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Geological Society of America Bulletin

An orphaned basement block: The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement of the central

Andean margin of South America
Staci L. Loewy, James N. Connelly and Ian W.D. Dalziel

Geological Society of America Bulletin 2004;116, no. 1-2;171-187

doi: 10.1130/B25226.1

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An orphaned basement block: The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement of

the central Andean margin of South America

Staci L. Loewy†
James N. Connelly
Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
Ian W.D. Dalziel
Department of Geological Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA and Institute for Geophysics,
The University of Texas at Austin, 4412 Spicewood Springs Road, Building 600, Austin, Texas 78759, USA

ABSTRACT
The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement, a
Proterozoic crustal block exposed along the
central Andean margin, provides a key to
interpreting the pre-Andean history of
South America. New U/Pb geochronology
and whole-rock Pb and Nd isotope geo-
chemistry from the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement refine the tectonic history and de-
lineate three distinct crustal domains that
decrease in age from north to south. The
northern domain of southern Peru and
western Bolivia contains juvenile Paleopro-
terozoic 2.02–1.79 Ga intrusions that were
metamorphosed at 1.82–1.79 Ga. The
Mesoproterozoic central domain in north-
ernmost Chile contains a significant Meso-
proterozoic juvenile component that incor-
porates Paleoproterozoic crust from the
northern domain. Rock units from both the
northern and central domains were meta-
morphosed between 1.20 and 0.94 Ga, with
coeval magmatism occurring only in the
central domain. The southern domain in
northern Chile and northwestern Argenti-
na comprises Ordovician rocks, derived
from a mix of juvenile material and older
crust. Similar Ordovician magmatism
(476–440 Ma) also occurred in the northern
and central domains followed by metamor-
phism at ca. 440 Ma.
Based on this refined geologic and tec-
tonic characterization of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement and comparison with
that of Amazonia, we conclude that: (1) the
isolated exposures of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement comprise a single basement block
†
E-mail: sloewy@mail.utexas.edu.
with multiple domains, (2) the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement was not derived from
Amazonia, and (3) the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement accreted onto Amazonia during
the 1.0 Ga Sunsás Orogeny.
Keywords: U/Pb, whole-rock lead, Sm/Nd,
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement, Amazonia,
isotopes, absolute age.
INTRODUCTION
The Paleoproterozoic to early Paleozoic
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement is situated
along the western margin of South America
between the Andean Cordillera and present-
day Peru–Chile trench (Fig. 1). The current
position and southward crustal growth of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (Dalmayrac et
al., 1977; Lehmann, 1978; Shackleton et al.,
1979; Damm et al., 1990; Wasteneys et al.,
1995; Wörner et al., 2000) are at odds with its
formation in a simple model of westward
growth (Tassinari et al., 2000) of the Amazon
craton. These basic observations have inspired
at least two models to explain its existence:
(1) the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement is al-
lochthonous with respect to Amazonia and
was accreted to the pre–Andean margin (Coira
et al., 1982; Nur and Ben-Avraham, 1982; Ra-
mos, 1988; Litherland et al., 1989; Dalziel,
1992, 1993; Ramos et al., 1993; Dalziel, 1994;
Bahlburg and Hervé, 1997), and (2) the Are-
quipa-Antofalla Basement is parautochthon-
ous with respect to Amazonia, emplaced along
transcurrent faults (Sadowski and Bettencourt,
1996; Tosdal, 1996). An improved under-
standing of the crustal growth, isotopic char-
acter, and tectonic history of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement will facilitate evaluation
of the relationship between the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement, Amazonia, and other
continents and, thus, provide constraints for
paleogeographic reconstructions.
This paper integrates new U/Pb geochro-
nologic and isotopic data from southern Peru
and northern Chile with the existing data to
refine the tectonic history and isotopic char-
acter of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement.
With these data, we address the following
questions: (1) Is the Arequipa-Antofalla Base-
ment a single crustal block?, (2) Is Amazonia
the parent craton?, and (3) If allochthonous,
when was the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
accreted to Amazonia?
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
Proterozoic and Early Paleozoic rocks of
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement are exposed
along the present-day Andean margin in at
least 10 known inliers in southern Peru, west-
ern Bolivia, northern Chile and northwestern
Argentina (Fig. 2). Additional pre–Andean in-
liers, apparently unrelated to the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement, occur in Colombia (the
Garzón, Santander, and Santa Marta massifs)
and Argentina (the Precordillera Terrane) (Fig.
1). The Colombian inliers are interpreted to be
the northwestern continuation of the Mesopro-
terozoic Sunsás Orogen of Amazonia (Alva-
rez, 1981; Kroonenberg, 1982; Alvarez, 1984;
Litherland et al., 1989; Priem et al., 1989;
Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). The Argentine
Precordillera Terrane is interpreted to have
originated in or near the Ouachita Embayment
of Laurentia and accreted to South America
during the Paleozoic (Abbruzzi et al., 1993;
Astini et al., 1995; Dalziel et al., 1996; Kay
et al., 1996). The Arequipa-Antofalla Base-

GSA Bulletin; January/February 2004; v. 116; no. 1/2; p. 171–187; DOI 10.1130/B25226.1; 10 figures; Data Repository item 2004028.

For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org

q 2004 Geological Society of America 171
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LOEWY et al.

According to previous work, the oldest

Figure 1. Map of South America with generalized age provinces. Age of province reflects
most recent metamorphic event to affect region. Poorly constrained extent of Rio de la
Plata Craton is shown as dashed line. Three Proterozoic basement blocks along Andean
margin are: (1) Arequipa-Antofalla Basement, (2) Precordillera Terrane, and (3) Colom-
bian inliers (Garzón (a), Santander (b), Santa Marta (c) massifs). Adapted from Cordani
et al. (2000) and Tassinari et al. (2000).
ment is similar to the Colombian and Argen-
tine inliers in areal extent, minimal exposure,
and proximity to the Andean Margin, but there
is less agreement regarding its origin and
evolution.
The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement is ex-
posed through Andean volcanic and sedimen-
tary rocks along the Arica Embayment (Fig.
1). Although the inliers contain dissimilar
rock types, previous workers cited a coherent
whole-rock Pb isotopic signature throughout
to define a single crustal block (Tilton and
Barreiro, 1980; Barreiro and Clark, 1984;
Wörner et al., 1992; Aitcheson et al., 1995;
Tosdal, 1996; Wörner et al., 2000). The rela-
tionship of the individual inliers to each other
and to Amazonia, the cratonic core of South
America, is obscured by the intrusion of youn-
ger rocks, deposition of overlying sequences,
and deformation of the Andean Orogeny.
Based on ages of the oldest rock units ex-
posed, the inliers of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement are divided into three domains (Fig.
2) that young from north to south. The north-
ernmost domain exists in southern Peru from
San Juan to Mollendo and east into western
Bolivia. The central domain extends from
the Peru-Chile border to Quebrada Choja in
northern-most Chile. The southern domain
is exposed as far south as northwestern
Argentina.
rocks in the northern domain formed at ca.
2.0–1.9 Ga (Wasteneys et al., 1995; Wörner
et al., 2000) but there has been a debate over
the timing of metamorphism of these rocks.
Rb/Sr and early U/Pb studies implied granulite
to amphibolite facies metamorphism between
1.9 and 1.8 Ga (Cobbing et al., 1977; Shack-
leton et al., 1979), but more recent U/Pb data
from gneisses at Quilca, Mollendo, and Cerro
Uyarani (Fig. 2) indicated high-grade meta-
morphism at ca. 1.2–1.0 Ga (Wasteneys et al.,
1995; Wörner et al., 2000). Alternatively, Dal-
mayrac et al. (1977) proposed that these rocks
experienced metamorphism during both the
Paleoproterozoic (1.9 Ga) and the Neoproter-
ozoic (0.7 Ga).
Ages of the oldest rocks in the central do-
main have been poorly constrained but appear
to be Mesoproterozoic. Metavolcanic rocks
exposed at Belén (Fig. 2) yielded an imprecise
whole-rock Sm/Nd isochron age of 1460 6
448 Ma (Damm et al., 1990). At Quebrada
Choja (Fig. 2), U/Pb zircon analyses from a
‘‘migmatite’’ and an ‘‘orthogneiss’’ suggested
crystallization ages of 1254 197/–94 Ma and
1213 128/–25 Ma, respectively (Damm et al.,
1990).
In the southern domain, maximum protolith
ages range from ca. 476 Ma to 434 Ma, coeval
with ca. 440 Ma metamorphism (Mpodozis et
al., 1983; Omarini et al., 1984; Damm et al.,
1990; Lork and Bahlburg, 1993). Two granites
at Cordón de Lila (Fig. 2) yielded U/Pb crys-
tallization ages of 450 112/–11 Ma and 434
6 2 Ma (Damm et al., 1990). Rb/Sr whole-
rock analyses and K/Ar analyses of horn-
blende and biotite from granodiorite at Cordón
de Lila yielded metamorphic ages of 441 6
14 Ma and 429 6 11 Ma, respectively (Mpo-
dozis et al., 1983). Intrusions in the Puna in-
lier (Fig. 2) were dated by U/Pb analyses of
monazite fractions at 476 6 1 Ma, 473 6 1
Ma, 472 6 1 Ma, and 467 6 1 Ma (Lork and
Bahlburg, 1993) and by Rb/Sr whole-rock
analyses at 471 6 12 Ma (Omarini et al.,
1984).
Paleozoic magmatism and metamorphism
have also been identified in the northern and
central domains. Intrusions in Peru yielded an
Rb/Sr whole-rock isochron age of 44067 Ma
(Shackleton et al., 1979) and a 444614 Ma
K-Ar age from Belén (Pacci et al., 1980) and
a lower intercept age of 415 136/–38 Ma
from Quebrada Choja (Damm et al., 1990)
were interpreted to represent the timing of
metamorphism. Younger magmatism has also
been identified in Peru, with data including,
U/Pb crystallization ages of 42564 Ma and
388 113/–18 Ma (Mukasa and Henry, 1990),

