso at pagkasira ng sentral na sistema ng nerbiyos.Mga problema sa
antas ng sikolohikal, tulad ng mga guni-guni, mga tendensya sa paranoid, pagkalungkot,
neurosis. gumawa ng isang krimen (magnakaw, ibenta ang kanyang katawan, pagpatay) upang
makuha ang sangkap na kung saan siya ay nakasalalay.

Ang mga gawain ng GAD Committee Members, bukod sa iba pa, ay upang mapadali ang
institusyonalisasyon ng GAD mainstreaming activities, tukuyin ang mga istratehiya, programa,
aktibidad at proyekto ng GAD alinsunod sa mga tinukoy na prayoridad ng ahensya bilang tugon
sa kasarian na inilabas ng mga miyembro nito, stakeholder at empleyado. Titiyakin din nito ang
napapanahong pagsusumite ng GAD Plan and Budget, Accomplishment Report at iba pang mga
ulat na nauugnay sa GAD sa PCW at sa DBM.

Sa kabilang banda, pinapadali ng TWG/Secretariat ang pagpapatupad ng gender mainstreaming

efforts ng ahensya sa pamamagitan ng GAD planning and budgeting process.

Ang Plano at Badyet ng GAD ay isang sistematikong programa na isinasagawa sa buong

organisasyon sa pamamagitan ng taunang pagbuo at pagpapatupad ng mga programa, aktibidad
at proyekto na tumutugon sa mga isyu at alalahanin ng kasarian sa organisasyon at mga
nasasakupan sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng hindi bababa sa 5% ng kabuuang alokasyon ng
badyet at sa konteksto ng mandato ng GSIS.

In consideration of its mandate under the Magna Carta of Women (MCW) specifically in
“ensuring that government agencies are capacitated on the effective implementation of the law,”
the NGRP has steered the direction for PCW in addressing the increasing demand from
government agencies on GAD mainstreaming. As an over-all technical assistance blueprint of
PCW, the NGRP is dedicated towards the provision of timely, strategic, and appropriate
technical assistance on GAD. It also establishes appropriate mechanisms that will respond to the
numerous requests for technical assistance on GAD especially on GAD mainstreaming and GAD
Planning and Budgeting (GPB).

8. DEBUNKING MYTHS ON GENDER

Gender shows up in a lot of places in our lives. Public bathrooms ask us to sort ourselves -- are
you a “ladies” or “gentlemen” restroom person? Your driver’s license most likely has a spot to
mark you as “female” or “male.” Looking for a pair of jeans? They’re separated into at least two
places in a store, so go wander to the “men’s” or “women’s” clothing sections. The world treats
gender as if it’s something easy, obvious, and straightforward. There are two teams, and we
should all stay in our assigned lanes. But what if those lanes don’t fit? 

The truth is, gender is way richer and more interesting than two straight lanes. Here are some
common myths about gender, debunked. 

Believe it or not, at this day and age women still battle gender-based stereotyping. In media and
pop culture, women are often portrayed as ineffective leaders — a stereotype seldom questioned
or challenged.

Here we debunk some of the most prevalent myths about women in the workplace.

MYTH: Motherhood diminishes ambition.

Many say that women don’t move up the corporate ladder because they would rather give more
time for their loved ones. Some women leave the workforce to focus on their families, and this
gives the notion that motherhood diminishes career ambition.
However, Accenture research shows that working mothers are equally ambitious as women
without children. About 70 percent of working moms aspire for senior leadership, just as likely
as the 67 percent of women without children who also want to become leaders.

It is imperative for any organization to have a culture of equality and a supportive workplace

environment that helps everyone — regardless of gender — advance to higher positions. This
culture is a powerful multiplier of innovation and growth. Having a culture of equality (measured
by the 40 specific workplace factors Accenture research identified last year) means not just doing
it as an ethical imperative — it’s an important business priority.

Debunking myths about women in the security sector

International Women’s Day, celebrated each year on 8 March, has become a moment to draw
attention to inequality, and call for action and change. The security sector is one of those areas
which, stagnant with persistent challenges and institutional hurdles, is ripe for transformation
towards greater gender equality.

In my opinion, the challenges to women in the security sector are often overlooked and their
lived experiences have been disregarded. From my experience working in Mongolia’s national
security sector, as one of the rare female leaders, I have some insights on the grounds and
context of these misconceptions.

Paradox of gender in the security sector

The security sector is traditionally male-dominated. It is characterised by deeply rooted cultural

norms, where masculinities are the defining paradigm of the sector. It is a sector where violence
and confrontation have been glorified. Because of this distinctive culture, women
encounter multiple barriers. They are often subjected to various forms of harassment, and are
excluded from management or operational responsibilities. Assignments often reflect traditional
gender roles, where women are expected to be the supporters or carers. These systemic barriers
seem so impenetrable that women often decide to leave security forces or don’t advance through
the ranks as do their male peers.

At the same time, hardly anyone will contest the importance of gender equality in the sector and
nearly all are ready to emphasise the benefits of having both male and female perspectives in
security.

However, this remains superficial, and there is yet to be the systematic transformation necessary
for fostering a more level playing field between men and women in security.
Furthermore, efforts by both transnational and national actors are often misguided, led to some
extent by misconceptions of gender and what women’s participation in the security sector should
look like. This approach inadvertently usually supports existing structures and practices, rather
than providing a fundamental critique of the existing frameworks.

