Describe eukaryotic membrane a bilayer formed from two layers

of phospholipids. These molecules

have hydrophilic heads which face out of
the bilayer and hydrophobic tails which face
into the bilayer.

What are the protein components in cell These proteins may be integral, meaning
membrane ? that they cross the entire bilayer, or they
may be peripheral, meaning that they are
located on only one side of the bilayer.

functions of the protein components These proteins can have many functions,
including acting as
ion channels or receptors that respond to
external signals.

Describe cholesterol and its role
The bilayer also has molecules of
cholesterol embedded in it. Cholesterol acts
as a buffer for membrane fluidity. This
means at high temperatures, cholesterol
prevents fluidity rising too high, and at low
temperatures, cholesterol prevents the
membrane becoming solid.

homogenisation The cells in the sample are broken open

using a blender 
Specific immune system
Antigens All cells have antigens (specialised
glycolipids and glycoproteins on their
surface
Antibodies Are specialised glycoproteins called
immunoglobins
How do they work ? Antibody antigen complex acts similar to
the oposonin chemical by stimulating the
digested by phagocytosis .
Most pathogens cannot affect the bodies
cells once they formed a antibody antigen
complex.
Agglutination One antibody binds to two pathogens
casuing them to clump together .this makes
pathogens more easily engulfed by
phagocytosis.
Neutralisation Antibodies can act upon antitoxins binding
with toxins produced by pathogens .
Makes them harmless.
 Whats bigger virus or bacteria ?
What type of cell is bacteria ?
What are viruses components ?
Bacteria
Viruses
Example of bacterial disease
An example of a viral disease
Viral disease
Fungus
Plant defences againsed pathogens (4)
Chemical plant defences
Necrosis
Physical barrier in animals
Non specific response to infection
Lyozome action
Interferon
Phagocytosis
Blood clotting
Viruses are significantly smaller than
bacteria.
Prokaryotic cell no membrane bound
organelles with no nucleus
Consist of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein
coat and genetic material can take form as
rna or dna.
Don’t need a host to survive
Are reliant on hosts and cant survive
without them.
TB
HIV
Influenza
athletes foot
1. Physical barrier
2. Closing of stomata
3. Thickening of cell walls
4. Necrosis -cells near infection site are
killed with the help of inter cellular
enzymes .
Menthols /mint a example of terpinoids
antibacterial properties .
Alkenoids such as cafein and morphine wich
have bitter flavour preventing herbivours
from feeding on them.
Necrosis -cells near infection site are killed
with the help of inter cellular enzymes .
Skin mucus
Stomach acid
Gut and skin flora
Inflammation histamines are released.
Vasodilation witch increases the flow of
blood to the infected area and increases
permeability of blood vessels .as result
wight blood cells and plasma leak out into
the infected tissue and destroy the
pathogen .
Enzyme in tears and mucus that kills
bacterial cells by damaging their cell wall.
Stops protein syntesis in viruses to prevent
it from spreading to oter cells
Wight blood cells engulf pathogens .
Destroying them
Prevents bleeding and prevents pathogens
entering blood stream.
Functions of the cytoskeleton
Protein fibres of the cytoskeleton
Microfilaments
 The cytoskeleton has a number of
different functions, including:
o Maintaining the shape of
the cell.
o Securing some organelles in
specific positions.
o Allowing cytoplasm and
vesicles to move within the
cell.
o Enabling cells within
multicellular organisms to
move.
 There are three types of fibres
within the cytoskeleton:
o Microfilaments thicken the
cortex around the inner
edge of a cell and, like
rubber bands, they resist
tension. 
o Intermediate filaments are
found throughout the cell
and hold organelles in
place.
o Microtubules are found in
the interior of the cell
where they maintain cell
shape by resisting
compressive forces.
 Microfilaments are the narrowest
protein fibres in the cytoskeleton
(about 7 nm in diameter). 
o They are made of two
intertwined strands of a
globular protein called
actin.
 Actin works together with a motor
protein, called myosin.
o So, microfilaments are
important for cellular
events requiring motion
(like eukaryotic cell
 division).

Intermediate filaments  Intermediate filaments are made of

several strands of fibrous proteins
that are wound together.
o The diameter of
intermediate filaments
(which is 8-10 nm) is
between that of
microfilaments and
microtubules.

Intermediate filaments  Intermediate filaments have no

role in cell movement, as their role
is purely structural.
o They bear tension,
maintaining the shape of
the cell, and anchor the
nucleus and other
organelles in place. 
 Several types of fibrous proteins
are found in the intermediate
filaments, such as keratin.

Microtubules  Microtubules are the widest

components of the cytoskeleton
(diameter is about 25 nm). 
o They are small hollow
tubes, with walls made from
polymerised dimers of two
globular proteins (α-tubulin
and β-tubulin).
o Like microfilaments,
microtubules can
disassemble and reform
quickly.

Pulmonary vein  The pulmonary vein is the only vein

that carries oxygenated blood.
 Oxygenated blood is carried from
the lungs to the heart.
Pulmonary artery  The pulmonary artery is the only
artery that carries deoxygenated
blood.
 Deoxygenated blood is carried from
the heart to the lungs.

Arterioles  When arteries reach an organ, they

split into many smaller vessels
called arterioles.
 The direction of blood flow can be
controlled by contracting the
arterioles to restrict blood flow and
relaxing the arterioles to allow
blood to flow.

Veins  Veins transport blood back to the

heart.
 The lumen of veins is wider than
the arteries which allows the blood
to flow at low pressure.
 There is a thin muscle wall and
elastic tissue in the vein walls.
 Valves are located throughout the
veins to ensure blood flows
towards the heart.

Arteries  Arteries transport blood away from

the heart to the organs.
 Artery walls have thick layers of
muscle.
o The walls maintain a high
pressure so blood can be
pumped around the body.
 Elastic fibres in the artery wall
allow the arteries to stretch.
 The endothelium is folded which
also allows the arteries to stretch.

Venules  Venules are small blood vessels

that collect blood coming out of
capillaries. 
 Blood flows from the vast network
of capillaries into network of fewer
 but larger venules and will
eventually flow into the veins.
 Venules range from around 7
micrometers to 1 millimeter in
diameter.

Pressure filtration  In order for the substances carried

in the bloodstream (e.g. oxygen) to
diffuse into the cells, they must
first move out from the capillaries.
 Substances move into tissue fluid
from the capillaries in a process
called pressure filtration.

Vessels exiting the heart Aorta pulmonary artery

Vessels entering the heart Pulmonary vein vena cava
Vessels entering liver Hepatic artery
Vessels exiting the liver Hepatic vein
Vessles entring liver hepatic portal vein from the digestion
system intestines
Entering kidney Renal artery
Exiting blood in kidney Renal vein
Diastole Heart muscles all relax blood enters aorta
via pulmonary vein and vena cava
Atrial systole Atrial walls contract and reduce volume
increasing pressure until atrialventricular
vales open and blood flows into the
ventricals.
Ventricular systole Ventricals contract causing pressure to
increase closing the atrioventricular valves
and casuing bicuspid ortricuspid (depending
on ammout of flaps) valves open allowing
blood to flow into the aorta and pulmonary
artery.
Tricuspid valve The right atrioventricular valve has three
cusps, and is therefore called the tricuspid
valve,
Semilunar valve Found at the start of artery and pulmonary
artery
Atrioventricular valve Left atrioventricular valve has 2 cusps and is
called a bicuspid valve .
Whats the cardiac output formulae Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
(the amount pushed out per beat)