172 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004

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AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT

an Rb/Sr whole-rock isochron age of 3926 22

Ma (Shackleton et al., 1979) and K-Ar mineral
ages of 37466 Ma, 36566 Ma, and 33965
Ma from one intrusion (Cobbing et al., 1977).
These younger ages (425–339 Ma) may rep-
resent post-tectonic magmatism, but have also
been interpreted to reflect a separate event as-
sociated with the convergence of the Chilenia
Terrane (Fig. 1; Ramos et al., 1986; Dalziel,
1997).
In summary, there is a general younging
from north to the south in the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement, where protoliths range in
age from Paleoproterozoic in southern Peru
and western Bolivia through Mesoproterozoic
in northernmost Chile to Paleozoic in Chile
and northwestern Argentina. Geochronologic
data from the northern domain suggest that it
was probably metamorphosed during the Me-
soproterozoic, but it may have been metamor-
phosed earlier, during the Paleoproterozoic.
All domains experienced Ordovician/Silurian
metamorphism and/or magmatism.

Relationship to Amazonia

Previously published data and consequent

magmatic and metamorphic history of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement allow a prelim-
inary evaluation of the relationship between
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and Ama-
zonia. Southwest Amazonia comprises a series
of progressive age domains that young west-
wards away from an Archean core (Fig. 1;
Tassinari et al., 2000; Geraldes et al., 2001).
In contrast, the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
youngs southward, away from the Paleopro-
terozoic (ca. 2.0–1.9 Ga) basement of the
northern domain (Fig. 2). In its current posi-
tion, the age and southward growth of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement are incongruous
with westward growth of Amazonia, implying
that the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement is either
allochthonous or parautochthonous with re-
spect to Amazonia.
Allochthonous Models
Allochthonous models were based on 2.0–
1.9 Ga crust in the Arequipa-Antofalla Base-
ment, west of the ca. 1.3–1.0 Ga Sunsás Prov-
ince and active Andean tectonism (Fig. 1; Nur
and Ben-Avraham, 1982; Litherland et al.,
1989). According to Dalziel (1994), pervasive
1.2–1.0 Ga metamorphism in the northern and
central domains of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement supports accretion of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement to Amazonia during the
Sunsás Orogeny. Based on the presence of
Neoproterozoic to Cambrian (0.7–0.5 Ga) oro-
genic belts east of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Figure 2. Map of Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and adjacent crustal provinces. Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement is divided into three domains (northern, central, and southern). Solid
black regions are exposed inliers in Arequipa-Antofalla Basement. Overlapping patterns
in Arequipa-Antofalla Basement indicate multiple tectonic events. RNJ—Rio Negro–
Juruena Province. Adapted from Damm et al. (1990), Tosdal (1996), Pankhurst and Ra-
pela (1998), and Keppie and Bahlburg (1999).
Basement (the Pampean orogen and Tucavaca southwestern Amazonia and the Guyana
belt; Litherland et al., 1989), several authors Shield (northern Archean core of Amazonia).
have proposed early Cambrian accretion of the If correct, this model implies that the ages of
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement to Amazonia rocks and tectonic events in the Arequipa-
(Ramos, 1988; Ramos et al., 1993). Alterna- Antofalla Basement and Amazonia should
tively, Coira et al. (1982) cited pervasive Or- also be similar, an assertion correct to a first
dovician intrusions and deformation through- approximation. According to this model, em-
out the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement to placement as a parautochthonous block oc-
support Ordovician accretion. Based on paleo- curred at an unspecified time prior to the
magnetic data, an alternative model has the Paleozoic.
northern domain and northern half of the cen-
tral domain of the Arequipa-Antofalla Base- RESULTS—U/Pb GEOCHRONOLOGY
ment accreting to Amazonia in the Protero-
zoic, with the southern half of the central A better understanding of the pre-Sunsás
domain and southern domain colliding as a and Sunsás magmatic and tectonic history of
separate block during or after the Ordovician the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement would help
Famatinian Orogeny (Rapalini et al., 1999). identify the parent craton and distinguish be-
tween the different hypotheses. We focused on
Parautochthonous Models three inliers of the northern and central do-
Tosdal’s (1996) parautochthonous model is mains of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement,
based primarily on a similarity of the whole- where Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic rock units
rock Pb isotopic signatures of the Arequipa- had previously been identified: (1) coastal
Antofalla Basement and the Rondonia–San Ig- southern Peru from San Juan to Mollendo; (2)
nácio and Rio Negro–Juruena provinces of an area around the town of Belén, Chile; and

Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004 173

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LOEWY et al.

Figure 3. Concordia diagrams for samples from northern domain. Ages are defined by linear regression through data except where
indicated. See text and Table DR1 for details about individual data points and interpretations. POF—probability of fit.

174 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004

 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 14, 2012
AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT

(3) Quebrada Choja, Chile (Fig. 2). The fol-

lowing section outlines field observations and
geochronological results for each inlier. Ana-
lytical results with 2-sigma errors are in Table
DR1. Table DR1, geologic maps of each inlier
with sample locations (Figs. DR1 and DR2A
and B), and a description of analytical meth-
ods are in the GSA Bulletin Data Repository.1

Northern Domain, Southern Peru

Field Observations
The Peruvian Arequipa Massif extends
along the coast from San Juan to Mollendo
(Caldas, 1978). We focused our work in the
San Juan region, where the record is most
complete, but samples were also collected in
Ocoña and Mollendo (Fig. DR1).
San Juan Area. In San Juan, the oldest
units are granitic, banded gneisses with am-
phibolite layers, some of which may have sed-
imentary protoliths. The entire sequence was
recrystallized during at least amphibolite fa-
cies metamorphism (M1) indicated by the for-
mation of the gneissic layers comprising elon-
gate, deformed quartz and feldspar ribbons
with abundant rotational recrystallization of
both minerals and aligned mafic minerals
(now mostly retrograde chlorite). Banding in
the gneisses is cut by potassium-feldspar me-
gacrystic granite that contains a weak am-
phibolite-facies fabric (M2/S2) defined by
alignment of elongate quartz grains and mafic
minerals (now mostly retrograde chlorite) and
minor rotational recrystallization of feldspar.
The S2 fabric in the granites is typically par-
allel to that of the host gneisses. The differ-
ence in the degree of fabric development and
the lack of migmatization in the crosscutting
megacrystic granite indicates that the main
banding in the gneisses developed prior to the
intrusion of the megacrystic granite and that
both rock types were deformed after the gran-
ite intruded.
These gneisses and granites form the base-
ment below sediments that were deposited af-
ter M2. The lowest member in the sequence
is the Chiquerı ´o Formation, a well-bedded
siltstone tillite, the lower portions of which
contain abundant pink granitic and gneissic
clasts ranging in size from meters to milli-
meters. The larger clasts depress well-
preserved bedding in the matrix, implying ice-
rafted dropstones of glacial origin (Harland et

1
GSA Data Repository item 2004028, analytical
methods, geologic maps with sample locations
(Figs. DR1 and DR2A and B) and data tables (Ta-
bles DR1 and DR2), is available on the Web at http:
//www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2004.htm. Requests
Figure 3. (Continued.) may also be sent to editing@geosociety.org.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004 175