Gender equality is more than numbers

The first predominant misconception is that gender equality and gender mainstreaming is all
about simply adding more women. This approach has become prevalent in many countries
including my own—Mongolia—where attempts to close the gender gap have narrowly focused
on numbers. Increasing the number of women in the security sector is important. However, an
increase in the number of female forces does not necessarily mean the increased numbers will
reflect gender equality in the sector.

Mere tokenism perpetuates stereotypical gender roles of women’s “soft roles,” where they are
placed in mostly administrative or low-ranking assignments which reinforce gendered roles of
women as the caregivers in security. Here, women’s roles are seen as fitting “soft” security
matters such as helping female victims. This notion is particularly potent in peacekeeping
operations in the case of Mongolia. Recruited explicitly for this role, women are evaluated
according to their “helpfulness”.

This misconception not only reinforces the  “add women and stir” approach but also distracts
from pursuing structural and ideological change.

Genuine gender mainstreaming goes beyond numbers, and entails integrating a gendered
perspective into security sector policies and practices to transform structural barriers,
institutional norms and attitudes.

From changing people to changing practices

A lot of gender awareness efforts in the security sector manifest as some sort of gender training,
targeting male leaders or exclusively female forces. These are seen as an attempt to “fix” or even
“feminise” men, rather than encouraging them to collaborate as allies. Beyond training and
transforming people, the security sector needs to transform the procedures and practices to create
an equal playing field for everyone.

The security sector has also failed to recognise the gendered structures of its own organisations.
This “gender blindness” often ends up doing more harm than good.

The European Institute for Gender Equality emphasised that gender-blind programmes, policies
and attitudes lead to maintaining the status quo and will not help transform the unequal structure
of gender relations.
Gender blindness is particularly harmful in security, where there is a lack of awareness of the
working conditions women encounter while on the job. Difficulties are downplayed, and seen
not systemically, but as isolated problems of individual women. The burden of bearing and
resolving issues is transferred from the institution to the woman herself.

Moving beyond  

There are many ways to overcome these shortcomings and shift these myths about gender
equality. We need to re-think the gender awareness and mainstreaming approaches in the
security sector context and bring deep change to disrupt the drivers of gender inequality, deeply-
rooted gender stereotypes, and cultural norms.

Furthermore, we need to demonstrate how bringing women to the table as equals brings about
different, and perhaps better results than the engrained power structures that reenforce militarised
masculinity and glorify violence.

A one-day conference in which we want to give guidance on how to deal with gender-
stereotyped behaviour among young people online. It will target a wide range of professionals
who come into contact with young people in one way or another (social workers, teachers,
NGOs, etc.) and it will lead to concrete recommendations to (Belgian and European) politicians
and policymakers.

Child Focus is the Belgian helpline for a safer internet. And we notice in our figures, but also
those of others, that gender-stereotyped behaviour still has an enormous impact on online
communication between young people. Think of ‘slut-shaming’ and macho behaviour of boys…
Meanwhile, we see that boys are also sometimes victims of stereotyped behaviour, but are less
likely to seek help or talk about their feelings… While most professionals will recognize these
issues, they often do not know how to react. This conference will respond to this need, offering
concrete tools to work effectively on the topic.

When it comes to women in trades, myths run rampant. However, these myths simply aren’t true
and should not discourage women from pursuing a rewarding trade career. Through our Girl
Power initiative, Pennco Tech proudly stands behind women who decide on entering
traditionally male-dominated trades. Here, we dispel some common myths pertaining to women
working in the trades.
9. SEX AND GENDER: HOW THEY DIFFER

Different terms are regularly used in theories of sexuality and gender, for example sex, gender,
gender identity, gender expressions, gender roles, sexual orientation. It is important to be clear
about the meanings of such terms.

Sex refers to “the different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females,
such as reproductive organs, chromosomes, hormones, etc.”
Gender refers to "the socially constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms,
roles and relationships of and between groups of women and men. 

“Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female or
male. These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive, as there are individuals
who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as females or males.”
“Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being female and male
and to the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as to the relations
between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are
socially constructed and are learned through socialisation processes. They are context- and time-
specific, and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman
or a man in a given context. In most societies, there are differences and inequalities between
women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over
resources, as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of the broader sociocultural
context. Other important criteria for sociocultural analysis include class, race, poverty level,
ethnic group and age.”

“Sex” refers to the physical differences between people who are male, female, or intersex. A
person typically has their sex assigned at birth based on physiological characteristics, including
their genitalia and chromosome composition. This assigned sex is called a person’s “natal sex.”

Gender, on the other hand, involves how a person identifies. Unlike natal sex, gender is not made
up of binary forms. Instead, gender is a broad spectrum. A person may identify at any point
within this spectrum or outside of it entirely.

People may identify with genders that are different from their natal sex or with none at all. These
identities may include transgender, nonbinary, or gender-neutral. There are many other ways in
which a person may define their own gender.

Gender also exists as social constructs — as gender “roles” or “norms.” These

are definedTrusted Source as the socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that a
society considers appropriate for men and women.
Sex assignment typically happens at birth based on anatomical and physiological markers.

Male and female genitalia, both internal and external, are different, and male and female bodies
have distinct hormonal and chromosomal makeups. Doctors use these factors to assign natal sex.

At birth, female-assigned people have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, and while

assigned males have higher levels of testosterone. Assigned females typically have two copies of
the X chromosome, and assigned males have one X and one Y chromosome.

Society often sees maleness and femaleness as a biological binary. However, there are issues
with this distinction. For instance, the chromosomal markers are not always clear-cut. Some male
babies are born with two or three X chromosomes, just as some female babies are born with a Y
chromosome.

