1.6.

5 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

• A non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert shielding gas

around it.

• The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten metal weld pool from

the atmospheric contamination.

• The shielding gases generally used are argon, helium or their mixtures.
Electrode materials

• Tungsten or tungsten alloy (thoriated tungsten or zirconiated tungsten).

• Alloy-tungsten electrodes possess higher current carrying capacity; produce a

steadier arc as compared to pure tungsten electrodes and high resistance to

contamination.

Electric power source

• Both AC and DC power source can be used for TIG welding.

• DC is preferred for welding of copper, copper alloys, nickel and stainless steel.

• AC is used for welding aluminium, magnesium or their alloys.

1.6.6 Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)

• Utilizes a consumable electrode and hence the term metal

appears in the title.
• There are other gas shielded arc welding processes utilizing
the consumable electrodes such as flux cored arc welding
(FCAW) all of which can be termed under MIG.
• Though gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) can be used to
weld all types of metals, it is more suitable for thin sheets.
• The consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel
which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers.
• The welding torch is connected to the gas supply cylinder
which provides the necessary inert gas.
• The electrode and the work-piece are connected to the
welding power supply.
• Normally DC arc welding machines are used for GMAW
with electrode positive (DCRP).
1.6.11 Safety Recommendations for Arc Welding

1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed.

2. Welding arc is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light also; consequently the operator
must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with a special filter glass to protect eyes.

3. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by sparks
and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:

• Gloves protect the hands of a welder.

• Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk and
thighs while seated he is doing welding.
• For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required
• Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
• Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
4. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe working
order at all times.

5. At or near each welding machine, a disconnecting switch shall provide.

6. Before undertaking any maintenance work on welding machine disconnects them from
the main supply.

7. electrode holders should be soundly connected to the welding lead.

8. Hot electrode holders shall not be permitted to dip in water because the retained
moisture may cause an electric shock.

9. Welding cables shall be of completely insulated, flexible type.

10. The welding cable should be free from repair or splices up to a minimum distance of
three meters from the electrode holder.

11. Welding equipment used in the open and shall be protected from weather conditions. If
it has been wetted it shall be thoroughly dried before being used.

12. Periodically clear out the accumulated dust from the welding machine with suction
cleaner as this will not blow dust into other parts of the machine.
1.7 Resistance Welding

The metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to the flow of an electrical current.

In resistance welding processes no fluxes are employed, the filler metal is rarely used and the

joints are usually of the lap type.

The amount of heat generated in the work-piece depends on the following factors:

(1) Magnitude of the current.

(2) Resistance of the current conducting path.

Mathematically,
𝐻 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
= 𝐼(𝐼𝑅)𝑡
= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
Where
𝐻 = heat generated in joules.
𝐼 = current in Amp.
𝑅 = resistance in ohms.
𝑡 = time of current flow in seconds.
1.7.1 Types of Resistance welding

(1)Spot Welding

(2)Seam Welding

(3)Projection Welding

(4)Resistance Butt Welding

(5)Flash Butt Welding

(6)Percussion Welding

(7)High Frequency Resistance Welding

(8)High Frequency Induction Welding

1.7.1.1 Spot Welding
• Overlapping sheets are joined by local fusion at one or more spots, by the concentration

of current flowing between two electrodes.

• This is the most widely used resistance welding process.

• It essentially consists of two electrodes, out of which one is fixed.

• The other electrode is fixed to a rocker for transmitting the mechanical force from a

pneumatic cylinder.

• This is the simplest type of arrangement.

Before spot welding one must make sure that

(i) The job is clean, i.e., free from grease, dirt, paint, scale, oxide etc.

(ii) Electrode tip surface is clean, since it has to conduct the current into the work with

as little loss as possible.

(iii) Water is running through the electrodes in order to

(a) Avoid them from getting overheated and thus damaged,

(b) Cool the weld.

(iv) Proper welding current has been set on the current selector switch.

(v) Proper time has been set on the weld-timer.

Spot welding electrodes

Spot welding electrodes are made of materials which have

(1) Higher electrical and thermal resistivity.

(2) Sufficient strength to withstand high pressure at elevated temperatures.

Copper base alloys such as copper beryllium and copper tungsten are commonly used

materials for spot welding electrodes.

For achieving the desired current density, it is important to have proper electrode shape for

which three main types of spot welding electrodes are used which are pointed, domed and

flat electrodes.
Applications of Spot Welding

(1)It has applications in automobile and aircraft industries

(2)The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal parts such

as cases, covers or trays is another application of spot welding.

(3)Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done satisfactorily as a

replacement for riveting.

(4)Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not require gas tight

or liquid tight joints can be more economically joined by spot welding than by

mechanical methods.

(5)Containers and boxes frequently are spot welded.

1.7.1.2 Resistance Seam Welding

• It is a continuous type of spot welding wherein spot welds overlap each other to the
desired extent.

• The seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that circular rolling electrodes are
used to produce a continuous air-tight seam of overlapping welds.

• Overlapping continuous spot welds seams are produced by the rotating electrodes and a
regularly interrupted current.
Applications of Seam Welding

1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of automobiles.