 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 14, 2012
al., 1966). In the upper portion, across an
abrupt transition, clasts change from granite to
carbonate.
The Chiquerı ´o Formation is immediately
overlain by 1–2 m of finely-laminated, alter-
nating pink and gray carbonate layers that are,
in turn, overlain by a thick, intensely altered
sequence of carbonates. The finely laminated
pink and gray carbonate layers strongly re-
semble globally observed Neoproterozoic cap
carbonates (Fairchild and Hambrey, 1984), in-
cluding their characteristic negative d13C val-
ues (Frank Corsetti, 2001, personal commun.).
Published geologic maps identify two distinct
carbonate units with similar character, the
Neoproterozoic San Juan Formation and the
Paleozoic Marcona Formation (Caldas, 1978).
More recent mapping by the Marcona Mining
Corporation (Juan Aranibar Loaysa, 2000,
personal commun.) reinterprets them to be a
single formation that they name the San Juan
Formation. Unable to identify significant dif-
ferences between rocks mapped as San Juan
and Marcona formations, we agree with their
interpretation.
Deformation in both the Chiquerı ´o and San
Juan formations includes folding, elongation
of carbonate clasts, and formation of a
greenschist facies cleavage (M3) defined by
the alignment of micas and chlorite draped
around larger grains with quartz-rich pressure
shadows. Gneissic and granitic basement
rocks were pervasively retrogressed to
greenschist facies during this event.
The entire sequence is cut by undeformed
intrusions, which, in the San Juan region, are
bimodal, fine-grained granite and diabase
dikes.
Ocoña and Mollendo. Portions of the geo-
logical record at San Juan are exposed to the
south at Ocoña and Mollendo (Fig. DR1). In
Mollendo, the inlier contains pink and gray-
green, banded gneiss metamorphosed to at
least amphibolite facies and undeformed
potassium-feldspar granite porphyry. The
gneiss is correlated with the banded gneiss at
San Juan and similarly contains alternating
bands of aligned chlorite and elongate quartz
and feldspar ribbons. At Ocoña, foliated me-
gacrystic granite is intruded by amphibolite
dikes. Although the megacrystic granite looks
similar to the foliated megacrystic granite ex-
posed at San Juan (our observations and those
of Shackleton et al., 1979), U/Pb ages pres-
ented below demonstrate that the granites at
Ocoña are significantly younger.
Geochronology
Basement. Two samples of the banded
gneisses were analyzed, one from San Juan
176 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
LOEWY et al.
(U/Pb-1) and one from Mollendo (U/Pb-2). U/
Pb-1 is a pink, granitic gneiss with well-
developed gneissic layering. Most of the feld-
spar was sericitized and mafic minerals were
retrogressed to chlorite and epidote during
M3. The sample represents a felsic layer in an
exposure of heterogeneous banded gneiss with
bands that ranged in composition from gab-
broic to granitic. Five zircon fractions from U/
Pb-1 define a line between 1819 117/–16 Ma
and 1033 6 31 Ma (14% probability of fit
(POF); Davis, 1982; Fig. 3A). Z3 was a single
prism with no visible inclusions and contained
concentric zonation (visible in plane polarized
light) typical of magmatic growth. The other
zircons analyzed were similar in morphology
to Z3. Thus, the upper intercept is interpreted
to be the crystallization age of the granitic
protolith. The lower intercept is interpreted to
represent the time of Pb loss or overgrowth of
zircon during metamorphism.
U/Pb-2 is a sample of pink and gray-green
layered gneiss from Mollendo, in which
quartz and sericitized feldspar-rich bands are
interlayered with epidote and chlorite-rich
bands. Eight zircon fractions from U/Pb-2 de-
fine a line between 1851 6 5 Ma and 935 6
14 Ma (72% POF; Fig. 3B). Four other frac-
tions (Z4, Z7, Z9, Z11) that lie close to, but
not on, this line are interpreted either to con-
tain older inheritance or to have been affected
by a younger thermal event. Z1 comprises
elongate euhedral prisms consistent with mag-
matic growth and plots closest to the upper
intercept. Z6, a single grain imaged by cath-
odoluminescence (CL) before analysis, exhib-
ited concentric zonation typical of magmatic
growth (Fig. 3B, inset). Z2, Z3, Z4, and Z5
were similar in shape and size to Z6, sug-
gesting similar growth histories. Because the
morphologies and internal zonation of these
fractions that lie on the line near the upper
intercept are consistent with magmatic
growth, we interpret the upper intercept to
represent the crystallization age of the gneiss
protolith. Z10, Z11, and Z12 lie closest to the
lower intercept. Z11 and Z12 comprised very
small anhedral equant grains, typical of zircon
grown during metamorphism. Z10, a single
grain imaged by CL before analysis, showed
a large, unzoned rim around a small, zoned
core (Fig. 3B, inset). The lack of zonation in
the rim suggests metamorphic growth of the
rim around a magmatic core. The position of
these three fractions nearest the lower inter-
cept suggests that the lower intercept repre-
sents the timing of zircon growth during
metamorphism.
U/Pb-3 is a sample of the foliated mega-
crystic granite at San Juan. It is a pink,
potassium-feldspar-rich granite porphyry with
a weakly developed foliation defined by the
elongation of quartz-feldspar lenses and align-
ment of chlorite and muscovite. Feldspars are
mostly sericitized with muscovite rims and
mafic minerals have retrogressed to chlorite,
presumably during M3. Analyses of eight zir-
con fractions from U/Pb-3 yield a discordia
line between 1793 6 6 Ma and 1052 6 12
Ma (23% POF; Fig. 3C). That eight fractions
of zircons with morphologies consistent with
a magmatic growth fall on a single line im-
plies that the upper intercept represents a crys-
tallization age. The high degree of discordance
toward the lower intercept is consistent with
metamorphism and Pb loss or zircon over-
growth at ca. 1 Ga.
Chiquerı´o Tillite. Three samples of granitic
clasts from the Chiquerı ´o Tillite were ana-
lyzed (U/Pb-4, -5, -6). U/Pb-4 and U/Pb-5 are
both round clasts of pink, potassium-
feldspar-rich, megacrystic granite that is sim-
ilar in appearance to the megacrystic granite
in the basement but with poorly-developed fo-
liations. U/Pb-6 is similar in composition to
the other two but has a gneissosity that was
folded prior to its incorporation into the tillite.
Three zircon fractions (Z1, Z2, Z3) from U/
Pb-4 define a line with intercepts of 1168 19/
–6 Ma and 147 1238/–260 Ma (90% POF;
Fig. 3D). Z4 is interpreted to contain a minor
amount of inherited zircon. The zircon popu-
lation from U/Pb-5 is more complex than that
from U/Pb-4. Z1, Z4, and Z5 define a discor-
dia line from 1162 6 6 Ma to 367 6 76 Ma
(16% POF; Fig. 3E). Z2, Z3, Z6, and Z7 ap-
parently contain inherited Paleoproterozoic
zircon and were not included in the regression.
All five fractions of U/Pb-6 have middle
Mesoproterozoic 207Pb/206Pb ages but do not
define a discordia or mixing line. Two zircon
fractions (Z4 and Z5) from U/Pb-6 suggest an
upper intercept age of ca. 1165 Ma projected
from a lower intercept of 440 Ma (Fig. 3F),
the metamorphic age of the tillite (see below).
Z1, Z2, and Z3 lie close to this upper intercept
but are interpreted to contain minor inheri-
tance from an older source.
Late Granites. Three samples of late gran-
ite were collected: an undeformed, pink
potassium-feldspar granite porphyry at Mol-
lendo (U/Pb-7); a weakly-foliated, megacrys-
tic potassium-feldspar granite at Ocoña (U/Pb-
8); and an undeformed, fine-grained granite
with abundant partially resorbed feldspar and
quartz xenocrysts at San Juan (U/Pb-9). The
late granite at Mollendo cuts the basement
gneiss. The late granite at San Juan cuts both
the gneisses and the Chiquerı ´o Tillite. At
Ocoña, there are no other rocks exposed.
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Four zircon fractions from U/Pb-7 cluster
ca. 460 Ma (Fig. 3G). By pinning the lower
intercept at 0 Ma, a line regressed through Z1,
Z2, and Z3 yields an upper intercept of 468
6 4 Ma (55% POF).
Three zircon fractions from U/Pb-8 fall near
or at the bottom of a line with a lower inter-
cept of ca. 464 Ma (Fig. 3H). One analysis
(Z1) is concordant with an age and analytical
error of 464 6 4 Ma (average of 206Pb*/238U
and 207Pb*/235U errors). Because all three frac-
tions from this unmigmatized granite repre-
sent the dominant population of large, beige,
subhedral grains with minimal inclusions, we
interpret the lower intercept to be the crystal-
lization age. Z2 and Z3 apparently contain a
minor amount of inherited zircon of slightly
different age or Pb loss histories such that we
use the concordant fraction to define an age
of 464 6 4 Ma for this granite.
Z8 and Z2 from U/Pb-9 are both nearly
concordant at ca. 500 Ma and ;1050 Ma, re-
spectively (Fig. 3I). Given that the host sedi-
ments were deposited and deformed after ca.
1.03 Ga (the age of basement metamorphism),
the 1050 Ma zircon must be inherited. CL im-
ages of grains with similar morphologies to
Z8 show euhedral, magmatic rims around in-
herited cores (Fig. 3I, inset). Thus, Z8 is in-
terpreted to approximate the crystallization
age with a minor amount of inheritance. Dif-
fering degrees and ages of inherited compo-
nents preclude derivation of a mixing line and,
consequently, determination of a precise age.
However, projection of mixing lines from each
fraction though Z8 constrains the range of
possible lower intercepts between 468 and 440
Ma (Fig. 3I). Thus, the San Juan granite be-
longs to the same suite as the Ordovician
granites at Mollendo (U/Pb-7) and Ocoña (U/
Pb-8).
Implications
Protoliths of the basement gneisses at San
Juan and Mollendo crystallized between ca.
1851 and 1819 Ma. These ages are similar to
previously published ca. 1.9 Ga protolith ages
for the basement rocks of San Juan, Quilca,
and Mollendo (Cobbing et al., 1977; Dal-
mayrac et al., 1977; Shackleton et al., 1979;
Wasteneys et al., 1995). The gneissic fabric
(M1) formed prior to the ca. 1793 Ma intru-
sion of the megacrystic granite. Mesoproter-
ozoic metamorphism (M2) occurred between
ca. 1052 and 935 Ma, as recorded by zircon
in both the gneisses and the megacrystic gran-
ite at San Juan. Wasteneys et al. (1995) reports
a metamorphic age of 970 6 23 Ma at Mol-
lendo and a slightly older age of 1198 16/–4
Ma at Quilca. This range in metamorphic ages
Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT
may represent real temporal variation along
the margin, variation in cooling histories be-
tween sites, and/or timing of different zircon-
forming reactions (Connelly, 2001). Most pre-
vious work suggested that only one
Proterozoic metamorphic event occurred in
Peru, either at ca. 1.9 Ga or ca. 1.0 Ga (Cob-
bing et al., 1977; Shackleton et al., 1979; Was-
teneys et al., 1995). Only Dalmayrac et al.
(1977) proposed two episodes of metamor-
phism at 1.9 and 0.7 Ga. Our new data require
that metamorphism and deformation occurred
at both ca. 1.8 Ga and ca. 1.0 Ga with no
evidence for a ca. 0.7 Ga event.
Despite the complex zircon systematics of
these samples, there is a clear indication that
all three clasts fall in the range 1.17–1.16 Ga,
requiring an extrabasinal source. No Mesopro-
terozoic rocks have been identified in southern
Peru, although evidence of Mesoproterozoic
crystalline basement at depth can be inferred
from inherited zircons in the Ordovician gran-
ites at San Juan and Ocoña. In the central do-
main, ca. 1.1 Ga rocks are discussed below
and similar-aged rocks may exist to the west
in Bolivia (Lehmann, 1978). The Sunsás Prov-
ince of Amazonia also contains ca. 1.1 Ga
rocks (Tassinari et al., 2000).
No precise age has been determined for the
deposition of the tillite. It must be younger
than the ca. 1.03 Ga M2 recorded in its base-
ment and older than the Ordovician granite at
San Juan. Less definitive constraints include:
(1) ‘‘stromatolite-like’’ structures in the over-
lying San Juan Formation (Injoque and Rom-
ero, 1986) that the authors correlate with late
Neoproterozoic–Early Cambrian stromatolites,
and (2) a possible Neoproterozoic cap carbon-
ate at the top of the tillite.
M3 metamorphism occurred after intrusion
of the 464 6 4 Ma megacrystic granite at
Ocoña but before emplacement of undeformed
granites at Mollendo (468 6 4 Ma). Although
M3 and Ordovician magmatism may have
been diachronous across this belt, M3 is con-
strained as Ordovician.
Central Domain, Belén, Northern Chile
Field Observations
The Arequipa-Antofalla Basement at Belén
is exposed in cores of breached anticlines of
layered Andean volcanic and sub-volcanic
rocks. The largest single basement exposure is
3 km (east-west) by 8 km (north-south) and
extends north from Belén (Fig. DR2A). Three
smaller exposures lie south-southeast of
Belén.
The oldest rocks in these inliers are con-
cordant layers of muscovite schist and
quartzo-feldspathic and mafic gneisses. The
concordant, alternating, compositional layers
and remnant sedimentary features, such as
cross beds, preserved in less deformed layers
suggest that this unit comprises amphibolite
facies metasedimentary and mafic metavol-
canic rocks. In the northwestern portion of the
exposure, near Chapiquiña (Fig. DR2A), these
rocks are associated with partially serpentini-
zed ultra-mafic units that crop out in a north-
northeast linear trend. The majority of out-
crops display an S1 foliation parallel to
primary S0 layering. In a few locations, S0/
S1 is tightly folded (F2) and the muscovite
schist exhibits a second foliation, S2, that is
axial planar to folds. The only age constraint
for these sediments is a 1460 6 448 Ma age
from a whole-rock Sm/Nd isochron from the
metavolcanic layers (Damm et al., 1990).
Massive granodiorites, diorites, and gabbros
are the most abundant rocks in the Belén in-
liers. They cut the S1 fabric in the metasedi-
mentary and metavolcanic rocks and contain
xenoliths of these rock units. Fabric develop-
ment in the intrusions is variable and ranges
from rocks with no preferred orientation to
those with a well-developed foliation (includ-
ing protomylonites) defined by alignment of
amphibole and/or biotite that is correlated
with S2 in the metasedimentary rocks. This
fabric (S2) in the younger intrusive rocks
ranges from straight to tightly folded (F3), but
there is no fabric developed axial planar to
these folds (no S3).
Geochronology
Ages of clastic sedimentary rocks are dif-
ficult to determine directly by radiometric
methods, but ages of cross-cutting igneous
units and metamorphism constrain the timing
of deposition. Two samples of the massive
granodiorite were collected: one from the
large northern exposure, near Belén (U/Pb-
10), and one from a smaller southern exposure
(U/Pb-11) (Fig. DR2A).
Five zircon fractions from U/Pb-10 define a
line from 1559 6 21 Ma to 473 6 2 Ma (43%
POF; Fig. 4A). CL images indicate that zir-
cons from this sample mainly have magmatic
zonation, suggesting that the analyzed zircons
are igneous (Fig. 4A, inset). Four of the five
fractions analyzed are nearly concordant at the
lower intercept, suggesting that this is the
crystallization age of the granodiorite. Z5 con-
tained a significant inherited component.
Two fractions (Z1 and Z2) from U/Pb-11
overlap concordia with an averaged 206Pb/238U
age of 47363 Ma, which is interpreted to be
the crystallization age. Z4 reflects a combi-
177
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LOEWY et al.