This type of difference was once called a “disorder of sex development,” but this term is
problematic. In a 2015 surveyTrusted Source, most respondents perceived the term negatively. A
further review found that many people do not use it at all, and instead use “intersex.”

Being intersex can mean different things. For example, a person might have genitals or internal
sex organs that fall outside of typical binary categories. Or, a person might have a different
combination of chromosomes. Some people do not know that they are intersex until they reach
puberty.

Biologists have started to discussTrusted Source the idea that sex may be a spectrum. This is not
a new concept but one that has taken time to come into the public consciousness. For example,
the idea of sex as a spectrum was discussed in a 1993 article published by the New York
Academy of Sciences.

Gender

In the United States, gender has historically been defined as a binary. Many other cultures
have long recognizedTrusted Source third genders or do not recognize a binary that matches the
American understanding.

In any case, the idea of gender as an either/or issue is incorrect.

Someone who identifies with the gender that they were assigned at birth is called “cisgender.”

Someone who is not cisgender and does not identify within the gender binary — of man or
woman, boy or girl — may identify as nonbinary, genderfluid, or genderqueer, among other
identities.

A person whose gender identity is different from their natal sex might identify as transgender.
A 2016 review confirms that gender exists on a broad spectrum — in contrast to the genetic
definitions of sex. A person may fully or partially identify with existing gender roles. They may
not identify with any gender roles at all. People who do not identify with existing gender binaries
may identify as nonbinary. This umbrella term covers a range of identities, including
genderfluid, bigender, and gender-neutral.

Gender and society

Gender is also a social construct. As the World Health Organization (WHO)Trusted

Source explains: “Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men,
such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from
society to society and can be changed.”

Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than in others. However, these are not always set in
stone, and roles and stereotypes can shift over time. A 2018 meta-analysis of public opinion polls
about gender stereotypes in the U.S. reflects this shift.

Gender and health

There are complex relationship between gender and both physical and mental health.

Health systems are not gender-neutral.

A WHO reportTrusted Source highlights the ways that gender stereotypes and stigmas influence
a person’s healthcare experience. Gender stereotypes can affect health coverage, pathways of
care, and accountability and inclusivity within health systems throughout the world.

A person may identify and express their gender in different ways.

Gender identity is how a person feels internally, while their expression is how they present
themselves to the outside world. For example, a person may identify as nonbinary but present as
a man to the outside world.

GLAAD, formerly called the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation, describes gender
identity as “one’s internal, personal sense” of belonging at some point on or off of the gender
spectrum. The organization adds:

“Most people have a gender identity of man or woman (or boy or girl). For some people, their
gender identity does not fit neatly into one of those two choices.”

GLAAD describes gender expression as: “External manifestations of gender, expressed through
one’s name, pronouns, clothing, haircut, behavior, voice, or body characteristics. Society
identifies these cues as masculine and feminine, although what is considered masculine and
feminine changes over time and varies by culture.”
10. GENDER SOCIALIZATION

Gender socialization is the process by which individuals are taught how to socially behave in
accordance with their assigned gender, which is assigned at birth based on their sex phenotype.

a. Gender Roles

Gender roles are the behaviors men and women exhibit in the private and public realm. They are
the sociocultural expectations that apply to individuals on the basis of their assignment to a sex
category (male or female). Usually an individual's sex is determined by how their genitalia look
at birth.

b. Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotyping

A gender stereotype is a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or

the roles that are or ought to be possessed by, or performed by, women and men. A gender
stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal
abilities, pursue their professional careers and/or make choices about their lives.

c. Gender Identity

Gender identity refers to a person’s understanding and experience of their own gender. Everyone
has a gender identity; for some people, it corresponds with the gender assigned at birth, and for
some others, it does not. Gender identities are expansive and do not need to be confined within
one collectively agreed-upon term. There is no one authority that dictates the boundaries of
gender, except the individual concerned.

Gender socialization is the process by which we learn our culture's gender-related rules, norms,
and expectations. The most common agents of gender socialization—in other words, the people
who influence the process—are parents, teachers, schools, and the media. Through gender
socialization, children begin to develop their own beliefs about gender and ultimately form their
own gender identity.

Sex vs. Genderv

The terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably. However, in a discussion of gender
socialization, it’s important to distinguish between the two.
Sex is biologically and physiologically determined based on an individual's anatomy at birth. It is
typically binary, meaning that one's sex is either male or female.

Gender is a social construct. An individual's gender is their social identity resulting from their
culture's conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Gender exists on a continuum.

Individuals develop their own gender identity, influenced in part by the process of gender
socialization.

Gender Socialization in Childhood

The process of gender socialization begins early in life. Children develop an understanding of

gender categories at a young age. Studies have shown that children can discern male voices from
female voices at six months old, and can differentiate between men and women in photographs at
nine months old. Between 11 and 14 months, children develop the ability to associate sight and
sound, matching male and female voices with photographs of men and women. By age
three, children have formed their own gender identity. They have also begun to learn their
culture’s gender norms, including which toys, activities, behaviors, and attitudes are associated
with each gender.

Because gender categorization is a significant part of a child's social development, children tend
to be especially attentive to same-gender models. When a child observes same-gender models
consistently exhibit specific behaviors that differ from the behaviors of other-gender models, the
child is more likely to exhibit the behaviors learned from the same-gender models. These models
include parents, peers, teachers, and figures in the media.