2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals can be seam welded.

3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight tanks.
 1.7.1.3 Resistance Projection Welding

• This process is a resistance welding process in which two or more than two spot welds
are made simultaneously by making raised portions or projections on predetermined
locations on one of the work-piece.

• These projections act to localize the heat of the welding circuit.

• The pieces to be welded are held in position under pressure being maintained by
electrodes.

• The welding of a nut on the automotive chassis is an example of projection welding.

1.7.2 Common Advantages of Resistance Welding

Some common advantages of resistance welding include:

(1)It is well suited for mass production.

(2)It is economical in operation, since nothing is consumed except electrical power.

(3)Skilled welders are not required.

(4)Welds are quickly made.

(5)It is possible to weld dissimilar metals.

Some disadvantages of resistance welding include:

(1) High initial cost of the resistance welding equipment.

(2) Certain resistance welding processes are limited to lap joints.

(3) A lap joint has an inherent service between the two metal pieces, which causes stress

concentrations in applications where fatigue is present. This service may also cause

trouble when corrosion is present.

2.8 Solid State Welding Processes
• In these processes, the base materials to be joined are heated to a temperature below or
just up to the solidus temperature and then continuous pressure is applied to form the
welded joint.

• No filler metal is used in solid-state welding processes.

• The various solid-state welding processes are

(1)Forge Welding
(2)Friction Welding
(3)Explosive Welding
2.8.1 Forge Welding

• In this welding process, the work-pieces to be welded are heated to the plastic

condition (above 1000°C), and then placed together and forged while hot by applying

force.

• Force may be applied by hammering, rolling, drawing or squeezing to achieve the

forging action.

• Forge welding was originally the first process of welding.

• In this process the two metal pieces to be joined are heated in a forge or furnace to a

plait condition and then they are united by pressure.

2.8.2 Friction Welding
In this process, the heat for welding is obtained from mechanically induced sliding
motion between rubbing surfaces of work-pieces as shown.

In friction welding, one part is firmly held while the other (usually cylindrical) is rotated
under simultaneous application of axial pressure.
As these parts are brought to rub against each other under pressure, they get heated due to
friction.
When the desired forging temperature is attained, the rotation is stopped and the axial
pressure is increased to obtain forging action and hence welded joint.
2.9 Thermite Welding

• Thermite welding is a liquid state welding process in which the metal to metal joint

created by melting of base material or applying filler material in liquid form.

• This welding is further classified into chemical welding process because the heat required

for melting the base material or filler material is achieved by exothermic chemical

reaction.

• The word “thermite” is used for mixture of aluminum metal and iron oxide in ratio of

1:3.

• This process was discovered by Goldschmidt in 1898.

• This welding is mostly used to welding railroads and electric connectors.

Thermite welding process is as shown.

1. Crucible,
2. Slag basin,
3. Runner,
4. Wax pattern,
5. Sand plug,
6. Preheating,
7. Work-piece,
8. Riser.
2.9.1 Principle

• As discussed before, thermite welding is a liquid state chemical welding process, in which

joint formation takes place in molten state.

• Practically, it is combination of welding and casting process in which, the molten iron

poured at the welding plates and allow solidifying to make a permanent strong joint.

• The molten state of iron creates without application of external heat or conventional

furnace so this is taken as a welding process.

• In this type of welding, a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide is used in ratio 1:3 by

weight.

• This mixture chemically reacts as follow.

8 𝐴𝑙 + 3 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 → 9 𝐹𝑒 + 4 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡

This reaction gives aluminum oxide and iron and also liberate a huge amount of heat which
coverts this mixture into molten state.
2.9.2 Equipment

Refectory Crucible

• The thermite mixture of iron oxide and aluminum reacts in a refectory crucible.

• This crucible is made by graphite or other suitable refectory materials, which can handle

temperature around 3000 degree centigrade.

• There is a gate at bottom of the crucible for exit of molten metal.

• The slag form by aluminum oxide floats over molten metal due to density difference

which is removed from there.

Thermite Mixture

• A mixture of aluminum and iron oxide in proper ratio is known as thermite mixture.

• The ratio of aluminum to iron oxide is about 1:3 by weight.

Mold

• In the thermite welding mold is created by either graphite or sand.

• Graphite molds are permanent mold which is used to make various similar joints.

• Sand mold are used where the joint design is different every time.

• For making sand mold, wax pattern is used.

• This mold made around the part that needs to be welded. It receives the molten metal.

• The mold contains runner, riser, gating system, heat opening etc. same as used in casting.

Wax Pattern

• Wax pattern is used to make sand mold around the welding work pieces.

• The sand is rammed around the wax pattern to make sand mold.

• After proper ramming action, the mold is heated which removes the wax pattern by

melting of it.
Molding Flask

• The sand mold creates into the molding flask.

• The wax pattern which is created around the weld cavity is placed at the middle of the

flask.

• The molding sand rammed into the flask to make sand mold.

Mold handle clamp

• This is a clamp which is used to fix molding flask around the welding plates.

Ignite powder

• To ignite the thermite mixture, preheating of this mixture is essential, which is done by

ignite powder.