nation of inheritance and Pb loss (Fig. 4B),

and Z1 may have lost Pb.
A felsic dike (U/Pb-12) intrudes a thick,
folded unit of muscovite schist. The dike,
composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, and
muscovite, cuts S1 in the schist and contains
an F2-axial-planar foliation (S2). This sample
was collected to constrain the timing of D1
and D2. Zircons from this sample yielded un-
expected Paleoproterozoic 207Pb/206Pb ages and
Z2, Z3, and Z5 define a line from 1866 6 2
to 227 6 17 (Fig. 4C). CL images of zircons
from U/Pb-12 identify fractured, partially re-
sorbed cores with subhedral to euhedral over-
growths that commonly contain magmatic zo-
nation (Fig. 4C, inset). This morphology
suggests that the overgrowths formed during
dike crystallization around inherited cores.
Thus, the upper intercept age reflects inheri-
tance from a ca. 1.9–1.8 Ga source, similar in
age to the granitic gneisses in southern Peru.
The lower intercept may reflect the intrusion
age of the dike but more likely does not date
a specific event and reflects a complex com-
bination of overgrowth and Pb-loss. Cores in
these zircons are sizeable and U-rich, such
that the rims are likely metamict and, as such,
have lost Pb.

Implications
The age of deposition and deformation (D1)
of the metasedimentary rocks at Belén have
not been well constrained with the addition of
this new data. Definitive ages from the mas-
sive granodiorite intrusions (473 6 2 and 473
6 3 Ma) require the metasedimentary rocks
and D1 to be older than ca. 473 Ma. The only
other constraint on the age of the metasedi-
mentary rocks is the poorly defined 1460 6
480 Ma age from the amphibolite layers
(Damm et al., 1990) that suggests deposition
occurred some time between 1.9 and 1.0 Ga,
followed by D1 deformation.