Children’s knowledge of gender roles and stereotypes can impact their attitudes towards their
own and other genders. Young children, in particular, may become especially rigid about what
boys and girls "can" and "cannot" do. This either-or thinking about gender reaches its peak
between the ages of 5 and 7 and then becomes more flexible.

Agents of Gender Socialization

As children, we develop gender-related beliefs and expectations through our observations of and
interactions with the people around us. An "agent" of gender socialization is any person or group
that plays a role in the childhood gender socialization process. The four primary agents of gender
socialization are parents, teachers, peers, and the media.

Parents

Parents are typically a child’s first source of information about gender. Starting at birth, parents
communicate different expectations to their children depending on their sex. For example, a son
may engage in more roughhousing with his father, while a mother takes her daughter shopping.
The child may learn from their parents that certain activities or toys correspond with a particular
gender (think of a family that gives their son a truck and their daughter a doll). Even parents who
emphasize gender equality may inadvertently reinforce some stereotypes due to their own gender
socialization.

Teachers

Teachers and school administrators model gender roles and sometimes demonstrate gender
stereotypes by responding to male and female students in different ways. For example,
separating students by gender for activities or disciplining students differently depending on their
gender may reinforce children’s developing beliefs and assumptions.

Peers

Peer interactions also contribute to gender socialization. Children tend to play with same-gender
peers. Through these interactions, they learn what their peers expect of them as boys or girls.
These lessons may be direct, such as when a peer tells the child that a certain behavior is or is not
"appropriate" for their gender. They can also be indirect, as the child observes same- and other-
gendered peers' behavior over time. These comments and comparisons may become less overt
over time, but adults continue to turn to same-gendered peers for information about how they are
supposed to look and act as a man or a woman. 

Media

Media, including movies, TV, and books, teaches children about what it means to be a boy or a
girl. Media conveys information about the role of gender in people’s lives and can reinforce
gender stereotypes. For example, consider an animated film that depicts two female characters: a
beautiful but passive heroine, and an ugly but active villain. This media model, and countless
others, reinforces ideas about which behaviors are acceptable and valued (and which are not) for
a particular gender.

Gender Socialization Throughout Life

Gender socialization is a lifelong process. The beliefs about gender that we acquire in childhood
can affect us throughout our lives. The impact of this socialization can be big (shaping what we
believe we are capable of accomplishing and thus potentially determining our life's course),
small (influencing the color we choose for our bedroom walls), or somewhere in the middle.

As adults, our beliefs about gender may grow more nuanced and flexible, but gender
socialization can still affect our behavior, whether in school, the workplace, or our relationships.

Society expects different attitudes and behaviors from boys and girls. Gender Socialization is the
tendency for boys and girls to be socialized differently. Boys are raised to conform to the male
gender role, and girls are raised to conform to the female gender or role. A Gender Role is a set
of behaviors, attitudes, and personality characteristics expected and encouraged of a person
based on his or her sex.

Influence of Biology

Experts disagree on whether differences between males and females result from innate,
biological differences or from differences in the ways that boys and girls are socialized. In other
words, experts disagree on whether differences between men and women are due to nature,
nurture, or some combination of both.

Influence of Family

Every culture has different guidelines about what is appropriate for males and females, and
family members may socialize babies in gendered ways without consciously following that path.
For example, in American society, the color pink is associated with girls and the color blue with
boys. Even as tiny babies, boys and girls are dressed differently, according to what is considered
“appropriate” for their respective sexes. Even parents who strive to achieve a less “gendered”
parenting style unconsciously reinforce gender roles.

Influence in Education

As children enter the educational system, traditional expectations for boys and girls continue. In
the past, much research focused on how teachers were shortchanging girls in the classroom.
Teachers would focus on boys, calling on them more and challenging them. Because boys were
believed to be more analytical, teachers assumed they would excel in math and science. Teachers
encouraged them to go into careers that require a lot of math and science, such as computer
science or engineering.

Research from the late 1990s, however, indicates that the current educational climate is failing
boys. Boys are falling behind girls in school. The dropout rate for boys is rising. More boys are
being diagnosed as learning disabled. The number of boys applying to college has declined.
Some sociologists argue that current teaching methods favor girls’ learning styles. Girls mature
more quickly than boys and are able to focus and concentrate in class more easily.

Aging, Appearance, and Women’s Socialization

Reflecting differing gender socialization, appearance is more important for women than for men
irrespective of age, and looks are an important marker of a woman’s social value. Whereas men
are socialized to focus more on social and physical accomplishments than on their outer facade,
women learn from an early age to be especially concerned with their appearances and the
achievement of idealized beauty. Thus, women are taught to use makeup, to attend to fashion,
hair care, and bodily adornment as well as to watch their weight so as to be considered as
attractive as possible. This process of socialization occurs through women’s interactions with
peers and significant others, particularly their mothers and other female role models. Advertising
and television combined with the influence of the multibillion dollar fashion and cosmetic
industries further entrench the message that how women look is of utmost consequence for their
societal acceptance and accomplishments in various realms of their lives.

Extreme examples of this emphasis on a woman’s appearance can be found in some countries
such as the United States where beauty pageants exist for female toddlers through to young and
middle-aged women, and for which there are no male equivalents. While not all women compete
in beauty pageants or equally embrace cultural ideals of feminine beauty, the research reveals
that women’s appearances are important to their success in obtaining everything from friends, to
romantic partners, to workplace promotions. Additionally, a woman’s sense of identity and self-
esteem are more closely linked to her feelings about and perceptions of her appearance as
compared to men. Therefore, the loss of culturally valued and defined beauty as a result of
physical aging has body image, identity, self-esteem, and social standing consequences for older
women.

11. GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Gender development takes on new meaning in adolescence as girls and boys experience physical,
cognitive, and social changes to prepare them for their adult roles as women and men. This
article reviews prominent explanations of adolescent gender-role development, including the
effects of sex hormones and the brain, and evolutionary, cognitive, gender schema, social-
cognitive, social structural, and gender intensification theories of development. The article also
considers how families, peers, schools, the larger community, and the mass media socialize
adolescents into gender roles.
Philippine Commission on Women defined Gender and Development as the development
perspective and process that is participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from
violence, respectful of human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human
potentials.

 Gender and Development was developed in the 1980’s as an alternative to the Women in
Development (WID) approach.

        Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the
way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities, and expectations to both men and women.

        GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which men and women work together,
presenting results in neutral terms of economics and competence.

       GAD focus primarily on two major frameworks, Gender Roles and Social Relations
Analysis. Gender role focus on social construction of identities within the household, it also
reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’ in their relative access to resources.
Social relations analysis exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations imbedded
in social institutions; also it’s determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women
in society. In an attempt to create gender equality, (denoting women having same opportunities
as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere) GAD policies aim to redefine
traditional gender role expectations.

Gender and Development in Philippines

       Philippine Plan for Gender and Development, 1995-2025, is a National Plan that addresses,
provides and pursues full equality and development for men and women. Approved and adopted
by former President Fidel V. Ramos as Executive No. 273, on September 8, 1995, it is the
successor of the Philippine Development Plan for Women, 1989-1992 adopted by Executive No. 
348 of February 17, 1989.

       Three years after, DENR Administrative Order No. 98 – 15 dated May 27, 1998 came up as
the Revised Guidelines on the Implementation of Gender and Development (GAD) Activities in
the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in order to strengthen the DENR
GAD Focal Point System and accomplishing the GAD vision “Partnership of Empowered Men
and Women for Sustainable Development”.

        Republic Act No. 9710, otherwise known as the Magna Carta of Women was approved on
August 14, 2009 which mandates non-discriminatory and pro-gender equality and equity
measures to enable women’s participation in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of
policies and plan for national, regional and local development.

        A Memorandum Circular No. 2011 – 01 dated October 21, 2011 was released addressing to
all Government Departments including their attached agencies, offices, bureaus, State
Universalities and Colleges (SUCs), Government-Owned and Controlled Corporations (GOCCs)
and all other government instrumentalities as their guidelines and procedures for the
establishment, strengthening and institutionalization of the GAD Focal Point System (GFPS).

Society Before the Gender And Development…

      Gender stereotypes are generalizations about the roles of each gender. Gender roles are
generally neither positive nor negative, they are simply inaccurate generalizations of the male
and female attributes. Since each person has individual desires, thoughts, and feelings, regardless
of their gender, these stereotypes are incredibly simplistic and do not at all describe the attributes
of every person of each gender.

A comprehensive theory of gender development must describe and explain long-term

developmental patterning and changes and how gender is experienced in the short term. This
review considers multiple views on gender patterning, illustrated with contemporary research.
First, because developmental research involves understanding normative patterns of change with
age, several theoretically important topics illustrate gender development: how children come to
recognize gender distinctions and understand stereotypes, and the emergence of prejudice and
sexism. Second, developmental researchers study the stability of individual differences over
time, which elucidates developmental processes. We review stability in two domains—sex
segregation and activities/interests. Finally, a new approach advances understanding of
developmental patterns, based on dynamic systems theory. Dynamic systems theory is a
metatheoretical framework for studying stability and change, which developed from the study of
complex and nonlinear systems in physics and mathematics. Some major features and examples
show how dynamic approaches have been and could be applied in studying gender development.

Understanding the changes that correspond with the passage of time is a hallmark of
developmental studies, including the study of gender development. Gender developmental
scientists are concerned with age-related changes in gender typing, and more broadly, with many
issues about the emergence and patterning of gendered behaviors and thinking. Description of
these changes is vitally important as it informs theoretical approaches to gender development.
Using a broad lens on age-related changes provides important information describing how
development occurs, but shorter time frames are also useful for identifying processes that may
underlie developmental patterns. Gender developmental scientists are beginning to conceptualize
temporal change and measurement of relevant variables over time in more nuanced ways and
with new methods and analytic strategies.

Our goal in this article is not to provide an extensive review of changes in gender over
childhood, but instead to focus on the perspective of developmental patterning. In selecting
issues to review, we attempted to find a set of issues that would provide insights into processes
underlying gender development while also being representative of contemporary issues and
future directions in the field. First, to highlight developmentalists' interest in average or
normative changes across age, we review the timeline of gender development for the emergence
of gender understanding and stereotyping and how discrimination and prejudice develop in
childhood. Second, we examine continuities within individuals over time as an important
theoretical complement to the first focus on mean-level, normative patterns over time.
Longitudinal studies are reviewed to examine whether individual differences are stable over time
in two areas of gender typing: sex segregation and activities and interests. Finally, we discuss
how dynamic systems theory may be applied in gender development and describe its potential
for understanding patterns over different time frames.

Gender and development

Gender equality is considered a critical element in achieving Decent Work for All Women and
Men, in order to effect social and institutional change that leads to sustainable development with
equity and growth. Gender equality refers to equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities that
all persons should enjoy, regardless of whether one is born male or female.