• It is highly inflammable powder which can achieve the maximum temperature of 1300

degree centigrade which is essential to start thermite reaction.

 2.9.3 Working
Now the basic principle and essential parts of thermite welding will be discussed.
Thermite welding is similar like a casting process in which the molten state of metal is
created by the chemical reaction.
Its working can be summarized as follow.

 First both the work pieces which are needed to be weld, are cleaned.

 Now a wax pattern is created around the weld cavity.

 A molding flask is fixed around the joint with the help of mold handle clamp. This wax

pattern is situated at the middle of the flask.

 Now the molding sand rammed around the wax pattern to create mold in which the

molten metal will pour. This mold involves all necessary parts like runner, riser, pouring

basin, gating system, opening for wax pattern etc. same as involves in casting.
 Now this mold is heated to remove wax pattern. The wax is

melted and run off from the wax pattern outlet prepared at bottom of the sand mold.

 Now the thermite mixture is taken into the refectory crucible. The ignite powder is placed

over the mixture. This mixture is ignited by a magnesium ribbon.

 This will start the thermite reaction which liberates a huge amount of heat. This reaction

form molten state of iron which flows from crucible to sand mold.

 This molten metal fills the weld cavity and fuses the parent metal to make a permanent

joint. This will be allowed to cool down. After proper cooling, flask is removed from the

joint.

 After removing the flask, machining is done to remove the welding burr or other extra

metal.
2.9.4 Applications

1. It is mostly used to weld railroad at the site.

2. It was used to weld thick plate before introduce electro-slag welding.

3. They are used to repair heavy castings.

4. It is used to weld cable connectors of copper.

5. It is used to make structure joints in large ships etc.

6. It is used to joint pipe, thick plate etc. where power supply is not available.
2.9.5 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

 It is simple and easy process.

 Low setup cost.

 Metal joining rate is high.

 Thermite welding can be done at site where casting is impossible.

 This can be used where power supply is not available.

Disadvantages

 It is used for limited metals like iron and copper.

 It is uneconomical for welding light parts.

 Highly depends on environmental condition like moisture contain, work piece alignment.
2.10 Radiant Energy Welding Processes

• In radiant energy welding processes, heat is produced at the point of welding when a

stream of electrons or a beam of electro-magnetic radiations strikes on the work-

piece.

• This welding can be carried out in vacuum or at low pressures.

• Electron beam welding (EBW) and laser welding are two main types of radiant

energy welding processes.

2.10.1 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

In EBW process, the heat is generated when the electron beam impinges on work piece.

As the high velocity electron beam strikes the surfaces to be welded, their kinetic energy

changes to thermal energy and hence causes the work-piece metal to melt and fuse.

A schematic setup of the electron beam welding is shown.

Advantages of Electron beam welding.

1. The penetration of the beam is high.

2. The depth to width ratios lies between 10:1 to 30:1 can be easily realized with electron

beam welding.

3. It is also possible to closely control this penetration by controlling the accelerating

voltage, beam current, and beam focus.

4. The process can be used at higher welding speeds typically between 125 and 200 mm/sec.

5. No filler metal or flux needs to be used in this process.

6. The heat liberated is low and also is in a narrow zone, thus the heat affected zone (HAZ)

is minimal as well as weld distortions are virtually eliminated.

7. It is possible to carry out the electron beam welding in open atmosphere.

1.13 Welding Defects

1. Lack of Penetration

It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint.

It is due to:

(a)Inadequate de-slagging.

(b)Incorrect edge penetration.

(c)Incorrect welding technique.

2. Lack of Fusion

Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the parent metal.

It is due to:

(a)Too fast a travel.

(b)Incorrect welding technique.

(c)Insufficient heat.
3. Porosity

It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal.

It is caused by the trapping of gas during the welding process due to:

(a) Chemicals in the metal.

(b) Dampness.

(c) Too rapid cooling of the weld.

4. Slag Inclusion

It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld.

It is caused by:

(a) Slag from previous runs not being cleaned away.

(b)Insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base metal before welding

commences.
5. Undercuts

These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by:

(a) Too fast a travel.

(b)Bad welding technique.

(c) Too great a heat build-up.

6. Cracking

It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the parent metal.

It is due to:

(a) Unsuitable parent metals used in the weld.

(b) Bad welding technique.

7. Poor Weld Bead Appearance
If the width of weld bead deposited is not uniform or straight, then the weld bead is termed as
poor.
It is due to:
(a) Improper arc length.
(b) Improper welding technique.
(c) Damaged electrode coating and poor electrode and earthing connections.
It can be reduced by taking into considerations the above factors.
8. Distortion

Distortion is due to:

(a) High cooling rate.

(b) Small diameter electrode.

(c) Poor clamping.

(d) Slow arc travel speed.

9. Excessive Penetration

It is where the weld metal protrudes through the root of the weld. It is caused by:

(a) Incorrect edge preparation.

(b) Too big a heat concentration.

(c) Too slow a travel.

10. Blowholes

These are large holes in the weld caused by:

(a) Gas being trapped, due to moisture.

(b) Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.