Central Domain, Quebrada Choja,

Northern Chile

Field Observations
Proterozoic rocks are exposed in the east-
west–trending Quebrada (Canyon) Choja (Fig.
DR2), where the oldest units include a se-
quence of migmatitic gneisses containing
quartz-biotite paragneiss and granodioritic or-
thogneiss. Both gneisses are included as xe-
noliths in younger megacrystic granite, indi-
cating that a phase of high-grade
metamorphism (M1) occurred after formation
of the gneiss protoliths but before intrusion of
Figure 4. Concordia diagrams for samples from Belén area. Ages are defined by linear the megacrystic granite. The megacrystic
regression through data except where indicated. See text and Table DR1 for details about granite has a variably developed foliation (S2/
individual data points and interpretations. POF—probability of fit.

178 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004

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M2) defined by aligned biotite, muscovite,
and elongate quartz. The paragneiss contains
two neosomes, an earlier wispy tonalitic type
(N1) and a second, more coherent granitic
type (N2). N1 neosomes occur in outcrops of
paragneiss and gneissic xenoliths in the me-
gacrystic granite, indicating that they formed
prior to crystallization of the granite and likely
during M1/D1. N2 neosomes are folded and
boudinaged in paragneiss outcrops and are not
found in paragneiss xenoliths in the mega-
crystic granite. Thus, formation of N2 neo-
somes postdates M1/D1 but predates M2/D2.
Postdating both M1 and M2, a massive, un-
deformed tonalite cuts both neosomes in the
paragneiss.
West of the gneisses and granite, a ;500-
m-thick metasedimentary sequence contains
metasiltstone with relict graded bedding,
quartz-rich chlorite-muscovite paragneiss, in-
terbedded muscovite schist and phyllite, lay-
ered carbonates, and an irregularly banded
amphibolite unit. The protolith to the amphib-
olite is uncertain, but banding suggests a
volcanic-volcaniclastic protolith. This com-
posite sedimentary package has a bedding par-
allel foliation defined by aligned micas, chlo-
rite, amphiboles, and elongate quartz.
Similarities of this metamorphic fabric to that
in the megacrystic granite suggest that this is
an S2 fabric. However, a sharp discordance
between foliation orientations in this package
and those in the megacrystic granite suggests
a fault contact (Fig. DR2B).
The amphibolite unit is intruded by dacite
dikes that cut across layering. The dacite dikes
contain a moderate foliation that is parallel to
S2 in the host amphibolites, indicating that a
single foliation (S2) in both rocks post-dates
the dacite dikes.
The rock units in the western portion of the
canyon are overlain by a variably deformed
intrusive suite of diorites and tonalites that are
intruded by late, undeformed hornblendite
dikes. The boundary at the base of this intru-
sive suite is a sharp, subhorizontal, planar
contact that we interpret to be a low-angle
fault (Fig. DR2B). Because this boundary has
not been deformed, faulting occurred after
M2. Based on similarities in mineralogy and
texture, tonalite in this intrusive suite is cor-
related with the undeformed tonalite that cuts
both neosomes in the paragneiss. A suite of
pegmatites of varying composition cuts all
units in the area, except the amphibolites.
Geochronology
Samples of the migmatized granodiorite or-
thogneiss (U/Pb-13), the foliated megacrystic
granite (U/Pb-14), a dacite dike that cuts the
Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT
layered amphibolite (U/Pb-15), a granite neo-
some (N2) from the paragneiss (U/Pb-16), and
the undeformed tonalite from the fault-bound
intrusive suite (U/Pb-17) were analyzed for U/
Pb geochronology (Fig. DR2B).
Four of nine zircon fractions (Z1, Z5, Z6,
Z9) from the orthogneiss (U/Pb-13) define a
line between 1067 6 4 and 497 6 16 (78%
POF; Fig. 5A). CL analyses of a representa-
tive sample of the zircon population indicate
that ellipsoidal, pitted grains have the best-
developed magmatic zonation compared to the
rest of the zircon population. Z1 was a pale
pink, ellipsoidal, pitted grain and is the most
concordant point. Therefore, we interpret the
upper intercept to represent the crystallization
age of the gneiss protolith. CL imaging of
more euhedral grains commonly shows dis-
continuous overgrowths on rounded cores
with magmatic growth zoning (Fig. 5A, inset).
Fractions of these euhedral zircons plotted
lower on the mixing line, suggesting varying
proportions of core and overgrowth. The over-
growths are interpreted to be metamorphic
such that the lower intercept represents the
timing of metamorphism. Fractions lying be-
low the mixing line (Z2, Z3, Z7, and Z8) ap-
parently contained an inherited component. Z4
lies above the mixing line and may reflect Me-
soproterozoic migmatization of the orthog-
neiss. Migmatization occurred after crystalli-
zation at 1067 Ma and prior to intrusion of the
foliated granite (1024 Ma, see below). A mix-
ing line (not shown) from 497 Ma through Z4
intersects concordia at ca. 1040 Ma, a reason-
able age for migmatization.
Four zircon fractions (Z1, Z2, Z6, Z7) from
a sample of the foliated megacrystic granite
(U/Pb-14) define a line from 102465 Ma to
44468 Ma (26% POF; Fig. 5B). Most frac-
tions (Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5, and Z7) were pink
to light brown, euhedral to subhedral, multi-
faceted, equant, clear single grains. Because
this granite is not migmatized and the clear,
euhedral-subhedral fractions lie near the upper
intercept, we interpret the upper intercept to
represent the crystallization age. Z6 falls sig-
nificantly lower on discordia and comprised
smaller equant grains, typical of metamorphic
growth. This analysis and the degree of dis-
cordance of other fractions indicate that the
lower intercept is the metamorphic age. Z8 ap-
parently contained inherited zircon, and Z3,
Z4, and Z5 apparently experienced minor re-
cent Pb loss.
The heterogeneous zircon population of the
dacite dike (U/Pb-15) includes equant to elon-
gate grains that range from pale-beige to light
brown, and CL images indicate a range of core
and rim textures. Zircon fractions (Z4, Z5, Z6,
Z7) representing a range of morphologies de-
fine a line from 1697 6 48 Ma to 635 6 5
Ma (42% POF; Fig. 5C). Concordant fraction
Z7 was a single light-brown elongate grain
with no inclusions. Because this sample is un-
migmatized, has a single metamorphic fabric,
and most zircon fractions from this population
fall near the lower intercept, we interpret 635
6 5 Ma to be the crystallization age. Z1, Z2,
and Z3 contained a significant component of
inherited zircon of various ages.
Zircons from N2 (U/Pb-16) are mainly eu-
hedral, brown prisms comprising dark, euhed-
ral tips and pale, rounded cores. CL images of
these grains show rims with concentric zona-
tion around inherited cores (Fig. 5D, inset).
Two analyses of tips broken off of euhedral
grains yielded nearly concordant points with
207
Pb/206Pb ages of 470 12/–1 Ma and 470
13/–1 Ma (Fig. 5D). We interpret these to be
the formation age of the neosome.
Two zircon fractions (Z1 and Z2) from the
tonalite (U/Pb-17) define a mixing line be-
tween ca. 1070 Ma and ca. 450 Ma with a
third fraction (Z3) lying only slightly below
the line. CL analysis of representative zircons
indicates a heterogeneous population com-
posed of zircons with zoned and unzoned
cores and rims. The complex morphology and
the position of all three fractions equidistant
from either intercept make interpretation dif-
ficult. However, because the tonalite is unde-
formed, it crystallized after Ordovician D2/
M2 deformation. Also, the correlative tonalite
in the paragneiss cuts the 470 Ma neosome.
Thus, the lower intercept must approximate
the age of intrusion.
Implications
The age of the paragneiss protolith is not
independently constrained but must have been
older than 1067 Ma, the crystallization age of
the orthogneiss protolith that intrudes it. Both
gneisses are included in the 1024 Ma unmig-
matized megacrystic granite, requiring mig-
matization (M1) to have occurred between
1067 and 1024 Ma. Deposition of the meta-
sedimentary rocks and extrusion/intrusion of
the amphibolite protolith occurred between
M1 and 635 Ma, the age of the crosscutting
dacite dikes. Metamorphism (M2) of all units
occurred during the Ordovician/Silurian, con-
strained by zircon tips from N2 (ca. 470 Ma)
and lower intercept ages from the samples of
orthogneiss and megacrystic granite (ca. 497
Ma and ca. 444 Ma, respectively). No precise
age was determined for the fault-bound intru-
sive suite, but a lower intercept for the unde-
formed tonalite suggests an Ordovician (ca.
450 Ma) age. Because the main focus of this
179
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LOEWY et al.

Figure 5. Concordia diagrams for samples from Quebrada Choja.

Ages are defined by linear regression through data. See text and
Table DR1 for details about individual data points and interpreta-
tions. POF—probability of fit.