In the context of the world of work, equality between women and men includes the following
elements:

Equality of opportunity and treatment in employment

Equal remuneration for work of equal value

Equal access to safe and healthy working environments and to social security

Equality in association and collective bargaining

Equality in obtaining meaningful career development

A balance between work and home life that is fair to both women and men

Equal participation in decision-making at all levels

Given that women are usually in a disadvantaged position in the workplace compared to men,
promotion of gender equality implies explicit attention to women’s needs and perspectives. At
the same time, there are also significant negative effects of unequal power relations and
expectations on men and boys due to stereotyping about what it means to be a male. Instead,
both women and men, and boys and girls, should be free to develop their abilities and make
choices – without limitations set by rigid gender roles and prejudices – based on personal
interests and capacities. The ILO has adopted an integrated approach to gender equality and
decent work. This means working to enhance equal employment opportunities through measures
that also aim to improve women’s access to education, skills training and healthcare – while
taking women’s role in the care economy adequately into account. Examples of these include
implementing measures to help workers balance work and family responsibilities, and providing
workplace incentives for the provision of childcare and parental leave.

Gender identity is defined as a personal conception of oneself as male or female (or rarely, both
or neither). This concept is intimately related to the concept of gender role, which is defined as
the outward manifestations of personality that reflect the gender identity. Gender identity, in
nearly all instances, is self-identified, as a result of a combination of inherent and extrinsic or
environmental factors; gender role, on the other hand, is manifested within society by observable
factors such as behavior and appearance. For example, if a person considers himself a male and
is most comfortable referring to his personal gender in masculine terms, then his gender identity
is male. However, his gender role is male only if he demonstrates typically male characteristics
in behavior, dress, and/or mannerisms.

Thus, gender role is often an outward expression of gender identity, but not necessarily so. In
most individuals, gender identity and gender role are congruous

Gender Identity Development in Children

By: Jason Rafferty MD, MPH, EdM, FAAP

There are many ways parents can promote healthy gender development in children. It helps to
understand gender identity and how it forms.

What's the difference between gender and sex?

Being a boy or a girl, for most children, is something that feels very natural. At birth, babies are
assigned male or female based on physical characteristics. This refers to the "sex" or "assigned
gender" of the child. Meanwhile, "gender identity" refers to an internal sense people have of who
they are that comes from an interaction of biological traits, developmental influences, and
environmental conditions. This may be male, female, somewhere in between, a combination of
both or neither.

Self-recognition of gender identity develops over time, much the same way a child's physical
body does. Most children's asserted gender identity aligns with their assigned gender (sex).
However, for some children, the match between their assigned gender and gender identity is not
so clear.

Gender identity typically develops in stages:

Around age two: Children become conscious of the physical differences between boys and girls.

Before their third birthday: Most children can easily label themselves as either a boy or a girl.
By age four: Most children have a stable sense of their gender identity.

During this same time of life, children learn gender role behavior—that is, doing "things that
boys do" or "things that girls do." However, cross-gender preferences and play are a normal part
of gender development and exploration regardless of their future gender identity. See The Power
of Play - How Fun and Games Help Children Thrive.

The point is that all children tend to develop a clearer view of themselves and their gender over
time. At any point, research suggests that children who assert a gender-diverse identity know
their gender as clearly and consistently as their developmentally matched peers and benefit from
the same level of support, love, and social acceptance.

12. THEORIES ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Given the ubiquitous influence of gender in a person's life, a number of theories have been
developed to explain gender development. These theories can be generally divided into three
families: biological, socialization, and cognitive.

Below we describe five different theories of gender development.

Psychodynamic. Psychodynamic theory has its roots in the work of Viennese Psychoanalyst,
Sigmund Freud. 

Symbolic Interactionism. Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead) is based specifically

on communication.

Social Learning. Social Learning theory is based on outward motivational factors that argue that
if children receive positive reinforcement they are motivated to continue a particular behavior.

Cognitive Learning. Unlike Social Learning theory that is based on external rewards and
punishments, Cognitive Learning theory states that children develop gender at their own levels.

Standpoint. Earlier we wrote about the important role of culture in understanding gender.
Standpoint theory places culture at the nexus for understanding gender development. 

a. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory suggests that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the
behavior of others. Psychologist Albert Bandura developed the social learning theoryExternal
link:open_in_new as an alternative to the earlier work of fellow psychologist B.F. Skinner,
known for his influence on behaviorism. Social work theories can be taken from many
disciplines such as criminology, law, education, politics, sociology and psychology. Individually,
each discipline attempts to explain human behavior within its field of study. However, to ensure
that you, as a social worker, are able to explain a particular behavior it is important you find the
appropriate theory, or a combination thereof, regardless of the original discipline. One theory
that may prove helpful for some of your clients is the social learning theory.

b. Cognitive Development Theory

Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities and environmental
events, and children pass through a series of stages, suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. 

c. Gender Identity

Gender identity refers to a person’s understanding and experience of their own gender. Everyone
has a gender identity; for some people, it corresponds with the gender assigned at birth, and for
some others, it does not. Gender identities are expansive and do not need to be confined within
one collectively agreed-upon term. There is no one authority that dictates the boundaries of
gender, except the individual concerned.

Central to a cognitive perspective is the idea that individuals are active information processors,
not passive recipients of environmental input. Cognitive theorists emphasize this type of active,
top-down processing, meaning that prior expectations and cognitions play an important role in
how incoming information is organized and handled. According to a cognitive view, the world of
information that is available to a perceiver is not constrained by the stimuli available to the
senses but rather by the abilities to process and deal with information from that world. The ways
in which people process information can make order from disorder and sense from nonsense.
The same processes, however, also can lead to losses of information and to distortions in
memory. For this reason, cognitive theorists often gain insights into the nature of information
processing by assessing misperceptions, inaccurate memories, use of heuristics, and selective
attention and memory, because in those instances there may be incongruence between the
environmental input and one's concepts.

“Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of
reducing poverty, promoting sustainable development and building good governance” – Kofi
Annan (former Secretary-General of the United Nations)

Gender is not the same as sexuality. Sexuality refers to the biological characteristics of men and
women. In contrast, gender refers to socially defined roles and behaviours for men and women.
When we expect men and women to act in a certain way, just because they are male and female,
then we follow gender norms. Different cultures can have different gender norms or different
ways they expect men and women to behave. For example, some cultures expect women to stay
at home and do household chores, while men should go out to work. These norms are also called
gender roles, which are specific roles men and women are expected to perform within society or
even within the family.

Gender stereotypes refer to clichés which a man or woman is supposed to do or be like:

Women are nurses, not doctors

People can also identify with different genders. Some people might be biologically born a man
(=sex, biological), but feel more like a woman (=gender). People from all religions, countries,
communities, families can identify themselves in a lot of different ways:

Cisgender: People who identify themselves as the sex they were born with

Transgender: People who identify themselves with a gender other than the sex they were born
with

Transsexual: People identify themselves with a gender other than the sex they were born with
and have undergone a sex change (transsexual should not be mistaken with transvestite, a person
who sometimes wears clothes traditionally worn by and associated with the other sex).

Gender equality is a basic human right and described as; “all human beings are born equal”. It
means that everyone, whether born as male, female or intersex, should be able to develop their
full potential and live in freedom and dignity. Examples of gender equality are;

Equal access to education

Equal access to mobility

Equal job opportunities and salaries

Freedom of marrying who you want

Equal divorce rights

Gender Development, Theories of

Cindy Faith Miller, Arizona State University

Email: cindy.f.miller@asu.edu

Word Count: 3041

Gender is one of the most salient and influential aspects of a person’s identity. Gender
influences a person’s appearance, interests, activities, friendships, interpersonal styles, romantic

relationships, and career decisions. Given the ubiquitous influence of gender in a person’s life, a

number of theories have been developed to explain gender development and differentiation.

These theories can be generally divided into three families: biological, social, and cognitive.

Although other approaches exist, this entry will highlight the most influential theories within

these domains.

According to biological approaches, psychological and behavioral gender differences are

due to the biological differences between males and females. Within this family of approaches,

researchers have focused on historical explanations, such as evolutionary processes, and

proximal explanations, such as genes and sex hormones. Evolutionary theorists, such as David

Buss and David Geary, emphasize that the survival of the human species is dependent on

successful reproduction; genes responsible for the strategies that lead to successful reproduction

are more likely to be passed on to our descendants than the strategies that do not lead to

reproductive success. This evolutionary process is believed to lead to psychological gender

differences because the behaviors needed for successful reproduction require gender differences

(Geary 1998; Buss 2000). Women have the physical responsibility of gestating and nourishing

their offspring and, therefore, are only able to have a limited number of children. Given that

women want their limited number of offspring to have high-level genes and to eventually

reproduce, they look for mates who are likely to be good long-term providers. This leads women

to be particular about the characteristics that they look for in a mate. On the other hand, males

are faced with the uncertainty of parenthood since they can never be sure that they are the

biological father of their children. Evolutionary theorists believe that this leads males to be less

choosey in their mates and to prefer to have multiple sexual partners with women who are young

and attractive so they have a greater chance of reproducing. Males are also viewed as more

aggressive than females because they are required to compete with other males for females who
are choosey in selecting their male partners.

13. GENDER EQUALITY AND ISSUES

Equal power and opportunities for men and women . Gender equality, besides being a
fundamental human right, is essential to achieve peaceful societies, with full human potential and
sustainable development. Moreover, it has been shown that empowering women spurs
productivity and economic growth.

Gender Discrimination: Inequality Starts in Childhood

What is gender discrimination?

Gender discrimination is any unequal treatment, including privilege and priority, on the basis of
gender.

What is gender inequality?

Gender inequality is discrimination on the basis of sex or gender causing one sex or gender to be
routinely privileged or prioritized over another.

Gender equality is a fundamental human right and that right is violated by gender based
discrimination. Gender disparity starts in childhood and are right now limiting the lifelong
potential of children around the world – disproportionately affecting girls.

At Save the Children, we put gender equality at the heart of everything we do. Our vision is a
world in which all people – girls, boys, women and men – have equal rights, responsibilities and
opportunities, regardless of gender norms, identities or expressions. A world where everyone is
equally recognized, respected and valued.

Is gender discrimination against the law?

Gender discrimination is prohibited under almost every human rights treaty. This includes
international laws providing for equal gender rights between men and women, as well as those
specifically dedicated to the realization of women’s rights, such as the Convention on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against Women[2] – considered the international bill of rights for
women.

Federal, state and local laws protect individuals from gender discrimination and gender
inequality in the United States. Additionally, it is recognized in both law and policy that
promoting gender equality is critical to achieving foreign policy objectives for a more prosperous
and peaceful world.

What are the causes of gender inequality?