180 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004

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Figure 6. Summary of tectonic history of Arequipa-Antofalla Basement. Data are from
this study and references cited in text.
work was the older tectonic history, unde-
formed pegmatites were not dated, but they
are presumed to post-date Ordovician defor-
mation and metamorphism. The fault-bounded
intrusive suite was emplaced either during late
Ordovician deformation or, more likely given
the undeformed nature of the fault, during lat-
er Andean deformation.
Summary of the Sequence of Events in the
Northern and Central Domains
Figure 6 summarizes pre-existing and new
U/Pb data. In the northern domain, Paleopro-
terozoic intrusions with ages in the range of
1851–1819 Ma and possibly as old as 2024
Ma (Wörner et al., 2000) were metamor-
phosed during M1 to at least amphibolite fa-
cies between 1819 and 1793 Ma. In the central
domain, sediments and volcanics were depos-
ited and plutons were emplaced during the
mid–late Mesoproterozoic. Both domains ex-
perienced Grenvillian-age metamorphism be-
tween 1200 and 935 Ma. During the Neopro-
terozoic, sediments were deposited in both
domains (San Juan and Quebrada Choja), but
evidence of magmatism was only identified at
one location in the central domain (Quebrada
Choja). During the Ordovician, magmatism,
metamorphism, and deformation occurred in
both the northern and central domains be-
tween ca. 473 and 440 Ma with metamor-
phism beginning as early as 497 Ma.
WHOLE-ROCK ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS
To provide a regional characterization of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement, whole-rock
Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT
samples were analyzed for Pb and Nd isotopic
compositions. Pb isotopic compositions ap-
pear to define distinct signatures of crustal
provinces (for example, Kay et al., 1996; Tos-
dal, 1996; Sinha and McLelland, 1997), and
Sm/Nd isotopic systematics («Nd(0) values and
TDM ages) are commonly used to indicate
source reservoirs of intrusions and ages of
crustal provinces (e.g., Farmer and DePaolo,
1984; Bennett and DePaolo, 1987; Murphy
and Nance, 2002; Payolla et al., 2002; Single-
tary et al., 2003). This regional signature can
be used in conjunction with the ages and se-
quences of events to compare inliers in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and to compare
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement with
Amazonia.
Lead
Whole-rock powders from 12 samples from
the northern domain, 39 samples from the cen-
tral domain (22 from Belén and 17 from Que-
brada Choja), and one sample from the south-
ern domain were analyzed for Pb (Table DR2;
see footnote 1). These samples were selected
and analyzed to complement existing whole-
rock Pb isotopic analyses of basement rocks
(Proterozoic boulders found in younger sedi-
mentary rocks have not been included.) (Til-
ton and Barreiro, 1980; Aitcheson et al., 1995;
Tosdal, 1996; Bock et al., 2000; Wörner et al.,
2000).
Data from the three domains define distinct,
but overlapping fields in uranogenic space
(206Pb/204Pb versus 207Pb/204Pb; Fig. 7A). Pa-
leoproterozoic samples from the northern do-
main have the highest 207Pb/204Pb ratios (rela-
tive to 206Pb/204Pb), plotting above Stacey and
Kramers’ (1975) crustal evolution curve. Me-
soproterozoic samples from the central do-
main have lower 207Pb/204Pb ratios (relative to
206
Pb/204Pb) and overlap Stacey and Kramers’
(1975) crustal evolution curve (Fig. 7A).
Along the central domain field, Mesoprotero-
zoic samples from Belén are less radiogenic
(lower 206Pb/204Pb and 207Pb/204Pb) than those
from Quebrada Choja and overlap those of the
northern domain. Ordovician samples from
the southern domain (Bock et al., 2000) plot
between Stacey and Kramers’ (1975) crustal
evolution curve and overlap the central do-
main samples (Fig. 7A). Neoproterozoic and
Ordovician intrusions in both the northern and
central domains plot along the trend of the
central domain between the compositions of
the Mesoproterozoic units (Fig. 7A). Most
rocks from all three domains have 208Pb/204Pb
ratios between 42 and 37. Thus, in thoro-
uranogenic Pb space, Pb isotopic composi-
tions define two distinct regions based on the
206
Pb/204Pb ratio (Fig. 7B). Samples from the
northern domain and the northern central do-
main (Belén) have low 206Pb/204Pb ratios,
whereas samples from the southern central do-
main (Quebrada Choja) and the southern do-
main have high 206Pb/204Pb ratios.
Samarium-Neodymium
Whole-rock Sm/Nd analyses of 21 samples
from southern Peru, Belén, and Quebrada
Choja (Table DR2; Fig. 8A, B, and C) yield
a continuous range of TDM ages that, in gen-
eral, young from north to south. Samples from
the northern domain (with the exception of the
Ordovician intrusions and one ca. 1.8 Ga am-
phibolite) have TDM ages of 2.3–1.9 Ga and
«Nd(0) values of233.18 to217.87 (Table DR2;
Fig. 8A, B, and C). The similarity of TDM ages
and crystallization ages (TU/Pb; Table DR2;
Fig. 8C) suggests that the Paleoproterozoic
units were predominantly derived from juve-
nile mantle. Samples from the central domain
(including Mesoproterozoic and younger
units) and samples of Ordovician intrusions
from the northern domain (all plotting along
the central domain Pb trend) have younger
TDM ages (2.2–1.3 Ga with two as young as
0.5 Ga and one anomalously old age of 3.6
Ga) and more positive «Nd(0) values (-15.86
to23.41 with one positive value of 2.15) (Ta-
ble DR2; Fig. 8A, B, and C). For most of
these samples, the TDM ages are older than
their U/Pb crystallization ages (TU/Pb; Table
DR2; Fig. 8C), suggesting contamination of a
juvenile mantle source by Paleoproterozoic
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LOEWY et al.

Figure 8. Sm/Nd data. Values are listed in

Table DR2 and in Bock et al. (2000). TDM
ages for data from Bock et al. (2000) were
recalculated by method used in this study.
(A) Histogram of TDM ages from Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement. (Anomalously old TDM
ages of P3 and B8 are not included. TDM
ages could not be calculated for B3 and
Q13.) (B) Histogram of «Nd(0) values from
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement. (Anoma-
Figure 7. Whole-rock Pb data from Arequipa-Antofalla Basement. Data arranged by lo-
lously low «Nd(0) of P3 is not included.) (C)
cation. New data (dark symbols) are distinguished from data previously published (light
Compositional fields defined by Sm/Nd iso-
symbols). Previously published data are from Tilton and Barreiro (1980), Aitcheson et al.
topic systematics of each domain. Symbols
(1995), Tosdal (1996), Bock et al. (2000), and Wörner et al. (2000). Stacey and Kramers’
are «Nd at TU/Pb (Table DR2). Thick dashed
(1975) average crust evolution curve is given for reference with ages in Ga. (A) Uranogenic
line separates compositions from Belén and
Pb. Fields distinguish domain signatures. Central domain field is divided to distinguish
Quebrada Choja. (Compositions of Q7 and
juvenile Mesoproterozoic signature from rock compositions likely to contain a significant
Q8 are not included. They appear to be
component of Paleoproterozoic crust. Numbered data points are discussed in text and
mantle-derived Neoproterozoic intrusions
listed in Table DR2. (B) Thoro-uranogenic Pb. Fields denote different signatures.
and, thus, their compositions are not relat-
ed to Mesoproterozoic crustal reservoir.)
and/or Mesoproterozoic crust or derivation en- (U/Pb-13), Q7, and Q8), the TDM age approx-
tirely from older crust. Samples from Belén imates the U/Pb crystallization age, suggest- highest «Nd(0) values (–13.42 to 5.77) (Table
have older TDM ages than those from Quebrada ing a juvenile source for these samples. Data DR2; Fig. 8A, B, and C). These TDM ages are
Choja, suggesting a greater Paleoproterozoic from the southern domain (one sample from older than the known crystallization ages, also
crustal component. The distribution of TDM this study and samples from Bock et al. implying contamination of a juvenile mantle
ages from the Belén samples matches that of [2000], recalculated using the depleted mantle source by Paleoproterozoic or Mesoprotero-
the northern domain (Fig. 8A). For some sam- model curve of DePaolo [1981]), define the zoic crust or derivation entirely from older
ples from Quebrada Choja (for example, Q2 youngest TDM age group (1.9 Ga–0.5 Ga) and crust.