Gender prejudice and resulting gender discrimination begin in childhood. From the moment
they’re born, girls and boys face unequal gender norms regarding expectations and access to
resources and opportunities, with lifelong consequences – in their homes, schools and
communities.

For example, the world’s boys are often encouraged to go to school and get an education to
prepare for work, while girls carry heavy household responsibilities that keep them from school,
increasing the odds of child marriage and pregnancy.

What are the effects of gender inequality?

Despite worldwide progress, gender inequality persists. The COVID-19 pandemic has threatened
to put years of hard-won progress at risk. Far too many girls, especially those from the poorest
families, still face gender discrimination in education, child marriage and pregnancy, sexual
violence and unrecognized domestic work. These are some types of gender inequality. 

Gender Inequality Examples:

Gender inequality in girls education. Even before the pandemic, girls were more likely than boys
to never set foot in a classroom. Conflict, poverty and other forms of social disadvantage also
magnify gender inequality in education. Girls living in countries affected by conflict, for
example, are 2.5 times more likely to be out of school than boys. Some 9.7 million children were
at risk of being forced out of school by the end of 2020, with girls facing an increased risk.

Child marriage. Child marriage is a form of gender-based violence and a result and driver of
gender inequality and gender discrimination. Experts predict that the COVID-19 pandemic is set
to reverse 25 years of progress, which saw child marriage rates decline. In fact, Save the
Children analysis revealed a further 2.5 million girls at risk of marriage by 2025 because of
the pandemic—the greatest surge in child marriage rates in nearly three decades.

Gender-based violence. Gender-based violence occurs everywhere around the world across all
economic and social groups. While both boys and girls are negatively impacted, girls are
particularly at risk. An estimated 1 in 3 women globally have experienced physical or sexual
violence in their lifetime, mostly at the hands of their partners. Types of violence may include:
prenatal sex selection, female infanticide, neglect, female genital mutilation, rape, child
marriage, forced prostitution, honor killing and dowry killing. Many of these gross violations of
human rights have been used as weapons of war around the world. Refugee children are
particularly vulnerable.

Child labor. There are currently 152 million children engaged in child labor around the
world. [3] Child labor makes it difficult for children to attend school or limits their attendance,
putting them at risk of falling behind their peers. Boys and girls are affected differently by child
labor and parents’ decisions are often influenced by wider social norms about the different roles
that they should play in the home and in society. Girls are much more likely to shoulder the
responsibility for household chores while boys are more likely to engage in harmful work such
as construction. Girls are usually pulled out of school earlier than boys and are more likely to
face sexual exploitation and slavery.

What is the importance of gender equality?

Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a
peaceful, prosperous and sustainable future. Eradicating gender issues means a world where
women and men, girls and boys all enjoy equal rights, resources, opportunities and protections.

Empowering girls from the start is proven to have lasting and compounding benefits over the
course of their lives. When girls are supported to be active in civic and political spaces, in
particular, they are empowered with the tools and skills they need to be drivers of positive
change in their families and communities. Girls are the experts of their own experiences,
priorities and needs, and are powerful catalysts for a a world where gender equality flourishes.

Kapag ang mga batang babae ay binigyan ng kapangyarihan na pamunuan ang kanilang buhay,
magsalita ng kanilang mga isip at matukoy ang kanilang mga hinaharap, lahat ay makikinabang.
Iminumungkahi ng kasaysayan na kapag nilalabanan natin ang pang-aapi ng kasarian, ang mga
lipunan ay mas matatag, ligtas at maunlad, na may mas masaya, mas edukadong mga
mamamayan.

Ang pamumuhunan sa pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay maaaring magkaroon ng malalaking

benepisyo:

Bawat $1 na namuhunan sa kalusugan ng kababaihan at bata ay maaaring makabuo ng $20 na

kita – ayon sa Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health

How does Save the Children challenge gender discrimination and promote gender
equality?

Gender equality is a basic right for all people, including both girls and boys. Based on this
understanding, Save the Children believes that it is critical to directly address gender
discrimination and gender inequality in order to ensure that no harm comes to children, and to
advance our vision for a world where every child attains their equal right to grow up healthy,
educated and safe.
Ang pagtutok sa pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay mahalaga upang isara ang mga puwang sa
hindi pagkakapantay-pantay at matiyak na maabot natin ang bawat huling bata, kabilang ang
mga pinaka-mahina. Ang hindi pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian ay sumasalubong at
nagpapalala sa iba pang mga salik na nag-aambag sa kahinaan, kabilang ang edad, lahi, sosyo-
ekonomikong klase, pagkakakilanlan ng kasarian, heograpiya, katayuan sa kalusugan at
kakayahan.

Upang makabuo ng mas pantay, inklusibong kinabukasan, walang diskriminasyon sa kasarian,

kailangan nating magsimula sa pagkabata. Salamat sa mga sumusuportang tulad mo

Pagsusulong ng pagkakapantay-pantay ng kasarian na mga gawa! Mula noong 2000, tumulong

ang Save the Children na makamit ang 25% na pagbaba ng child marriage sa buong mundo, na
nagbigay ng kapangyarihan sa 11 milyong babae na manatili sa paaralan o lumipat sa trabaho, na
nagpapasya para sa kanilang sarili kung kailan sila handa na para sa kasal at pagiging ina.

Bilang karagdagan, ipinagmamalaki ng Save the Children na maging kauna-unahang nonprofit

na naging Gender Fair-certified para sa aming pangako sa pagsusulong ng pagkakapantay-pantay
ng kasarian at pagbibigay-kapangyarihan sa mga babae sa mundo.