182 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004

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Implications of Whole-Rock Isotopic Data
The coherent, but different, Pb isotopic sig-
natures of the northern and central domains
indicate that each domain had isotopically dis-
tinct source reservoirs. Correlation of Paleo-
proterozoic U/Pb and Sm/Nd TDM ages in the
northern domain rocks suggests a Paleopro-
terozoic mantle source. In the central domain,
the oldest rocks are Mesoproterozoic and may
be as old as ca. 1.5 Ga. In addition to the
poorly-defined ca. 1.5 Ga Sm/Nd isochron age
of the metavolcanic rocks at Belén, an Ordo-
vician granodiorite at Belén contains ca. 1.5
Ga inherited zircon, suggesting that crust of
this age exists at depth. Mesoproterozoic
rocks (Q1, Q2, and Q5) from Quebrada Choja
commonly have Mesoproterozoic TDM ages.
Thus, Mesoproterozoic mantle appears to be
the isotopically distinct Pb source at Quebrada
Choja.
The lower 206Pb/204Pb ratios from Belén rel-
ative to those from Quebrada Choja (Fig. 7A)
suggest that the Mesoproterozoic Belén rocks
may have had a slightly different source. Pa-
leoproterozoic Sm/Nd TDM ages of the Belén
rocks and the overlap of the Belén and north-
ern domain Pb isotopic composition support
incorporation of a significant component of
Paleoproterozoic crust from the northern do-
main. As mentioned previously, U/Pb zircon
analyses indicate that a felsic dike at Belén
(U/Pb-12; B9) contains inherited ca. 1.87 Ga
zircon (Fig. 4C), suggesting ca. 1.87 Ga crust
at depth. Thus, the Mesoproterozoic Belén
rocks may have been derived entirely from or
were strongly contaminated by 1.9–1.8 Ga
northern domain crust. The intermediate Pb
isotopic compositions of the Neoproterozoic
and younger rocks at both Belén and Quebra-
da Choja and their Paleo- and Mesoprotero-
zoic TDM ages suggest that these rocks com-
prise a mixture of Belén and Quebrada Choja
crust.
The four Ordovician intrusions in the north-
ern domain (P8, P9, P11, P12) have central
domain Pb isotopic signatures (Fig 7A) and
«Nd(0) values (Fig. 8B) and all four intrusions
(three granites and one gabbro), three of
which are dated by U/Pb geochronology, yield
ca. 1.5 Ga Sm/Nd TDM ages (Table DR2,
Fig. 8A). U/Pb data from U/Pb-8 (P12) and
U/Pb-9 (P8) provide evidence for Mesoproter-
ozoic inherited components (Figs. 3H and I).
«Nd(0) values, TDM ages, Pb isotopic composi-
tions, and Mesoproterozoic ages of the north-
ern domain Ordovician intrusions indicate that
they were derived from a Mesoproterozoic
(possibly ca. 1.5 Ga), central domain-like low-
er crustal reservoir. Thus, the Mesoproterozoic
Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT
Pb isotopic reservoir that defines the central
domain may extend beneath the northern do-
main at depth.
The division of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement into three domains was originally
based upon the ages of the oldest units ex-
posed. Uranogenic Pb isotopic compositions
(Fig. 7A), «Nd(0) values, and TDM ages (Fig. 8,
A, B, and C) support the distinction of these
three temporal domains. Previous work on Pb
isotopic compositions of Andean volcanics in
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement identified
the two signatures in thoro-uranogenic Pb
compositions (Fig. 7B) and used them to di-
vide the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement into
two terranes (Wörner et al., 1992). However,
as proposed above, incorporation of different
amounts of older crust in rocks at Belén and
Quebrada Choja would account for the ob-
served distinction in the 206Pb/204Pb ratios. The
existence of three domains is supported by
mapping, U/Pb geochronology, uranogenic
whole-rock Pb isotopes and Sm/Nd isotopic
systematics («Nd(0) values and TDM ages).
DISCUSSION
The main goals of this paper were to refine
the tectonic history and characterize the iso-
topic signature of the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement to address the following questions:
(1) Is the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement a sin-
gle crustal block? (2) Is Amazonia the ‘‘parent
craton’’?, and (3) if allochthonous, when was
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement accreted to
Amazonia? The next section summarizes the
evolution of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
as refined by the new data and then addresses
each of these questions.
Tectonic History
U/Pb ages of the oldest rocks exposed and
Pb and Sm/Nd whole-rock isotopic composi-
tions delineate three distinct domains in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement that decrease in
age from north to south. The northern domain
of southern Peru and western Bolivia (Fig. 2)
formed from juvenile material between 1.85
and 1.79 Ga, may have components as old as
2.02 Ga, and was first metamorphosed be-
tween 1.82 and 1.79 Ga (Figs. 6 and 9).
A second stage of crustal growth occurred
during the Mesoproterozoic, possibly as early
as ca. 1.5 Ga, along the southern margin of
the northern domain (Fig. 9). Although no ex-
posed rocks of this age have been precisely
dated, Sm/Nd and Pb isotopic evidence sug-
gest that 1.5–1.4 Ga crust forms the basement
of the central domain and underplates the 1.9–
1.8 Ga basement of the northern domain (Or-
dovician intrusive rocks in the northern do-
main with ca. 1.5 Ga TDM ages and central
domain Pb signature and «Nd(0)). Ca. 1.5 Ga
continental volcanism at Belén was part of
this magmatic event, although isotopic com-
positions indicate contamination from Paleo-
proterozoic (northern domain) crust.
A third stage of growth began in the central
domain by 1.07 Ga. It was associated with
metamorphism and deformation in both the
northern and central domains between 1.20 Ga
and 0.94 Ga (Fig. 9).
A fourth stage of growth formed the south-
ern domain during the Ordovician (Fig. 9). Ig-
neous rocks of the southern domain were de-
rived from juvenile material variably
contaminated by Paleo- and/or Mesoprotero-
zoic crust. Coeval intrusions in the northern
domain were derived from a Mesoproterozoic
reservoir similar to that of the central domain.
Coeval intrusions in the central domain were
derived from a mix of the Mesoproterozoic
central domain crust and low-m northern
domain-like Paleoproterozoic crust. All do-
mains were metamorphosed at ca. 0.44 Ga.
Comparison Between Inliers
U/Pb geochronology indicates that juvenile
material was added to the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement in discontinuous stages from north
to south between at least 1.85 Ga to 0.44 Ga.
Furthermore, deformation and metamorphism
occurred in the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
in three distinct pulses: (1) 1.82–180 Ga, (2)
1.20–0.94 Ga, and (3) ca. 0.44 Ga (Fig. 9).
Each successive thermotectonic event affected
all rock units in domains formed by that time.
Whole-rock isotopic data indicate that youn-
ger rock units incorporated components that
resemble older crust from other domains dur-
ing this progressive growth (i.e., central do-
main rocks with a northern domain signature
and Ordovician northern domain rocks with a
central domain signature). This observation
suggests that one domain was built upon the
other. This history of systematic growth and
progressive deformation strongly suggests that
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement grew as a
single, coherent crustal block.
Relationship to Amazonia
Citing gross similarities in ages and simi-
larities in Pb isotopic compositions, Tosdal
(1996) interpreted the Arequipa-Antofalla
Basement to be a parautochthonous block of
Amazonia. To a first approximation, ages of
rock units broadly correlate with known ages
183
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Figure 9. Schematic model of tectonic evolution of Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (AAB)
shown in map view and north-south–striking cross section. ND—northern domain, CD—
central domain, SD—southern domain.
of provinces in Amazonia. Paleoproterozoic
protolith and metamorphic ages of the north-
ern domain of the Arequipa-Antofalla Base-
ment are close to those of the Ventuari-
Tapajós Province of Amazonia and rocks in
both are juvenile. Ca. 1.5–1.4 Ga and ca. 1.1–
1.0 Ga rocks of the central domain of the Ar-
equipa-Antofalla Basement are similar in age
to those of the Rondonia–San Ignácio and
Sunsás provinces in Amazonia (Tassinari et
al., 2000; Geraldes et al., 2001). The Meso-
proterozoic orogenic event recorded in the
northern and central domains of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement is coeval with events in
the Sunsás Province (Tassinari et al., 2000).
However, existing protolith ages for units in
the Ventuari-Tapajós Province are between
1943 and 1830 Ma (Gaudette et al., 1996; Tas-
sinari et al., 2000), with metamorphism be-
tween 1943 and 1883 Ma (Gaudette et al.,
1996). Therefore, in detail, the Paleoprotero-
zoic intrusive and metamorphic events in
184 Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004
LOEWY et al.
Amazonia are generally older than those in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (Fig. 6).
From a chronological perspective, four
problems exist with correlating the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement with Amazonia: (1) Pa-
leoproterozoic events occurred at distinctly
different times, (2) the Ventuari-Tapajós Prov-
ince (2.0–1.8 Ga) did not experience Sunsás
(1.3–1.0 Ga) metamorphism, (3) the Ventuari-
Tapajós Province is not juxtaposed against ei-
ther the Rondonia–San Ignácio or Sunsás
provinces in Amazonia, and (4) no units in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement have ages that
correspond to those of the Rio Negro–Juruena
Province (1.8–1.5 Ga). The first point could
be accounted for by diachroneity along the
length of a once-continuous Ventuari-Tapajós
province or insufficient data from this prov-
ince, but the second, third, and fourth would
require a complex fault emplacement scenario.
To produce the observed sequence in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement from Amazon-
ia, a piece of the Ventuari-Tapajós Province
would have to have been emplaced next to the
Rondonia–San Ignácio margin during ca. 1.5–
1.4 Ga magmatism, rotated and emplaced next
to the pre–Sunsás margin, deformed with out-
board rocks during the Sunsás Orogeny, de-
tached, and then rotated into its current posi-
tion along the modern margin. Although
physically possible, it is a complex sequence
of events involving a significant amount of
transcurrent and rotational motion for which
there is little evidence in the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement. Additionally, this would
have to be accomplished without incorpora-
tion of the intervening Rio Negro–Juruena
Province (1.8–1.5 Ga).
Based on previously published Pb data, sig-
natures of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
and Amazonia appear similar. However, the
newly constrained Pb isotopic signatures of
the northern and central domains only partial-
ly overlap data from Amazonia/Colombia and
the trends of the data sets are distinct (Fig.
10). Thus, the Pb isotopic compositions of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and Amazonia
are not sufficiently similar to provide evidence
for correlation. However, differences in the
ages and metamorphic histories of the rocks
in the two data sets may account for differ-
ences in the Pb isotopic compositions. Thus,
the current Pb isotopic data sets are not suf-
ficiently different to distinguish the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement from Amazonia.
Ambiguity in the interpretation of the ex-
isting Pb isotopic data precludes the use of Pb
isotopes to constrain the relationship of the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement to Amazonia.
Thus, we rely only on the chronological com-
parison. Given the required complex history
and differences in the Paleoproterozoic ages,
we prefer a model in which the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement is allochthonous to
Amazonia.
Timing of Arrival of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement
If the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement were
not derived from Amazonia, then it must have
collided with Amazonia and would likely have
caused deformation and metamorphism in the
Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (AAB). As
such, there are three potential times for accre-
tion: (1) Paleoproterozoic (D1/M1AAB; 1.82–
1.80 Ga), (2) Mesoproterozoic (D2/M2AAB;
1.20–0.94 Ga), and (3) Ordovician/Silurian
(D3/M3AAB; 0.50–0.43 Ga) (Fig. 6). Looking
outside the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement, Ra-
mos (1988) and Ramos et al. (1993) noted
Neoproterozoic-Cambrian deformation to the
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AREQUIPA-ANTOFALLA BASEMENT

a K-Ar age of 530 6 30 Ma from a meta-

granite at the base of the San Andreas bore-
hole in Bolivia (Lehmann, 1978) are roughly
coeval with the Pampean orogeny (0.7–0.5
Ga). Second, paleomagnetic data suggest that
the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement lay along
the southwest margin of Amazonia throughout
the Pampean orogeny (Forsythe et al., 1993).
This interpretation is consistent with current
models explaining Pampean orogenesis that
mainly assume the Arequipa-Antofalla Base-
ment to have been proximal to Amazonia at
the onset of this event (Rapela et al., 1998;
Alkmim et al., 2001).

Sunsás Accretion
Elimination of all other possible collisions
Figure 10. Comparison of uranogenic Pb compositions from Amazonian and Arequipa- implies that accretion of the Arequipa-
Antofalla Basement. Amazonia Pb data are from metamorphosed ca. 1.7–1.6 Ga basement Antofalla Basement to Amazonia occurred
rocks from Rio Negro–Juruena Province (RNJ) (Tassinari, 1984), ca. 1.6–1.0 Ga A-type during the Sunsás Orogeny (1.20–0.94 Ga),
granites from RNJ and Rondonia–San Ignacio Province (RSI) (Tosdal and Bettencourt, consistent with the current position of the
1994), feldspars from a 1.45 Ga batholith in RSI with predicted modern whole-rock com- Arequipa-Antofalla Basement adjacent to the
positions (Geraldes et al., 2001) and ca. 1.1 Ga rocks from Colombian Garzón and Santa collisional Sunsás Province (1.3–1.0 Ga) in
Marta inliers (Ruiz et al., 1999). Independent evidence suggests that rocks in Proterozoic southwestern Amazonia. Two scenarios are
inliers of Colombia are along-strike equivalents of Sunsás Province of Amazonia (Alvarez, possible: (1) the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement
1981; Kroonenberg, 1982; Alvarez, 1984; Litherland et al., 1989; Priem et al., 1989; collided as part of a larger continent, or (2) it
Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). This hypothesis, although not directly testable by mapping, is collided as a microcontinent. The pattern of
supported by colinearity of Pb data from deformed Sunsás-aged rocks in Colombian in- pre-collisional growth from north to south,
liers with similar-aged A-type intrusive rocks in Amazonia. Individual data points for parallel to the length of the Arequipa-
northern and southern domains of Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and Amazonian A-type Antofalla Basement, suggests that the Arequipa-
granites are not shown. Stacey and Kramers’ (1975) curve provided for reference with Antofalla Basement evolved within a larger
ages in Ga. continent rather than as a microcontinent.
Thus, we prefer the first scenario. Potential
correlations with other continents are dis-
east of the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement and caused widespread metamorphism between cussed in Loewy et al. (2003).
proposed accretion of the Arequipa-Antofalla 470 and 450 Ma (Pankhurst et al., 1998; Ra-
Basement during the Pampean Orogeny (0.6– mos et al., 1998; Quenardelle and Ramos, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
0.5 Ga). Given arguments above for the in- 1999). In the Arequipa-Antofalla Basement,
dependent growth history of the Arequipa- Famatinian arc rocks and related metamor-
Antofalla Basement between 1.9 and 1.0 Ga, phism were previously recognized only in the In summary, we interpret that the Arequipa-
accretion during the Paleoproterozoic is im- southern domain. Our work identifies this Antofalla Basement formed as a single base-
mediately discounted. Accepting this leaves magmatism and metamorphism across the en- ment block. It comprises three age domains
only the Mesoproterozoic Sunsás, the Neopro- tire Arequipa-Antofalla Basement (Fig. 6), re- that young from north to south. An integrated
terozoic Pampean, and the Ordovician Fama- quiring the entire Arequipa-Antofalla Base- data set that includes precise U/Pb geochro-
tinian orogenies as possible times of accretion. ment to have been part of the Famatinian nology, growth polarity, and the sequence of
These are discussed below, from youngest to continental arc founded on the western margin adjacent provinces suggests that the Arequipa-
oldest. of South America by 515 Ma (Fig. 9). Con- Antofalla Basement was not Amazonian and
sequently, accretion of the Arequipa-Antofalla was, therefore, accreted. We believe that dock-
Famatinian Accretion Basement must have been pre-Famatinian. ing occurred during the Sunsás Orogeny at ca.
The consumption of ocean crust beneath the 1.05 Ga, when the combined juvenile ca. 1.9–
South American plate related to the approach Pampean Accretion 1.8 and 1.5–1.4 Ga crust of the Arequipa-
of the Precordillera Terrane fueled continental, We believe that several lines of evidence Antofalla Basement collided with Amazonia.
subduction-related magmatism along the west- argue against accretion during the Neoproter- The convergence and collision caused mag-
ern margin of South America (i.e., the Fa- ozoic to early Cambrian Pampean Orogeny. matism and metamorphism in the Arequipa-
matina province and the western Sierras Pam- First, no evidence of late Neoproterozoic to Antofalla Basement and Sunsás Province. The
peanas) between 515 and 450 Ma (Astini et early Cambrian metamorphism has been iden- Arequipa-Antofalla Basement likely collided
al., 1995; Pankhurst et al., 1998; Saavedra et tified anywhere in the Arequipa-Antofalla as part of a larger craton and, as such, it may
al., 1998; Quenardelle and Ramos, 1999). The Basement (Fig. 6). Only the intrusion of dacite be a tectonic tracer (Dalziel, 1993) holding
eventual collision of the Precordillera Terrane dikes in Quebrada Choja at 635 6 5 Ma and clues to the identity of its parent craton.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, January/February 2004 185

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was partially funded by National Sci-
ence Foundation grant EAR 94 18236. Additional
support was provided by The University of Texas
Geology Foundation, The University of Texas In-
stitute of Latin American Studies, South Central
Section of the Geological Society of America, and
the Tectonics Special Research Centre at the Uni-
versity of Western Australia. Field logistics greatly
benefited from the assistance of Rio Tinto Mining
and Exploration Limited in northern Chile, thanks
to Alasdaire Pope, George Steele, and Osvaldo
Ponce. We thank Victor Ramos of Rio Tinto and
Patrick Mickler for their invaluable assistance in the
field, Kathryn Manser and Todd Housh for their as-
sistance in the isotopic facilities, Lisa Gahagan for
help with Rodinia reconstructions using PLATES,
and Eric North and Johnathan Bumgarner for their
assistance with sample processing.
Sharon Mosher, Randy Van Schmus, and Sam
Mukasa provided helpful and constructive reviews
of previous drafts. Comments from journal review-
ers Kent Condie and Lang Farmer and associate ed-
itor J. Doug Walker greatly enhanced the final
manuscript.
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